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CHAPTER II Literature Review
In this chapter, there are two sections: a theoretical description and a theoretical framework. The first part evaluates the related theories implemented in
this study. The second part makes relation between the implemented theories and the study.
2.1 Theoretical Description
In this section, the important and useful elements for designing instructional materials will be illustrated. The elements for designing instructional
materials are relevant to the target needs and interest of the target students in order to acquire, learn and build up English communication.
2.1.1 Instructional Design Models
In this part, the instructional design models related to the materials are going to be applied for the target students’ needs. The materials will be developed
as instructional materials that can stimulate the students to develop their oral skills and written skills, and which assist the teachers in preparing for teaching English
listening, reading, speaking and writing skills. The instructional design is very crucial. It needs some consideration in
choosing a design model which was adapted in this study. A model should be simple in order to be understood easily. Then, a model should have all steps that
9 require to be implemented. Third, a model should be flexible in order to facilitate
the designers to be able to do the adaptation between the instructional objectives and the strategy, to accomplish the objectives.
There are several instructional program design models. Yet, in this study, the writer adapts Kemp’s models because it mostly fits with the writer’s purpose
for designing the instructional materials. a. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model
According to Kemp 1977, p.8, “instructional design is the process of systematic planning that establishes a way to examine instructional problems and
needs, sets a procedure for solving them, supplies, applies them and then evaluates the results”. Kemp also argues that the instructional design plan is designed to
supply answers to the three questions which can be considered the important elements of instructional technology. Those are:
1 What must be learnt? objectives
2 What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired
learning levels? activities and resources 3
How will we know when the required learning has taken place? evaluation
There are eight sections in Kemp’s instructional design model. Firstly the instructional designer considers goals, and then lists the topics and states the
general purposes for teaching each topic. Secondly, he enumerates the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed. In third
part, he specifies the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable
10 students’ behavioral outcomes. In the firth section, he develops a pre-assessment
test to determine the students’ background and present the level of knowledge about the topic. In the sixth step, he selects learning or teaching activities and
instructional resources that will treat the subject content so that the students will accomplish the objectives. Seventhly, he coordinates support services such as
budget, personnel, facilities, equipment and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. In the last step, he evaluates students’ learning in terms of their
accomplishment of objectives; with a view to reviewing and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement.
Additionally, Kemp’s instructional model is a flexible process. There is interdependence among the eight elements: decisions related to one can affect
others. There are two obvious benefits of using Kemp’s model. The first one is that Kemp’s model can be implemented at all educational levels, from elementary
school up to university. The second benefit is that Kemp’s model can be applied for an instructional unit or for a single subject. The design can begin with any
element.
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Evaluation
Support services
Teachinglea rning
activitiesres ources
Pre- assessment
Subject content
Learning objectives
Learner’s characteristi
c Goals,
topics, general
purposes
Revision
Figure 1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model 1977, p.9 To see the changing improvement of this system, it should be applied and
to be tested. Changing to improve the system needs the evaluation of whole system. If any of the evaluation of whole system is encountered to change, it
should consider some other instructional language teaching approaches. After designing the instructional design model, the writer is going to
discuss the approaches of Communicative Language Teaching CLT in the following section. Typically, CLT views the instructional materials as a way of
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