Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park
FEEDING ECOLOGY OF LONG-TAILED MACAQUES
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
ISLAMUL HADI
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
iii
STATEMENT OF RESEARCH ORIGINALITY
This is to verify that the thesis entitled :
Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park
Is my own work which has never previously been published. All of the incorporated
data and information are valid and stated clearly
Bogor, 28 November 2005
Islamul Hadi
i
ABSTRACT
ISLAMUL HADI. Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey
Park. Under supervision of BAMBANG SURYOBROTO and R. R. DYAH
PERWITASARI.
Long-tailed macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park obtain their food both from
natural and human sources. They were recorded to consume 41 food items. Analysis
using variables party size on foraging and feeding duration showed proportion of
natural foods is greater than artificial foods. The averages were 76,39% and 23,61%,
respectively. Based on the part eaten of natural foods, troop of macaques in this
park consumed almost on young leaves and fruits. They consume and spend much
time on young leaves of bamboo (Gigantochloa apus) and fruits from bulu (Ficus
virens) and sadang (Corypha elatta). They also obtain food by raiding the crops from
agricultural fields those surround the park. Insects were also consumed by them. The
visitors and the caretakers of the park gave food, mainly peanuts. Juveniles and subadults of long-tailed macaques in this park exploited more various food items than
those adults. They also drunk nira (raw coconut sap)
from harvesting tubes in
coconut trees. Therefore, they were regarded as omnivorous since they can exploit
various kinds of food that available in time.
..
Variable party size of long-tailed macaque during foraging allow individuals to
forage by decreasing agonistics among individuals. It is very important in maintaining
the troop cohesiveness.
ii
ABSTRAK
ISLAMUL HADI. Ekologi Makan Monyet Ekor Panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak.
Dibimbing oleh BAMBANG SURYOBROTO dan R.R. DYAH PERWITASARI.
Monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak memperoleh makanan dari alam
dan pengunjung sebanyak 41 jenis. Berdasarkan jumlah individu (party size) dan
durasi makan, proporsi makanan dari alam lebih besar daripada yang diberikan oleh
pengunjung. Proporsi ini masing-masing 76,39% dan 23,61%. Berdasarkan bagian
yang dimakan pada makanan dari alam, monyet ekor panjang di tempat ini lebih
banyak mengkonsumsi daun muda bambu ( Gigantochloa apus), buah jerakah bulu
( Ficus virens) dan sadang (Corypha elatta). Selain dari wilayah Taman Kera
Cikakak, mereka juga mendapatkan makanan dari sawah dan kebun masyarakat
Cikakak di sekitar taman. Monyet-monyet di sini juga mendapatkan makanan dari
pengunjung dan penjaga makam. Makanan utama yang diberikan adalah kacang
tanah. Monyet-monyet muda memilih makanan yang lebih beragam daripada moyet
dewasa. Monyet-monyet muda ini juga minum nira kelapa dari bumbung yang
digantung di pohon kelapa di sekitar Taman Kera. Monyet-monyet di taman kera ini
bersifat omnivora. Mereka
mengkonsumsi berbagai jenis makanan yang ada di
tempat ini.
Party size yang yang dibentuk pada saat makan setiap jenis makanan oleh
monyet-monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera beragam. Strategi ini bertujuan untuk
mengurangi perilaku agonistik antar individu Hal ini sangat penting untuk menjaga
keutuhan kelompoknya.
iv
FEEDING ECOLOGY OF LONG-TAILED MACAQUES
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
By
Islamul Hadi
A THESIS
Submitted to the Bogor Agricultural University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Master Degree of Biology
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
v
This is to certify that the thesis
Title
Name
Student Number
Study Program/Sub
: Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak
Monkey Park
: Islamul Hadi
: G425010181
: Biology/Zoology
has been accepted toward fulfillment of the requirements for Master degree in
Biology
1.Committee members
Dr. Bambang Suryobroto
Chairman
2. Head of Study Program
Dr. Ir. Dedy Duryadi S , DEA
Examination date
: October 27th, 2005
Dr. Ir. R. R. Dyah Perwitasari, M. Sc.
Member
3. Dean of Graduate School
Prof. Dr. Ir. Sjafrida Manuwoto, M. Sc
vi
BIOGRAPHY
The author was born in Selong, East Lombok on August 13 th, 1976 as the oldest
son of Mr. Muhammad Amin and Mrs. Islamiyah. In 1995, he was graduated from
Senior High School, SMAN 1 Selong. At the same year, he was enrolled his
education at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural
University, majoring in Computer Science. In 1997, he moved to the Department of
Biology at the same university, graduated in 2001, and continued for his master
degree at the Graduate School of Bogor Agricultural University. In 2005, he has
been assigned as the staff of Biology Study Program, Mataram University, Lombok.
vii
FOREWORD
This thesis entitled ” Feeding of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park”
based on the result of field research during September-November 2003 and MarchApril 2004. This research, globally, is aimed to collect information of presence of the
living primates in Java, as the part of Primate Study in Java.
I wish to extend my gratitude to Dr. Bambang Suryobroto and Dr. R.R. Dyah
Perwitasari, M. Sc. as the committee members. I wish to thanks to Mr. Bambang
Juhari, Cikakak Monkey Park's caretaker. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Kunio Watanabe and Dr. Sachiko Hayakawa from Primate Research Institute Kyoto University
for their advices of methodology and discussions during field work and writing of the
manuscript. I am also indebted to Mr. Jatiwan and his family for all their assistances
and accommodation during field work.
Bogor, November 2005
Islamul Hadi
viii
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................x
LIST OF APPENDIXES..............................................................................................xi
INTRODUCTION…………….........………………………………………………………..1
Background…………….…………………………………………………….…......1
Objective of Research….……………………………………………………….....2
LITERATURE STUDY
Systematic of Long-tailed Macaque..............……………....………….....…….3
Geographic Distribution...............................………………………………...…..3
Socioecology...............................……………………………………………..….3
Reproduction.……………………………………………………………….………4
Feeding Ecology................................................………....………………….….4
METHODS
Research Site…….…………………...……………………………………….….. 6
Subject………….……………………………………………………………….......6
Data Collection Method and Period………….……………………….................7
Data Analysis……………….………………………………………...............……8
RESULTS……..………....………………………………………………………...11
DISCUSSION....…………………..……………………………………………………….14
CONCLUSION….…………………………………………………………………….……16
REFERENCES….…………………………………………………………….…………...17
APPENDIXES...........................................................................................................20
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. Figure 1 Research location......…..………………………………………………..…..9
2. Figure 2 Home ranges of troops of long-tailed macaques G1 and G2
in Cikakak Monkey Park…………………………………………………………........10
FEEDING ECOLOGY OF LONG-TAILED MACAQUES
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
ISLAMUL HADI
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
iii
STATEMENT OF RESEARCH ORIGINALITY
This is to verify that the thesis entitled :
Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park
Is my own work which has never previously been published. All of the incorporated
data and information are valid and stated clearly
Bogor, 28 November 2005
Islamul Hadi
i
ABSTRACT
ISLAMUL HADI. Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey
Park. Under supervision of BAMBANG SURYOBROTO and R. R. DYAH
PERWITASARI.
Long-tailed macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park obtain their food both from
natural and human sources. They were recorded to consume 41 food items. Analysis
using variables party size on foraging and feeding duration showed proportion of
natural foods is greater than artificial foods. The averages were 76,39% and 23,61%,
respectively. Based on the part eaten of natural foods, troop of macaques in this
park consumed almost on young leaves and fruits. They consume and spend much
time on young leaves of bamboo (Gigantochloa apus) and fruits from bulu (Ficus
virens) and sadang (Corypha elatta). They also obtain food by raiding the crops from
agricultural fields those surround the park. Insects were also consumed by them. The
visitors and the caretakers of the park gave food, mainly peanuts. Juveniles and subadults of long-tailed macaques in this park exploited more various food items than
those adults. They also drunk nira (raw coconut sap)
from harvesting tubes in
coconut trees. Therefore, they were regarded as omnivorous since they can exploit
various kinds of food that available in time.
..
Variable party size of long-tailed macaque during foraging allow individuals to
forage by decreasing agonistics among individuals. It is very important in maintaining
the troop cohesiveness.
ii
ABSTRAK
ISLAMUL HADI. Ekologi Makan Monyet Ekor Panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak.
Dibimbing oleh BAMBANG SURYOBROTO dan R.R. DYAH PERWITASARI.
Monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak memperoleh makanan dari alam
dan pengunjung sebanyak 41 jenis. Berdasarkan jumlah individu (party size) dan
durasi makan, proporsi makanan dari alam lebih besar daripada yang diberikan oleh
pengunjung. Proporsi ini masing-masing 76,39% dan 23,61%. Berdasarkan bagian
yang dimakan pada makanan dari alam, monyet ekor panjang di tempat ini lebih
banyak mengkonsumsi daun muda bambu ( Gigantochloa apus), buah jerakah bulu
( Ficus virens) dan sadang (Corypha elatta). Selain dari wilayah Taman Kera
Cikakak, mereka juga mendapatkan makanan dari sawah dan kebun masyarakat
Cikakak di sekitar taman. Monyet-monyet di sini juga mendapatkan makanan dari
pengunjung dan penjaga makam. Makanan utama yang diberikan adalah kacang
tanah. Monyet-monyet muda memilih makanan yang lebih beragam daripada moyet
dewasa. Monyet-monyet muda ini juga minum nira kelapa dari bumbung yang
digantung di pohon kelapa di sekitar Taman Kera. Monyet-monyet di taman kera ini
bersifat omnivora. Mereka
mengkonsumsi berbagai jenis makanan yang ada di
tempat ini.
Party size yang yang dibentuk pada saat makan setiap jenis makanan oleh
monyet-monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera beragam. Strategi ini bertujuan untuk
mengurangi perilaku agonistik antar individu Hal ini sangat penting untuk menjaga
keutuhan kelompoknya.
iv
FEEDING ECOLOGY OF LONG-TAILED MACAQUES
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
By
Islamul Hadi
A THESIS
Submitted to the Bogor Agricultural University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Master Degree of Biology
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
v
This is to certify that the thesis
Title
Name
Student Number
Study Program/Sub
: Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak
Monkey Park
: Islamul Hadi
: G425010181
: Biology/Zoology
has been accepted toward fulfillment of the requirements for Master degree in
Biology
1.Committee members
Dr. Bambang Suryobroto
Chairman
2. Head of Study Program
Dr. Ir. Dedy Duryadi S , DEA
Examination date
: October 27th, 2005
Dr. Ir. R. R. Dyah Perwitasari, M. Sc.
Member
3. Dean of Graduate School
Prof. Dr. Ir. Sjafrida Manuwoto, M. Sc
vi
BIOGRAPHY
The author was born in Selong, East Lombok on August 13 th, 1976 as the oldest
son of Mr. Muhammad Amin and Mrs. Islamiyah. In 1995, he was graduated from
Senior High School, SMAN 1 Selong. At the same year, he was enrolled his
education at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural
University, majoring in Computer Science. In 1997, he moved to the Department of
Biology at the same university, graduated in 2001, and continued for his master
degree at the Graduate School of Bogor Agricultural University. In 2005, he has
been assigned as the staff of Biology Study Program, Mataram University, Lombok.
vii
FOREWORD
This thesis entitled ” Feeding of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park”
based on the result of field research during September-November 2003 and MarchApril 2004. This research, globally, is aimed to collect information of presence of the
living primates in Java, as the part of Primate Study in Java.
I wish to extend my gratitude to Dr. Bambang Suryobroto and Dr. R.R. Dyah
Perwitasari, M. Sc. as the committee members. I wish to thanks to Mr. Bambang
Juhari, Cikakak Monkey Park's caretaker. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Kunio Watanabe and Dr. Sachiko Hayakawa from Primate Research Institute Kyoto University
for their advices of methodology and discussions during field work and writing of the
manuscript. I am also indebted to Mr. Jatiwan and his family for all their assistances
and accommodation during field work.
Bogor, November 2005
Islamul Hadi
viii
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................x
LIST OF APPENDIXES..............................................................................................xi
INTRODUCTION…………….........………………………………………………………..1
Background…………….…………………………………………………….…......1
Objective of Research….……………………………………………………….....2
LITERATURE STUDY
Systematic of Long-tailed Macaque..............……………....………….....…….3
Geographic Distribution...............................………………………………...…..3
Socioecology...............................……………………………………………..….3
Reproduction.……………………………………………………………….………4
Feeding Ecology................................................………....………………….….4
METHODS
Research Site…….…………………...……………………………………….….. 6
Subject………….……………………………………………………………….......6
Data Collection Method and Period………….……………………….................7
Data Analysis……………….………………………………………...............……8
RESULTS……..………....………………………………………………………...11
DISCUSSION....…………………..……………………………………………………….14
CONCLUSION….…………………………………………………………………….……16
REFERENCES….…………………………………………………………….…………...17
APPENDIXES...........................................................................................................20
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. Figure 1 Research location......…..………………………………………………..…..9
2. Figure 2 Home ranges of troops of long-tailed macaques G1 and G2
in Cikakak Monkey Park…………………………………………………………........10
x
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Table 1 Composition of troop of long-tailed macaque in Cikakak……….……….…7
2. Table 2 Details of feeding duration and feeding sessions………………....……...11
3. Table 3 List of natural food items were eaten by long-tailed macaque in
Cikakak Monkey Park....................…………………………………………………...12
4. Table 4 List of artificial food items were eaten by long-tailed macaque in
Cikakak Monkey Park......……………………………………………………….……..13
5. Table 5 Part eaten of natural food by long-tailed macaques in
Cikakak Monkey Park…...............................................................................……..13
xi
LIST OF APPENDIXES
Page
1. Appendix 1 List of vernacular names of natural food items of long-tailed
macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park...................................................................21
2. Appendix 2. Number of individual and time spent in each food item
by long-tailed -macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park.............................................22
2. Appendix 3 Spatial distribution of fig trees ( Ficus spp)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................23
3. Appendix 4 Spatial distribution of langkap ( Arenga obtusifolia)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................24
4. Appendix 5 Spatial distribution of sadang (Corypha elatta)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................25
5. Appendix 6 Spatial distribution of grazing area in Cikakak Monkey Park...........26
6. Appendix 7 Spatial distribution of bambu/bamboo (Gigantochloa apus)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................27
1
INTRODUCTION
Background
The long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) has wide geographic distribution
ranging from southernmost Bangladesh to continent of Southeast Asia, Malayan
Peninsula, Nicobar Islands, Sunda Archipelago, and the Philippines, except Sulawesi
Island (Napier & Napier 1967; Fooden 1995). They are also found in Lesser Sunda
Archipelago (Lombok, Sumbawa, and Timor), Kabaena Island, Angaur Island, and
Mauritius and were suspected as introduced animals (Fooden 1991; Kawamoto et al.
1988; Kondo et al. 1993; Matsubayashi et al. 1992).
They adapt to various environments from mangrove swamp (Hock & Sase-kumar
1979), lowland-dense-tropical and sub-alpine forests, and also to the communal
places where humans live. These facts indicate that they have a great ecological
plasticity to adapt to various environments; therefore, they are regarded as “weed”
species (Richard et al. 1989).
Following recent economic development in Java, most of primary forests where
long-tailed macaques live were converted for land of buildings, factories, farming
fields, secondary forests, recreation parks, and human settlements. The impacts are
decreasing area of primary and secondary forests.
Some remnant populations of long-tailed macaques in Java have been recorded.
They were found in Plangon, Jatibarang, Kalijaga, Solear, Pangandaran, Cikakak,
Tawangmangu and Cepu (Hadi 2001; Hasanbahri et al. 1996; Perwitasari-Farajallah
1998; Hadi, present study). They live in secondary forests and some of them in
monkey parks. Almost all of populations are separated from each other following
their fragmented habitats. Population of long-tailed macaques in Pangandaran
separated from those in Cikakak, Plangon, Kalijaga, and Solear, vice versa. No
corridors for their contact. Perwitasari-Farajallah (1998) reported that genetically they
have high variation among but low within the population. Kawamoto et al. (1981)
reported that population of long-tailed macaques in Jatibarang had low-level genetic
variability presumably caused by their isolation from other populations.
Being related to various environmental characteristics, the long-tailed macaques
evolved different strategies to adapt to different environments. The strategies are
reflected in their feeding ecology, reproduction, size of group, and also home ranges.
Long-tailed macaques who live in dense forest with minimum frequencies of contact
2
with human tend to be frugivorous (Yeager 1996). They are organized in small sized
groups with large home ranges. In the area with high frequencies of contact with
human beings, the macaques tend to be omnivorous. Their main dietary items are
not only fruits. They exploit other kinds of food such as flowers, leaves, seeds,
insects, and tubers. They also get food from human. They are organized into big
sized groups with small home ranges and higher reproduction index (Aggimarangsee
1992; Hadi 2001; Wheatley 1984). Almost all of the troops live in small areas with
decreasing space for searching foods. It is suspected that they face high individual
competition for resources and risk increasing on inbreeding. The data of feeding
ecology of long-tailed macaques in Java are insufficient since no intensive research
had been carried out on this species. In this research, the quantitative approach in
feeding ecology is applied to describe the feeding ecology of long-tailed macaque
population lives in a place with high frequencies of contact with human being.
Objective of Research
This research is aimed to describe feeding ecology of long-tailed macaques at
Cikakak Monkey Park, Wangon, Banyumas, Central Java.
3
LITERATURE STUDY
Systematic of Long-tailed Macaque
According to Grove (2001), long-tailed macaque belongs to :
Order
: Primates
Suborder
: Haplorrhini
Infraorder
: Eusimiiformes
Superfamily
: Cercopithecoidea
Family
: Cercopithecidae
Genus
: Macaca
Species
: Macaca fascicularis
Based on the morphology of reproductive organs, Fooden (1980) classified longtailed macaques to fascicularis species group. Another members of this group are
Japanese macaques (M. fuscata), rhesus macaques (M. mulatta) and Formosan
macaques (M. cyclopis).
Geographic Distribution
Long-tailed macaque has wide geographical range. They distribute in southernmost
Bangladesh, Nicobar Island, Indochinese Peninsula, Isthmus of Kra, Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Philippine (Fooden 1995; Umapathy et al.
2003). They are also found in Lesser Sunda (from Lombok to East Timor; Kawamoto
et al. 1984) and suspected as introduced animal. Long-tailed macaque also
introduced by human to Mauritius Island, Angaur Island, Kabaena Island, and Tinjil
Island (Kawamoto et al. 1988; Kondo et al. 1993; Kyes 1993; Matsubayashi et al.
1992; Perwitasari-Farajallah 2004).
Socioecology
Long-tailed macaques live in multi-male social group (Napier & Napier 1967). In
their social groups, there are some adult-males, adult-females, sub-adult males, subadult females, juveniles, and infants. They are primarily arboreal species which are
found to feed and walk in tree (Fleagle 1988). Wheatly (1980) reported that the longtailed macaques in inland forest had 98% degree of arboreality. In the riverbank and
coastal area, long-tailed macaques spent their 25-26.7% of daylight time in forest
floor (Crocket & Wilson 1980; Fittinghoff & Lindburg 1980).
4
According to Fooden (1995), long-tailed macaque’s home ranges vary among
territories and conditions. In Simeuleu, North Sumatra, the average home ranges
were 12.5 Ha and in West Malaysia was noted as around 300 Ha. The width of home
ranges were affected by number of individuals in the troop and availability of food
resources.
Troop size of long-tailed macaques also vary among places and conditions.
Fooden (1995) reported troop size in non-provisioned areas were 12-25 individuals.
In provisioned troops they exceeded the average size of non-provisioned ones (e.g.
Cikakak, 46.3 individuals, n = 2 troops, present study).
Long-tailed macaques have plasticity to live with other primate species. In
Sumatra, they live simpatrically with pig-tailed macaques, M. nemestrina (Crocket &
Wilson 1980). Wheatley (1980) reported long-tailed macaques in East Borneo live
simpatrically with orang utan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus). They were also found to
live with ebony leaf-eater monkeys (Trachypithecus auratus) in Java and Lombok
Island (Hadi, unpublished data). Hock & Sasekumar (1979) also reported long-tailed
macaques were found to live simpatrically with silvered-leaf monkey (Presbytis
cristata) in Kuala Selangor, Malay Peninsula. In Ketambe forests in Sumatera, longtailed macaques live with Thomas langur (P. thomasii) and orang utan (Pongo abelii).
Even though they live simpatrically, those species of primates separated their niches
to avoid competition for food resources.
Reproduction
Individuals of long-tailed macaque reach their sexual maturity in age 5-6 years old
for males and 4 years old for females (Varavudhi et al. 1992). These adult females
give their first birth in age 4 years.
Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques
Long-tailed macaques are primarily frugivorous because 57-66,7% to the total of
feeding items are fruits (Yeager 1996; Ungar 1994). These macaques were also
known as terminal branch feeders since they frequently observed to feed on
materials in terminal branches of the trees (Wheatly 1980). They spent 13% of total
daylight activity for feeding. They used 96% of
feeding time to feed on fruits.
Wheatly (1980) noted that fruits from 17 species of plants were consumed by
long-tailed macaques in East Borneo. In Central Kalimantan, Yeager (1996) reported
these macaques consumed fruits from 24 species of plants. In the teak forest at
Cepu, Hasanbahri (1996) recorded 33 species of plants were consumed by longtailed macaques and fruits were the most preferable to be chosen as the food.
Due to disturbance of habitat and intensive contact with human long-tailed
macaques change their feeding behavior. They exploit any available food resources
and these make them omnivorous (Wheatley 1989). These provisioned troops can
be found in the recreation areas, temples and cemeteries (Aggima-rangsee1992;
Hadi 2001).
Long-tailed
macaques were noted to share food resources with other species as the consequent
of their living in simpatry. In Malaysia, these macaques share fig fruits with dusky
langur (Presbytis obscura), some gibbons (Hylobates spp.) (Lambert 1990), silveredleaf
monkey,
Presbytis
cristata
(Hock
&
Sasekumar
1979).
Data on feeding ecology of long-tailed macaques are scarce, especially in Java,
compared to other species. Most data of feeding ecology in genus Macaca comes
from Japanese macaque in some regions. Hanya (2003) reported age differences of
food intake and dietary selection in the wild male Japanese macaques. Juveniles
tend to feed on animal matters than adult males and avoid to consume high-fibrous
food. However, time spent for food of those two age-stages were not different. Interregional, inter-seasonal, and altitudinal variation of food choices in this species had
also been studied (Hanya et al 2003; Nakagawa et al. 1996).
Data of feeding
ecology in Formosan rock macaques (M. cyclopis) had also been reported (Su & Lee
2001).
6
METHODS
Research Site
This research was conducted in Cikakak Monkey Park, a part of Sub-district
Wangon, District of Banyumas, Central Java Province (Figure 1). The central study
area lies on 9173400 mN to 9173550 mN and 285300 mE to 285450 mE, UTM
coordinate system zone 48, based on map from National Coordinating Agency for
Surveys and Mapping (BAKOSURTANAL). This site is a remnant of primary forest
that is surrounded by human settlement, farming fields, and pine forest. The forest is
under the authority of Perum Perhutani Division I Central Java, a subsidiary forestry
company under Ministry of Forestry. The area is a special purpose area (LDTI =
lahan dengan tujuan istimewa) for conservation of long-tailed macaques and cultural
heritage consisting of old cemetery called keramat and old mosque called Masjid
Saka Tunggal (meaning single pole mosque) that were built in 1522 AD. This area
partly used by people to cultivate crops.
The research site encompassed 4.2 ha LDTI's area with altitude 30-125 m above
sea level and annual rainfall 2810 mm. The highest rainfall occurs during mid
November to mid December.
Subject
A troop of long-tailed macaque inhabits this area. The troop consisted of 84
individuals with M01 as α-male based on the first census on September 2003. At mid
of November, one adult males (M09) and 4 sub-adult males moved out from their
troop and settled at the eastern part, 2.5 km from keramat. At the end of February,
the troop split into two troops named as G1 and G2. The second census conducted
in March 2004 revealed those G1 and G2 consisted of 66 and 27 individuals,
respectively. The troop composition can be seen in table 1. After the troop splitted in
February, the observation was focused on G1 that still dwells in the former home
range of the original troop.
7
Table 1 Composition of troop of long-tailed macaque in Cikakak Monkey Park
Troop
Age and sex class
Original Troop
(α–male = M01)
Adult males (M01, M02, M03, M04,
M05, M06, M07, M08, M9)
Sub-adult males
Adult females
Sub-adult females
Juveniles
Infants
Totals
Adult males (M01, M03, M04, M05,
M08, M10, M11)
Sub-adult males
Adult females
Sub-adult females
Juveniles
Infants
Totals
Adult males (M02, M06, M07)
G1
(α–male = M05)
G2
(α-male = M07)
Number of individuals
Sep 2003 Mar 2004
9
6
23
8
24
14
84
Sub-adult males
Adult females
Sub-adult females
Juveniles
Infants
Totals
Note: M09 and 4 sub-adult males moved out from their original troop.
During observation 5 infants were born and one of them was died
7
5
21
4
25
4
66
3
1
7
3
8
5
27
Data Collection Method and Period
Data was collected during September-November 2003 and February-April 2004,
(September = 18 days, November = 18, March = 16 days, April = 11 days).
All food items, including natural and artificially provided foods, were recorded.
Natural foods are defined as foods that were available in the home range. Food
items that were given by human by hand or remaining of human meal are
categorized as artificial food. The part eaten for each food items were also recorded.
Some specimen of plants were collected for identification. Identification of monocot
specimens refers to Sudarnadi (1996). A specimen of plant was identified at
Herbarium Bogoriense, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of
Sciences. It was Microcos panniculata. Some of plant specimens were also identified
in reference to Backer & van den Brink (1965); Boer & Sosef (1998); Feitzel & Chen
(1992); Jones et al. (1992); Wee & Thongtham (1992).
8
Feeding session is foraging activity of the troop in a food patch at a certain time.
A food patch is roughly equivalent with a food item. During a feeding session, the
number of individuals who fed on the food and also the duration of eating the food
were recorded. Recording the duration of feeding started when the first individuals
enter to the food patch and started to manipulate manually and orally part of food
item. The recording terminated when the last individuals stopped to feed and/or leave
feeding site. Data collection was obtained from 07:00-12:00 am and 02:00-05:30
pm. Observation was terminated when the rain started.
Data Analysis
When forage for food, instead of all individuals enter a food patch, the troop
formed a party. The individuals who formed a party in foraging on a certain food
item i (i =1 to k) are shifted and overlapped among sessions. The maximum number
of individuals who forage in one feeding session x (x = 1 to m) is defined as nix party
size. Therefore, to represent the troop, present analysis takes the average of party
size on food item i (Ni)
m
n
Ni= x=1 i x
m
Total feeding duration (Ti) is cumulative of all feeding duration each food i (ti x)
Since the availabilities among foods are asynchronous, the duration of availability of
food, and preference the macaques to the food is unequal, it was considered to use
cumulative of duration for the data analysis.
m
T i = x =1 t i x
The foraging activity on food item i is defined as proportion (Pi ) of food item i
those were consumed in period T.
Pi=
N Ti
i
k
i=1
Ni T i
x100%
The equation eliminate variation of feeding duration and food intake among
individuals in the troop. It can be used to estimate the food preference of the troop.
9
INDONESIA
5
0
Sumatera
Kalimantan
Maluku
Sulawesi
Papua
-5
Jawa
Lombok
Bali
100 Km
-10
95
100
105
110
115
Flores
Sumbawa
Timor
120
125
130
135
140
-5
JAVA ISLAND
-6
JAKARTA
WEST JAVA
-7
SEMARANG
BANDUNG
CENTRAL JAVA
SURABAYA
YOGYAKARTA
EAST JAVA
-8
Cikakak
106
107
108
109
110
Figure 1 Research location
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
10
Figure 2 Home ranges of troops of long-tailed macaques G1 and G2 in Cikakak Monkey Park
11
RESULTS
Observation on the troop of long-tailed macaque in Cikakak Monkey Park revealed
8686 minutes of feeding duration in 363 feeding sessions (table 2).
Table 2 Details of feeding duration and feeding sessions
Month of
observation
September 2003
November 2003
March 2004
April 2004
Totals
Number of
observation
days
18
18
16
11
63
Feeding
session
129
102
78
54
363
Feeding
duration
(minutes)
2489
3081
2014
1102
8686
Number of daily
food item
(average, min, max)
6.9, 3, 11
5.9, 2, 12
5.7, 1, 11
4.9, 2, 9
They were observed to feed on 32 natural and 9 artificial food items (tables 3 and
4). The items obtained from natural resources were furthermore categorized based
on part eaten (fruits, leaves, seeds, flowers, tuber, nira (raw coconut sap) and
insects) (table 5). Artificial food items were provided by caretakers of the mosque
and tourists who visit this area. In total, the troop obtained 76.39% food from natural
sources and 23.61% from human.
Proportion of food part eaten were different significantly each month (df = 6,
p
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
ISLAMUL HADI
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
iii
STATEMENT OF RESEARCH ORIGINALITY
This is to verify that the thesis entitled :
Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park
Is my own work which has never previously been published. All of the incorporated
data and information are valid and stated clearly
Bogor, 28 November 2005
Islamul Hadi
i
ABSTRACT
ISLAMUL HADI. Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey
Park. Under supervision of BAMBANG SURYOBROTO and R. R. DYAH
PERWITASARI.
Long-tailed macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park obtain their food both from
natural and human sources. They were recorded to consume 41 food items. Analysis
using variables party size on foraging and feeding duration showed proportion of
natural foods is greater than artificial foods. The averages were 76,39% and 23,61%,
respectively. Based on the part eaten of natural foods, troop of macaques in this
park consumed almost on young leaves and fruits. They consume and spend much
time on young leaves of bamboo (Gigantochloa apus) and fruits from bulu (Ficus
virens) and sadang (Corypha elatta). They also obtain food by raiding the crops from
agricultural fields those surround the park. Insects were also consumed by them. The
visitors and the caretakers of the park gave food, mainly peanuts. Juveniles and subadults of long-tailed macaques in this park exploited more various food items than
those adults. They also drunk nira (raw coconut sap)
from harvesting tubes in
coconut trees. Therefore, they were regarded as omnivorous since they can exploit
various kinds of food that available in time.
..
Variable party size of long-tailed macaque during foraging allow individuals to
forage by decreasing agonistics among individuals. It is very important in maintaining
the troop cohesiveness.
ii
ABSTRAK
ISLAMUL HADI. Ekologi Makan Monyet Ekor Panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak.
Dibimbing oleh BAMBANG SURYOBROTO dan R.R. DYAH PERWITASARI.
Monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak memperoleh makanan dari alam
dan pengunjung sebanyak 41 jenis. Berdasarkan jumlah individu (party size) dan
durasi makan, proporsi makanan dari alam lebih besar daripada yang diberikan oleh
pengunjung. Proporsi ini masing-masing 76,39% dan 23,61%. Berdasarkan bagian
yang dimakan pada makanan dari alam, monyet ekor panjang di tempat ini lebih
banyak mengkonsumsi daun muda bambu ( Gigantochloa apus), buah jerakah bulu
( Ficus virens) dan sadang (Corypha elatta). Selain dari wilayah Taman Kera
Cikakak, mereka juga mendapatkan makanan dari sawah dan kebun masyarakat
Cikakak di sekitar taman. Monyet-monyet di sini juga mendapatkan makanan dari
pengunjung dan penjaga makam. Makanan utama yang diberikan adalah kacang
tanah. Monyet-monyet muda memilih makanan yang lebih beragam daripada moyet
dewasa. Monyet-monyet muda ini juga minum nira kelapa dari bumbung yang
digantung di pohon kelapa di sekitar Taman Kera. Monyet-monyet di taman kera ini
bersifat omnivora. Mereka
mengkonsumsi berbagai jenis makanan yang ada di
tempat ini.
Party size yang yang dibentuk pada saat makan setiap jenis makanan oleh
monyet-monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera beragam. Strategi ini bertujuan untuk
mengurangi perilaku agonistik antar individu Hal ini sangat penting untuk menjaga
keutuhan kelompoknya.
iv
FEEDING ECOLOGY OF LONG-TAILED MACAQUES
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
By
Islamul Hadi
A THESIS
Submitted to the Bogor Agricultural University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Master Degree of Biology
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
v
This is to certify that the thesis
Title
Name
Student Number
Study Program/Sub
: Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak
Monkey Park
: Islamul Hadi
: G425010181
: Biology/Zoology
has been accepted toward fulfillment of the requirements for Master degree in
Biology
1.Committee members
Dr. Bambang Suryobroto
Chairman
2. Head of Study Program
Dr. Ir. Dedy Duryadi S , DEA
Examination date
: October 27th, 2005
Dr. Ir. R. R. Dyah Perwitasari, M. Sc.
Member
3. Dean of Graduate School
Prof. Dr. Ir. Sjafrida Manuwoto, M. Sc
vi
BIOGRAPHY
The author was born in Selong, East Lombok on August 13 th, 1976 as the oldest
son of Mr. Muhammad Amin and Mrs. Islamiyah. In 1995, he was graduated from
Senior High School, SMAN 1 Selong. At the same year, he was enrolled his
education at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural
University, majoring in Computer Science. In 1997, he moved to the Department of
Biology at the same university, graduated in 2001, and continued for his master
degree at the Graduate School of Bogor Agricultural University. In 2005, he has
been assigned as the staff of Biology Study Program, Mataram University, Lombok.
vii
FOREWORD
This thesis entitled ” Feeding of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park”
based on the result of field research during September-November 2003 and MarchApril 2004. This research, globally, is aimed to collect information of presence of the
living primates in Java, as the part of Primate Study in Java.
I wish to extend my gratitude to Dr. Bambang Suryobroto and Dr. R.R. Dyah
Perwitasari, M. Sc. as the committee members. I wish to thanks to Mr. Bambang
Juhari, Cikakak Monkey Park's caretaker. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Kunio Watanabe and Dr. Sachiko Hayakawa from Primate Research Institute Kyoto University
for their advices of methodology and discussions during field work and writing of the
manuscript. I am also indebted to Mr. Jatiwan and his family for all their assistances
and accommodation during field work.
Bogor, November 2005
Islamul Hadi
viii
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................x
LIST OF APPENDIXES..............................................................................................xi
INTRODUCTION…………….........………………………………………………………..1
Background…………….…………………………………………………….…......1
Objective of Research….……………………………………………………….....2
LITERATURE STUDY
Systematic of Long-tailed Macaque..............……………....………….....…….3
Geographic Distribution...............................………………………………...…..3
Socioecology...............................……………………………………………..….3
Reproduction.……………………………………………………………….………4
Feeding Ecology................................................………....………………….….4
METHODS
Research Site…….…………………...……………………………………….….. 6
Subject………….……………………………………………………………….......6
Data Collection Method and Period………….……………………….................7
Data Analysis……………….………………………………………...............……8
RESULTS……..………....………………………………………………………...11
DISCUSSION....…………………..……………………………………………………….14
CONCLUSION….…………………………………………………………………….……16
REFERENCES….…………………………………………………………….…………...17
APPENDIXES...........................................................................................................20
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. Figure 1 Research location......…..………………………………………………..…..9
2. Figure 2 Home ranges of troops of long-tailed macaques G1 and G2
in Cikakak Monkey Park…………………………………………………………........10
FEEDING ECOLOGY OF LONG-TAILED MACAQUES
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
ISLAMUL HADI
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
iii
STATEMENT OF RESEARCH ORIGINALITY
This is to verify that the thesis entitled :
Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park
Is my own work which has never previously been published. All of the incorporated
data and information are valid and stated clearly
Bogor, 28 November 2005
Islamul Hadi
i
ABSTRACT
ISLAMUL HADI. Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey
Park. Under supervision of BAMBANG SURYOBROTO and R. R. DYAH
PERWITASARI.
Long-tailed macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park obtain their food both from
natural and human sources. They were recorded to consume 41 food items. Analysis
using variables party size on foraging and feeding duration showed proportion of
natural foods is greater than artificial foods. The averages were 76,39% and 23,61%,
respectively. Based on the part eaten of natural foods, troop of macaques in this
park consumed almost on young leaves and fruits. They consume and spend much
time on young leaves of bamboo (Gigantochloa apus) and fruits from bulu (Ficus
virens) and sadang (Corypha elatta). They also obtain food by raiding the crops from
agricultural fields those surround the park. Insects were also consumed by them. The
visitors and the caretakers of the park gave food, mainly peanuts. Juveniles and subadults of long-tailed macaques in this park exploited more various food items than
those adults. They also drunk nira (raw coconut sap)
from harvesting tubes in
coconut trees. Therefore, they were regarded as omnivorous since they can exploit
various kinds of food that available in time.
..
Variable party size of long-tailed macaque during foraging allow individuals to
forage by decreasing agonistics among individuals. It is very important in maintaining
the troop cohesiveness.
ii
ABSTRAK
ISLAMUL HADI. Ekologi Makan Monyet Ekor Panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak.
Dibimbing oleh BAMBANG SURYOBROTO dan R.R. DYAH PERWITASARI.
Monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera Cikakak memperoleh makanan dari alam
dan pengunjung sebanyak 41 jenis. Berdasarkan jumlah individu (party size) dan
durasi makan, proporsi makanan dari alam lebih besar daripada yang diberikan oleh
pengunjung. Proporsi ini masing-masing 76,39% dan 23,61%. Berdasarkan bagian
yang dimakan pada makanan dari alam, monyet ekor panjang di tempat ini lebih
banyak mengkonsumsi daun muda bambu ( Gigantochloa apus), buah jerakah bulu
( Ficus virens) dan sadang (Corypha elatta). Selain dari wilayah Taman Kera
Cikakak, mereka juga mendapatkan makanan dari sawah dan kebun masyarakat
Cikakak di sekitar taman. Monyet-monyet di sini juga mendapatkan makanan dari
pengunjung dan penjaga makam. Makanan utama yang diberikan adalah kacang
tanah. Monyet-monyet muda memilih makanan yang lebih beragam daripada moyet
dewasa. Monyet-monyet muda ini juga minum nira kelapa dari bumbung yang
digantung di pohon kelapa di sekitar Taman Kera. Monyet-monyet di taman kera ini
bersifat omnivora. Mereka
mengkonsumsi berbagai jenis makanan yang ada di
tempat ini.
Party size yang yang dibentuk pada saat makan setiap jenis makanan oleh
monyet-monyet ekor panjang di Taman Kera beragam. Strategi ini bertujuan untuk
mengurangi perilaku agonistik antar individu Hal ini sangat penting untuk menjaga
keutuhan kelompoknya.
iv
FEEDING ECOLOGY OF LONG-TAILED MACAQUES
AT CIKAKAK MONKEY PARK
By
Islamul Hadi
A THESIS
Submitted to the Bogor Agricultural University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for Master Degree of Biology
GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
BOGOR
2005
v
This is to certify that the thesis
Title
Name
Student Number
Study Program/Sub
: Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak
Monkey Park
: Islamul Hadi
: G425010181
: Biology/Zoology
has been accepted toward fulfillment of the requirements for Master degree in
Biology
1.Committee members
Dr. Bambang Suryobroto
Chairman
2. Head of Study Program
Dr. Ir. Dedy Duryadi S , DEA
Examination date
: October 27th, 2005
Dr. Ir. R. R. Dyah Perwitasari, M. Sc.
Member
3. Dean of Graduate School
Prof. Dr. Ir. Sjafrida Manuwoto, M. Sc
vi
BIOGRAPHY
The author was born in Selong, East Lombok on August 13 th, 1976 as the oldest
son of Mr. Muhammad Amin and Mrs. Islamiyah. In 1995, he was graduated from
Senior High School, SMAN 1 Selong. At the same year, he was enrolled his
education at the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural
University, majoring in Computer Science. In 1997, he moved to the Department of
Biology at the same university, graduated in 2001, and continued for his master
degree at the Graduate School of Bogor Agricultural University. In 2005, he has
been assigned as the staff of Biology Study Program, Mataram University, Lombok.
vii
FOREWORD
This thesis entitled ” Feeding of Long-tailed Macaques at Cikakak Monkey Park”
based on the result of field research during September-November 2003 and MarchApril 2004. This research, globally, is aimed to collect information of presence of the
living primates in Java, as the part of Primate Study in Java.
I wish to extend my gratitude to Dr. Bambang Suryobroto and Dr. R.R. Dyah
Perwitasari, M. Sc. as the committee members. I wish to thanks to Mr. Bambang
Juhari, Cikakak Monkey Park's caretaker. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Kunio Watanabe and Dr. Sachiko Hayakawa from Primate Research Institute Kyoto University
for their advices of methodology and discussions during field work and writing of the
manuscript. I am also indebted to Mr. Jatiwan and his family for all their assistances
and accommodation during field work.
Bogor, November 2005
Islamul Hadi
viii
LIST OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................ix
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................x
LIST OF APPENDIXES..............................................................................................xi
INTRODUCTION…………….........………………………………………………………..1
Background…………….…………………………………………………….…......1
Objective of Research….……………………………………………………….....2
LITERATURE STUDY
Systematic of Long-tailed Macaque..............……………....………….....…….3
Geographic Distribution...............................………………………………...…..3
Socioecology...............................……………………………………………..….3
Reproduction.……………………………………………………………….………4
Feeding Ecology................................................………....………………….….4
METHODS
Research Site…….…………………...……………………………………….….. 6
Subject………….……………………………………………………………….......6
Data Collection Method and Period………….……………………….................7
Data Analysis……………….………………………………………...............……8
RESULTS……..………....………………………………………………………...11
DISCUSSION....…………………..……………………………………………………….14
CONCLUSION….…………………………………………………………………….……16
REFERENCES….…………………………………………………………….…………...17
APPENDIXES...........................................................................................................20
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. Figure 1 Research location......…..………………………………………………..…..9
2. Figure 2 Home ranges of troops of long-tailed macaques G1 and G2
in Cikakak Monkey Park…………………………………………………………........10
x
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Table 1 Composition of troop of long-tailed macaque in Cikakak……….……….…7
2. Table 2 Details of feeding duration and feeding sessions………………....……...11
3. Table 3 List of natural food items were eaten by long-tailed macaque in
Cikakak Monkey Park....................…………………………………………………...12
4. Table 4 List of artificial food items were eaten by long-tailed macaque in
Cikakak Monkey Park......……………………………………………………….……..13
5. Table 5 Part eaten of natural food by long-tailed macaques in
Cikakak Monkey Park…...............................................................................……..13
xi
LIST OF APPENDIXES
Page
1. Appendix 1 List of vernacular names of natural food items of long-tailed
macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park...................................................................21
2. Appendix 2. Number of individual and time spent in each food item
by long-tailed -macaques in Cikakak Monkey Park.............................................22
2. Appendix 3 Spatial distribution of fig trees ( Ficus spp)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................23
3. Appendix 4 Spatial distribution of langkap ( Arenga obtusifolia)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................24
4. Appendix 5 Spatial distribution of sadang (Corypha elatta)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................25
5. Appendix 6 Spatial distribution of grazing area in Cikakak Monkey Park...........26
6. Appendix 7 Spatial distribution of bambu/bamboo (Gigantochloa apus)
in Cikakak Monkey Park.......................................................................................27
1
INTRODUCTION
Background
The long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) has wide geographic distribution
ranging from southernmost Bangladesh to continent of Southeast Asia, Malayan
Peninsula, Nicobar Islands, Sunda Archipelago, and the Philippines, except Sulawesi
Island (Napier & Napier 1967; Fooden 1995). They are also found in Lesser Sunda
Archipelago (Lombok, Sumbawa, and Timor), Kabaena Island, Angaur Island, and
Mauritius and were suspected as introduced animals (Fooden 1991; Kawamoto et al.
1988; Kondo et al. 1993; Matsubayashi et al. 1992).
They adapt to various environments from mangrove swamp (Hock & Sase-kumar
1979), lowland-dense-tropical and sub-alpine forests, and also to the communal
places where humans live. These facts indicate that they have a great ecological
plasticity to adapt to various environments; therefore, they are regarded as “weed”
species (Richard et al. 1989).
Following recent economic development in Java, most of primary forests where
long-tailed macaques live were converted for land of buildings, factories, farming
fields, secondary forests, recreation parks, and human settlements. The impacts are
decreasing area of primary and secondary forests.
Some remnant populations of long-tailed macaques in Java have been recorded.
They were found in Plangon, Jatibarang, Kalijaga, Solear, Pangandaran, Cikakak,
Tawangmangu and Cepu (Hadi 2001; Hasanbahri et al. 1996; Perwitasari-Farajallah
1998; Hadi, present study). They live in secondary forests and some of them in
monkey parks. Almost all of populations are separated from each other following
their fragmented habitats. Population of long-tailed macaques in Pangandaran
separated from those in Cikakak, Plangon, Kalijaga, and Solear, vice versa. No
corridors for their contact. Perwitasari-Farajallah (1998) reported that genetically they
have high variation among but low within the population. Kawamoto et al. (1981)
reported that population of long-tailed macaques in Jatibarang had low-level genetic
variability presumably caused by their isolation from other populations.
Being related to various environmental characteristics, the long-tailed macaques
evolved different strategies to adapt to different environments. The strategies are
reflected in their feeding ecology, reproduction, size of group, and also home ranges.
Long-tailed macaques who live in dense forest with minimum frequencies of contact
2
with human tend to be frugivorous (Yeager 1996). They are organized in small sized
groups with large home ranges. In the area with high frequencies of contact with
human beings, the macaques tend to be omnivorous. Their main dietary items are
not only fruits. They exploit other kinds of food such as flowers, leaves, seeds,
insects, and tubers. They also get food from human. They are organized into big
sized groups with small home ranges and higher reproduction index (Aggimarangsee
1992; Hadi 2001; Wheatley 1984). Almost all of the troops live in small areas with
decreasing space for searching foods. It is suspected that they face high individual
competition for resources and risk increasing on inbreeding. The data of feeding
ecology of long-tailed macaques in Java are insufficient since no intensive research
had been carried out on this species. In this research, the quantitative approach in
feeding ecology is applied to describe the feeding ecology of long-tailed macaque
population lives in a place with high frequencies of contact with human being.
Objective of Research
This research is aimed to describe feeding ecology of long-tailed macaques at
Cikakak Monkey Park, Wangon, Banyumas, Central Java.
3
LITERATURE STUDY
Systematic of Long-tailed Macaque
According to Grove (2001), long-tailed macaque belongs to :
Order
: Primates
Suborder
: Haplorrhini
Infraorder
: Eusimiiformes
Superfamily
: Cercopithecoidea
Family
: Cercopithecidae
Genus
: Macaca
Species
: Macaca fascicularis
Based on the morphology of reproductive organs, Fooden (1980) classified longtailed macaques to fascicularis species group. Another members of this group are
Japanese macaques (M. fuscata), rhesus macaques (M. mulatta) and Formosan
macaques (M. cyclopis).
Geographic Distribution
Long-tailed macaque has wide geographical range. They distribute in southernmost
Bangladesh, Nicobar Island, Indochinese Peninsula, Isthmus of Kra, Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Philippine (Fooden 1995; Umapathy et al.
2003). They are also found in Lesser Sunda (from Lombok to East Timor; Kawamoto
et al. 1984) and suspected as introduced animal. Long-tailed macaque also
introduced by human to Mauritius Island, Angaur Island, Kabaena Island, and Tinjil
Island (Kawamoto et al. 1988; Kondo et al. 1993; Kyes 1993; Matsubayashi et al.
1992; Perwitasari-Farajallah 2004).
Socioecology
Long-tailed macaques live in multi-male social group (Napier & Napier 1967). In
their social groups, there are some adult-males, adult-females, sub-adult males, subadult females, juveniles, and infants. They are primarily arboreal species which are
found to feed and walk in tree (Fleagle 1988). Wheatly (1980) reported that the longtailed macaques in inland forest had 98% degree of arboreality. In the riverbank and
coastal area, long-tailed macaques spent their 25-26.7% of daylight time in forest
floor (Crocket & Wilson 1980; Fittinghoff & Lindburg 1980).
4
According to Fooden (1995), long-tailed macaque’s home ranges vary among
territories and conditions. In Simeuleu, North Sumatra, the average home ranges
were 12.5 Ha and in West Malaysia was noted as around 300 Ha. The width of home
ranges were affected by number of individuals in the troop and availability of food
resources.
Troop size of long-tailed macaques also vary among places and conditions.
Fooden (1995) reported troop size in non-provisioned areas were 12-25 individuals.
In provisioned troops they exceeded the average size of non-provisioned ones (e.g.
Cikakak, 46.3 individuals, n = 2 troops, present study).
Long-tailed macaques have plasticity to live with other primate species. In
Sumatra, they live simpatrically with pig-tailed macaques, M. nemestrina (Crocket &
Wilson 1980). Wheatley (1980) reported long-tailed macaques in East Borneo live
simpatrically with orang utan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus). They were also found to
live with ebony leaf-eater monkeys (Trachypithecus auratus) in Java and Lombok
Island (Hadi, unpublished data). Hock & Sasekumar (1979) also reported long-tailed
macaques were found to live simpatrically with silvered-leaf monkey (Presbytis
cristata) in Kuala Selangor, Malay Peninsula. In Ketambe forests in Sumatera, longtailed macaques live with Thomas langur (P. thomasii) and orang utan (Pongo abelii).
Even though they live simpatrically, those species of primates separated their niches
to avoid competition for food resources.
Reproduction
Individuals of long-tailed macaque reach their sexual maturity in age 5-6 years old
for males and 4 years old for females (Varavudhi et al. 1992). These adult females
give their first birth in age 4 years.
Feeding Ecology of Long-tailed Macaques
Long-tailed macaques are primarily frugivorous because 57-66,7% to the total of
feeding items are fruits (Yeager 1996; Ungar 1994). These macaques were also
known as terminal branch feeders since they frequently observed to feed on
materials in terminal branches of the trees (Wheatly 1980). They spent 13% of total
daylight activity for feeding. They used 96% of
feeding time to feed on fruits.
Wheatly (1980) noted that fruits from 17 species of plants were consumed by
long-tailed macaques in East Borneo. In Central Kalimantan, Yeager (1996) reported
these macaques consumed fruits from 24 species of plants. In the teak forest at
Cepu, Hasanbahri (1996) recorded 33 species of plants were consumed by longtailed macaques and fruits were the most preferable to be chosen as the food.
Due to disturbance of habitat and intensive contact with human long-tailed
macaques change their feeding behavior. They exploit any available food resources
and these make them omnivorous (Wheatley 1989). These provisioned troops can
be found in the recreation areas, temples and cemeteries (Aggima-rangsee1992;
Hadi 2001).
Long-tailed
macaques were noted to share food resources with other species as the consequent
of their living in simpatry. In Malaysia, these macaques share fig fruits with dusky
langur (Presbytis obscura), some gibbons (Hylobates spp.) (Lambert 1990), silveredleaf
monkey,
Presbytis
cristata
(Hock
&
Sasekumar
1979).
Data on feeding ecology of long-tailed macaques are scarce, especially in Java,
compared to other species. Most data of feeding ecology in genus Macaca comes
from Japanese macaque in some regions. Hanya (2003) reported age differences of
food intake and dietary selection in the wild male Japanese macaques. Juveniles
tend to feed on animal matters than adult males and avoid to consume high-fibrous
food. However, time spent for food of those two age-stages were not different. Interregional, inter-seasonal, and altitudinal variation of food choices in this species had
also been studied (Hanya et al 2003; Nakagawa et al. 1996).
Data of feeding
ecology in Formosan rock macaques (M. cyclopis) had also been reported (Su & Lee
2001).
6
METHODS
Research Site
This research was conducted in Cikakak Monkey Park, a part of Sub-district
Wangon, District of Banyumas, Central Java Province (Figure 1). The central study
area lies on 9173400 mN to 9173550 mN and 285300 mE to 285450 mE, UTM
coordinate system zone 48, based on map from National Coordinating Agency for
Surveys and Mapping (BAKOSURTANAL). This site is a remnant of primary forest
that is surrounded by human settlement, farming fields, and pine forest. The forest is
under the authority of Perum Perhutani Division I Central Java, a subsidiary forestry
company under Ministry of Forestry. The area is a special purpose area (LDTI =
lahan dengan tujuan istimewa) for conservation of long-tailed macaques and cultural
heritage consisting of old cemetery called keramat and old mosque called Masjid
Saka Tunggal (meaning single pole mosque) that were built in 1522 AD. This area
partly used by people to cultivate crops.
The research site encompassed 4.2 ha LDTI's area with altitude 30-125 m above
sea level and annual rainfall 2810 mm. The highest rainfall occurs during mid
November to mid December.
Subject
A troop of long-tailed macaque inhabits this area. The troop consisted of 84
individuals with M01 as α-male based on the first census on September 2003. At mid
of November, one adult males (M09) and 4 sub-adult males moved out from their
troop and settled at the eastern part, 2.5 km from keramat. At the end of February,
the troop split into two troops named as G1 and G2. The second census conducted
in March 2004 revealed those G1 and G2 consisted of 66 and 27 individuals,
respectively. The troop composition can be seen in table 1. After the troop splitted in
February, the observation was focused on G1 that still dwells in the former home
range of the original troop.
7
Table 1 Composition of troop of long-tailed macaque in Cikakak Monkey Park
Troop
Age and sex class
Original Troop
(α–male = M01)
Adult males (M01, M02, M03, M04,
M05, M06, M07, M08, M9)
Sub-adult males
Adult females
Sub-adult females
Juveniles
Infants
Totals
Adult males (M01, M03, M04, M05,
M08, M10, M11)
Sub-adult males
Adult females
Sub-adult females
Juveniles
Infants
Totals
Adult males (M02, M06, M07)
G1
(α–male = M05)
G2
(α-male = M07)
Number of individuals
Sep 2003 Mar 2004
9
6
23
8
24
14
84
Sub-adult males
Adult females
Sub-adult females
Juveniles
Infants
Totals
Note: M09 and 4 sub-adult males moved out from their original troop.
During observation 5 infants were born and one of them was died
7
5
21
4
25
4
66
3
1
7
3
8
5
27
Data Collection Method and Period
Data was collected during September-November 2003 and February-April 2004,
(September = 18 days, November = 18, March = 16 days, April = 11 days).
All food items, including natural and artificially provided foods, were recorded.
Natural foods are defined as foods that were available in the home range. Food
items that were given by human by hand or remaining of human meal are
categorized as artificial food. The part eaten for each food items were also recorded.
Some specimen of plants were collected for identification. Identification of monocot
specimens refers to Sudarnadi (1996). A specimen of plant was identified at
Herbarium Bogoriense, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of
Sciences. It was Microcos panniculata. Some of plant specimens were also identified
in reference to Backer & van den Brink (1965); Boer & Sosef (1998); Feitzel & Chen
(1992); Jones et al. (1992); Wee & Thongtham (1992).
8
Feeding session is foraging activity of the troop in a food patch at a certain time.
A food patch is roughly equivalent with a food item. During a feeding session, the
number of individuals who fed on the food and also the duration of eating the food
were recorded. Recording the duration of feeding started when the first individuals
enter to the food patch and started to manipulate manually and orally part of food
item. The recording terminated when the last individuals stopped to feed and/or leave
feeding site. Data collection was obtained from 07:00-12:00 am and 02:00-05:30
pm. Observation was terminated when the rain started.
Data Analysis
When forage for food, instead of all individuals enter a food patch, the troop
formed a party. The individuals who formed a party in foraging on a certain food
item i (i =1 to k) are shifted and overlapped among sessions. The maximum number
of individuals who forage in one feeding session x (x = 1 to m) is defined as nix party
size. Therefore, to represent the troop, present analysis takes the average of party
size on food item i (Ni)
m
n
Ni= x=1 i x
m
Total feeding duration (Ti) is cumulative of all feeding duration each food i (ti x)
Since the availabilities among foods are asynchronous, the duration of availability of
food, and preference the macaques to the food is unequal, it was considered to use
cumulative of duration for the data analysis.
m
T i = x =1 t i x
The foraging activity on food item i is defined as proportion (Pi ) of food item i
those were consumed in period T.
Pi=
N Ti
i
k
i=1
Ni T i
x100%
The equation eliminate variation of feeding duration and food intake among
individuals in the troop. It can be used to estimate the food preference of the troop.
9
INDONESIA
5
0
Sumatera
Kalimantan
Maluku
Sulawesi
Papua
-5
Jawa
Lombok
Bali
100 Km
-10
95
100
105
110
115
Flores
Sumbawa
Timor
120
125
130
135
140
-5
JAVA ISLAND
-6
JAKARTA
WEST JAVA
-7
SEMARANG
BANDUNG
CENTRAL JAVA
SURABAYA
YOGYAKARTA
EAST JAVA
-8
Cikakak
106
107
108
109
110
Figure 1 Research location
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
10
Figure 2 Home ranges of troops of long-tailed macaques G1 and G2 in Cikakak Monkey Park
11
RESULTS
Observation on the troop of long-tailed macaque in Cikakak Monkey Park revealed
8686 minutes of feeding duration in 363 feeding sessions (table 2).
Table 2 Details of feeding duration and feeding sessions
Month of
observation
September 2003
November 2003
March 2004
April 2004
Totals
Number of
observation
days
18
18
16
11
63
Feeding
session
129
102
78
54
363
Feeding
duration
(minutes)
2489
3081
2014
1102
8686
Number of daily
food item
(average, min, max)
6.9, 3, 11
5.9, 2, 12
5.7, 1, 11
4.9, 2, 9
They were observed to feed on 32 natural and 9 artificial food items (tables 3 and
4). The items obtained from natural resources were furthermore categorized based
on part eaten (fruits, leaves, seeds, flowers, tuber, nira (raw coconut sap) and
insects) (table 5). Artificial food items were provided by caretakers of the mosque
and tourists who visit this area. In total, the troop obtained 76.39% food from natural
sources and 23.61% from human.
Proportion of food part eaten were different significantly each month (df = 6,
p