Defining Hugo’s socialism

32 by the social structure and their ideology. Hugo believes that no one is born to be a criminal, but the social condition constrains a person to perform the crime action 97 . Ironically, the society is failed to see how they build someone’ identity. Hugo associates the society to blind people who crave for the light and literary text can be a medium to enlighten the society 98 . His critical thinking leads to an implication of criticizing the crime punishment under. In fact, punishing the criminal brings no significant changes to the society. Hugo even argues that it might create worse situation. It would perpetuate the dominant false consciousness 99 . Second, the punishment might lead to a worse situation which eventually creates new crime actions as the punishment gives big impacts to the criminal’s family. Hugo shows that the existence of criminals in society is the impact of social structure and the society has to see the complex situation clearly. Then Hugo firmly proclaims his ideology based on his critical thinking and idea of social structure. Considering his education and social - economic backgro und, Hugo’s intellectual mind constrains his ability to see the social false consciousness which is constructed by the dominant ideology 100 . To analyze Hugo’s ideology transformation depicted in Les Miserables, I would begin by defining Hugo’s idea of socialism.

1. Defining Hugo’s socialism

Mario Vargas Llosa states that Les Miserables is Hugo’s literary work that reflects the evolution of Hugo from a constitutional, liberal monarchist to a 97 V. Hugo, “Capital Punishment”, 924 98 V. Hugo, Les Miserables,157 99 V. Hugo, “Capital Punishment”, 925 100 M. Vargas Llosa, The Temptation of the Impossible, 12 33 republican with radical and social-minded leaning 101 . Norman Denny writes in the introduction of Les Miserables that Hugo moved from his right-wing bourgeois origins to not only a republican, but a socialist 102 . Both Vargas Llosa and Denny define Hugo’s ideology as socialist idea. Denny writes a stronger statement that Hugo is a socialist. Meanwhile, Vargas Llosa writes that Hugo is a radical and social-minded republican. It raises a question about the definition of socialism which Hugo claims in his essay “The Mind and Masses”: Let it not be forgotten, socialism, true socialism, has for its end the elevation of the masses to the civic dignity,[...]. The first hunger is ignorance; socialism wishes then, above all to instruct. That does not hinder socialism as being denounced. To most of the infuriated [...] these reformers are public enemies. They are guilty of everything that has gone wrong. 103 In his essay entitled “The Mind and the Masses”, Hugo states that true socialism is an ideology that is able to find out when things in the society have gone wrong. In this case, the things that have gone wrong are the allusion of social structure and social condition 104 . In the other words, in Hugo’s idea, socialism has to be able to find out the allusion that determines false consciousness in the society. Vargas Llosa describes Hugo’s socialist concept as radical and social minded. Hugo illustrates that the society is ignorance 105 . The idea about ignorant society supports Althusser’s notion that every society is actually constrained by an allusion that makes them obligate some life concept to create a false consciousness 106 . Ironically, the ignorant society is not aware of their condition. However, they always crave for changes. Hugo illustrates 101 M. Vargas Llosa, The Temptation of the Impossible, 13 102 N. Denny, introduction, Les Miserables, 10 103 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 928 104 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 929 105 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 930 106 L. Althusser, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses”, 693 34 the condition to be “hunger”. Hugo perceives the society as ignorant people who have no idea to satisfy their hunger 107 . According to Hugo, socialism could fulfill people’ hunger by pointing out the false consciousness and reconstructing the social structure. In his other essay entitled “Capital Punishment” Hugo explains his idea of socialism deeper by revealing his idea about crime punishment 108 . Hugo agrees that any crime is indeed an action against the law with all its consequences. However, he emphasizes that the society have to look at any crime action critically for at least two reasons. First, it is the society which has created crime 109 . Hugo believes that no one is born with one significant identity, but the society constrains people life. For instance, the society also makes somebody conducts crime. There are some possible conditions that lead somebody to perform any crime action. A person has to live alone without family, education, and positive social support to teach him how to live or the person has family without education and lives difficult social and economic condition 110 . It is the condition that constrains somebody to be a criminal. Second, the society creates the law. Thus, based on these conditions, when society judges a criminal for the crime, they do not realize that they have created a criminal and confirm the identity of the person as a criminal based on the law they have made. Hugo judges that the society is guilty for judging the criminal without understanding the fact he has pointed out. In his essay, Hugo further stresses that even the punishment to the criminal might lead to a worse condition. There are two 107 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 929 108 V. Hugo, “Capital Punishment”, 923 - 925 109 V. Hugo, “Capital Punishment”, 925 110 V. Hu go. “Capital Punishment”, 923 35 possible results of the punishment: they kill or send a person to prison without changing the social condition while perpetuate the false consciousness, or they might bear new criminals when the punishment leaves the family of the person live in more difficult situation for losing a family member 111 . The idea of the society shaping people identity is also depicted in Les Miserables. Every main character in Les Miserables is described with clear life and social background that makes the characters come into being. There are Fantine, Jean, Veljean, Javert, Cosette, Marius and even Eponine 112 . Jean Veljean and Fantine represent Hugo’s idea about the influence of society in determining someone life and identity 113 . Hugo describes Jean Veljean as someone who is born in a very poor and uneducated family. Although Jean Veljean was a thoughtful boy, no one in his life educates him. Both of his parents died when he was very young so he had to live with his poor widowed sister who had seven children 114 . The little Jean Veljean had to work very hard to help his sister feed the children, but there was never enough bread to eat. Then, one day when there was no bread at home, he stole a loaf of bread in a bakery to feed his sister’s children 115 . Meanwhile, Fantine was a poor girl who did not even know who her parents are. She did not even have a name. Her name was Fantine just because people around her called her La Petite Fantine 116 . At the end of her life, Fantine had to be a prostitute to make money for 111 V. Hugo, “Capital Punishment”,925 112 V.Hugo, Les Miserables, 120 113 V.Hugo, Les Miserables, 120 114 V.Hugo, Les Miserables, 92 - 93 115 V.Hugo, Les Miserables, 93 116 V.Hugo, Les Miserables, 124 36 Cosette, her daughter, and ironically died of an illness 117 . Hugo explains in details why the characters in Les Miserables have to live in particular life to emphasize that the life and identity of everyone are constrained by the society. Thus, it is the society who had to be punished for the crime 118 . Other concepts of Hugo’s ideology are moral and faith. In “Parenthesis” Hugo strongly emphasizes that God is the center of his belief 119 . Hugo criticizes the monastery, not God. In the “Parenthesis” he explains that it is the system of the monastery that creates false consciousness. Hugo explicitly states that it is the monastery that creates an allusion of God. It is shown through Hugo’s statement, “We have a duty to perform, to work upon the human soul [..] to dispel the superstitions that surround religion - to rid God of His maggots.” 120 He even strongly states that even atheist could not deny the existence God. According to Hugo, even if the atheist does not believe in God, their life is a proof of God’s existence. He salutes the atheist as philosophers, but does not agree with their philosophy 121 . Hugo believes that God is the definition of ideal. Since the Ideal is God, He is the concept of life and morality, but not the aim. He proposes that the aim of his ideology is not to reconstruct the society due to the ideal concept, but to aim progress 122 . In contrast to Hugo, Marx and Engels propose the concept of socialism as self-consciously antimetaphysical. Eugene Victor Wolfenstein in his book Psychoanalytic - Marxism Groundwork quoted Marx, “religion is an inverted 117 V.Hugo, Les Miserables, 199 - 201 118 V. Hugo, “Capital Punishment”, 923-925 119 V. Hugo. Les Miserables.p. 1202 120 V. Hugo, “Parenthesis”, 1205. 121 V. Hugo, “Parenthesis”, 209 122 V. Hugo, “Parenthesis”, 1211 37 world consciousness” Marx, 1844a, p 53 123 . Referring to Marxist concept, Wolfenstein argues that the idea of God in religion is as a matter of fact a picture of false consciousness. God is mistakenly seen as The Creator where in fact it is actually people who has created God 124 . It is true that at one point, both Hugo and other socialist believe that social structure is constructed. They both are against the bourgeoisie who are claimed to oppress the lower class. However, there is a big difference between Hugo and the other socialists. Any socialism, especially Marxist concept, has a conflicting idea about God because God is seen as human’ creation. In contrast, Hugo puts God as the center of his faith and belief 125 . Wolfenstein asserts that Marxism is a voice of socialism which leads to a revolutionary action in the society 126 . It sees the relationship between human and religion, especially in their faith to God, as a mental slip of subject - object relationship 127 .The basic idea of Marxist theory explains the society is constructed by ‘base’ and ‘superstructure’ relation as Fredric Jameson illustrate: Superstructure culture = ideology Base or Infrastructure economic relations 128 Fredric Jameson explains that superstructure, refers to culture and ideology including religion and arts, as something which is produced by base, the whole 123 E. Wolfenstein, 7 124 E. Wolfenstein, 7 125 V. Hugo, “Parenthesis, 1211 126 Ralf Miliband.,“Voices of Socialism: Karl Marx, Marx and Socialism. 127 E. Wolfenstein, 7 128 Fredric Jameson, Late Marxism: Adorno, or, the Persistence of the Dialectic London: Verso, 1990 37 38 society where economic relation occurs 129 . There is a mutual relation between superstructure and base. In one side, base is constrained by superstructure, yet superstructure is created by base. For instance, ideology is a set of belief which constrains people way of life, yet Althusser explains that ideology itself is the way of life or praxis 130 . In other words, a society way of living is a projection of their ideology. In the same time, base, as the whole society, also affects superstructure by establishing, take for example, ideology and arts. Based on this concept, Marxism defines religion as a product of society where God is created by the society itself. The mental slip about human-God relation is alike with superstructure-base relation. However, Hugo is against the concept of Marxist subject - object relation about religion, especially God 131 . Throughout Les Miserables, Hugo stresses his relig ious belief. In “Parenthesis” Hugo explains that it is true that the society who creates law and monastery, but God is still The Creator to Whom we have to believe 132 . It means that Hugo accepts the idea of superstructure - base relationship in society, but God is beyond the concept of superstructure - base relationship. Besides God as part of Hugo’s socialism, Hugo frequently mentions revolution in his essays of humanity. Such as in his “The Minds and the Masses”, Hugo emphasizes that the existence of a society is a never ending progress of life 133 . Hugo writes that, “The Revolution French Revolution ended one century 129 F. Jameson, Late Marxism: Adorno, or, the Persistence of the Dialectic, 42 130 L. Althusser, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses” 131 V. Hugo,“Parenthesis”, 1209 132 V. Hugo,“Parenthesis”, 1205. 133 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 936 39 and began another” 134 . Indeed Hugo shows his strong concept about society and revolution. This essay answers any question to the portrayal of revolution depicted in Les Miserables. It also supports other studies that criticize Les Miserables ’ surrogation works that put the revolution depicted in Les Miserables as a pessimistic ending of the plot. In fact, Hugo’s idea of society as a never ending social process is in line with Raymond Williams’ cultural theory. Williams writes that a society always has the dominant, residual, and emergent 135 . The dominant is always be the main factor that affects every life features. It is also the dominant who has power and authority to the society that makes a tendency for the dominant to keep the social condition stay 136 . In contrast residual and emergence are two other elements that always interfere the dominant. The residual is the element of the past, but it is not the archaic 137 . In fact dominant is built based on residual. The institution or the formation of the dominant culture are actually part of residual that becomes a foundation where the dominant is built. While the emergence refers to new meaning and value, including the new system, new practice, and social relationship 138 . In some cases the emergence can be radically against the dominant. Williams emphasizes that emergence is not only an immediate practice against the dominant. The main process of emergence is to find a new form or to adapt the form of culture and 134 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 935 135 R. Williams, “Cultural Theory”, 121 - 127 136 R. Will iams, “Cultural Theory”, 122 137 R. Williams, “Cultural Theory”, 121 138 R. Williams, “Cultural Theory”, 123 40 ideology with some changes 139 . In other words, when particular false consciousness in the society is found, the emergence comes into the surface to initiate changes in the society. The relation between the dominant, emergence and residual is a power relation that creates a never-ending process in society 140 . It is similar to Hugo’s idea of the never-ending process in society which is depicted in Les Miserables. To begin the novel Hugo narrates a story about the Bishop of Digne. Hugo writes that it is going to be the story of Fantine in Book I, but it is important for the readers to understand the importance of monastery to the society 141 and it is also the Bishop, part of the monastery, who leads the transfi guration of Jan Veljean’s life 142 . Finally Hugo explains that indeed monastery has shaped the society into being, but it also has created false consciousness with subject - object relationship between the monastery and the society 143 . The society needs liberty to transform the monastery into a republic. To aim the progress revolution is needed to end the monastery and to begin a republic 144 . Hugo sees that a society has to stay in progress which is similar to Raymond Williams’ concept of cultural theory where there are always residual, dominant, and emergence that keeps a society staying in dynamic progress. The last socialist concept of Hugo’s socialism is to use literature as a medium to reconstruct the society. In his essay, Hugo writes, “Literature is the 139 R. Williams, “Cultural Theory”, 126 140 R. Williams, “Cultural Theory”,121 - 127 141 V. Hugo, Les Miserables, 19 142 V. Hugo, Les Miserables, 111, 156 143 V. Hugo, “Parenthesis”, 1207. 144 V. Hugo, “Parenthesis”, 1208 41 sec retion of civilization. Do you doubt it? Open the statistic you come across” 145 . This statement shows that Hugo confidently argues about literature as a medium to develop people consciousness. It is similar to the idea of literature as an active reflection that Eagleton proposes 146 . It has been argued that literature reflects the society and affects it at the same time. The production of literary work always involves a creative writing process. The creative writing of a literary work is a process in producing a literary work that includes how the author copies the reality such as the character or the plot and setting, then separates the copy from reality by modifying their fantasy and imagination 147 . The creative writing process creates a concept of literature that Eagleton calls an active reflection of the society 148 . Similar to the idea of active reflection, Raymond Williams also explains that literature, as part of superstructure, is indeed a projection of the society that also works as medium to affect the social condition 149 . According to Raymond Williams, the concept of literature as an active reflection is an implication of the superstructure - base relation 150 . Williams explains that when literature is seen as a reflection, the society, in this case base, is an object that is used by an author to be a model to write a literary text 151 . However, an author lives within the base with particular false consciousness and intention that distorts the reflection in literature. It challenges the idea of reflection and 145 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 927 146 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 6 147 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 7 148 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 7 149 R. Williams. 1977. Marxism and Literature.p.95 - 96 150 R. Williams. “Cultural Theory”, 95 151 R. Williams. “Cultural Theory”, 96 - 97 42 changes into the idea of mediation 152 . When it comes into mediation it reflects the relation between literature and the society, base and superstructure. Superstructure does not reflect base directly, yet the reflection of base is distorted and disguised in superstructure 153 . As a mediation, literature actively presents reality in the author’s ideological way. Or in other words, Eagleton explains that there is a creative process when an author writing any literary text 154 . Eagleton indeed agrees with Williams that literature does not simply reflect a society. A reflection is a passive picture that is produced by a mirror. Yet, literature is not a “symmetrical one-to-one relation to the object society” 155 . Eagleton states that literature is a deflection of reality that is distorted by particular laws and it actively affects the society by giving a picture of the real reality 156 . Eagleton associates literature as an active reflection. Literature as an active reflection implies that literature is a reflection of base with particular deflection due to the author creative writing process 157 . The deflection makes literature does not just have a role as a mirror to reflect the society as an object, but it projects the society into different portrayal due to the author’s ideology. This situation puts literature and society in superstructure - base relationship in which literature and society affects one to another 158 . In fact, Hugo is aware of the relation between literature and society. He explains in “The Mind and Masses” that literature is the secretion of the 152 R. Williams. “Cultural Theory”, 98 153 R. Williams. “Cultural Theory”, 98 - 99 154 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 23 - 25 155 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 24 156 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 23 157 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 19 158 T. Eagleton. Marxism and Literary Criticism, 24 43 civilization 159 . He stresses that socialism should see literature as not just a copy of reality, but a mediation to form social order and to change social condition 160 . It is also reflected in Les Miserables. Hugo carefully put himself as the center of the novel so he is able to retell the story of each character in the novel in his intention. He also carefully develops the diction of the novel. According to Hugo, he writes Les Miserables in particular language which he calls the language of poverty 161 . Hugo sees literature as a distortion of reality in ideological way which would create a projection of a reality to be a real reality or the reality within particular ideological dialogue. Therefore, he writes Les Miserables in particular dialectical language to extend the scope of social observation and to serve the needs of the society 162 . The concept about the relation between literature and society, superstructure and base confirms Hugo’s idea of socialist belief that he has proclaimed. To sum up, Hugo’s concept of socialism consists of three important points about the ideology. First, Hugo suggests that society is a never-ending progress. The society must stay in progress and go against the status quo that the dominant maintains to perpetuate their power. Second, moral and faith to God should become the reason of social changes. Hugo stresses that human and its cultural formation and institution that mislead society, not God. The cultural formation and institution, such as monastery, also contribute to create false consciousness and, they use God as an allusion in the society. Third, literature is the secretion of the 159 V. Hugo, “The Mind and the Masses”, 927 160 V. Hug o, “The Mind and the Masses”, 930 161 V. Hugo, “Argot”, 1215 162 V. Hugo, “Argot”, 1216 44 society that actively affect the society. Thus, he uses literature as a “medium” to point out false consciousness in the society.

2. Psychoanalytic-Marxism