Definition of Writing The Writing Process

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents the review of related literature underpinning the study. It starts with the definition of writing, the process of writing, aspects of writing, ESLEFL writing, academic writing, problems in ESLEFL writing, the IELTS test, writing of IELTS academic module, and writing task 1 of IELTS academic module.

2.1 Definition of Writing

Writing is defined as a “reflective activity that requires enough time to think of the specific topic and to analyze and classify any background knowledge Chakraverty Gautum, 2000, cited in Ahmed, 2010. Therefore, writers need a suitable language to structure these ideas in the form of a coherent discourse.” Writing is seen as “a complex activity reflecting the writers’ communicative skills which is difficult to develop and learn, especially in EFL context” Shokrpour Fallahzadeh, 2007. L1 writing is perceived as being composed of three domains: a cognitive psychological perspective, a socio-cultural perspective and a linguistic perspective Myhill, 2009, cited in Ahmed, 2010. In addition, Ahmed 2010 perceives EFL writing as a multi-dimensional process composed of a cognitive activity affected by a number of linguistic and contextual factors: EFL linguistic proficiency, instructional, psychological, socio- cultural, and socio-political issues. 11 ANI SUSANA, 2012 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu Ahmed’s definition of EFL writing stated above indeed represents an ideal picture. If the factors stated are well-addressed, this will make writing an unforgettable experience. However, communication in written language is difficult for students, even for teachers Alwasilah, 2007. In sum, writing is a skill demanding one’s ability to combine hisher previous knowledge and specific topic using different perspectives to create a coherent discourse. It is indeed not an easy process but it can be learned through a lot of practice.

2.2 The Writing Process

Alwasilah 2005:6 proposes complete stages of writing process. He says that in writing, students pass the prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing stages. The processes should be more appreciated than the product because to go through these processes spend much more times, energy, and thinking than to evaluate the product. Similarly, Harmer 2007: 4-5 suggests that the process of writing has four main elements: planning, drafting, editing reflecting and revising, and final version. When planning, writers have to think about three main issues. In the first place they have to consider the purpose of their writing since this will influence amongst other things not only the type of text they wish to produce but also the language they use, and the information they choose to include. Secondly, experienced writers think of the audience they are writing for, since this will influence not only the shape of the writing how it is laid out, how the paragraphs 12 ANI SUSANA, 2012 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu are structured, etc. but also the choice of language – whether, for example, it is formal or informal in tone. Thirdly, writers have to consider the content structure of the writing – that is, how best to sequence the facts, ideas, or arguments which they have decide to include. Harmer says that drafting is writing the first version. This first ‘go’ at a text is often done on the assumption that it will be amended later. As the writing process proceeds into editing, a number of drafts may be produced on the way to the final version. Editing is about reading through what have been written. Perhaps the order of the information is not clear. Perhaps the way something is written is ambiguous or confusing. Reflecting and revising are often helped by other readers or editors who comment and make suggestions. Another reader’s reaction to a piece of writing will help the author to make appropriate revisions. Once writers have edited their draft, making the changes they consider to be necessary, they produce their final version. This may look considerably different from both the original plan and the first draft because things have changed in the editing process, but the written text is now ready to send to its intended audience. However, Harmer 2004: 5-6 defines that this process is not entirely satisfactory because of two reasons. First, it tells us little about how much weight is given to each stage, but, more importantly, by suggesting that the process of writing is linear it misrepresents the way in which the majority of writers produce written text. The process of writing is not linear, as indicated above, but rather recursive – it can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. This means that 13 ANI SUSANA, 2012 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu writers plan, draft, and edit but then often re-plan, re-draft, and re-edit. Even when they get to what they think is their final draft they may find themselves changing their mind and re-planning, drafting, or editing. It is not much different from what Chaffee defines 2002: 18-21. He states that despite the many different writing forms and contexts, the basic elements of the writing process remain constant: generating ideas, defining a focus main idea or thesis, drafting, organizing ideas into various thinking patterns, revising, editing, and proofreading. Then, collaborating, in which all these activities can be woven through. These elements of writing process occur within the writing situation as a result of creative and critical thinking. In terms of the academic writing process, Bailey 2006: 39-61 suggests that there are six important stages: planning essays, organizing paragraphs, organizing the main body, introductions, conclusions, and rewriting and proof-reading. He elaborates that planning gives essays coherent structure and, most importantly, helps to ensure that they answer the question set. Although all essays need planning, they are written in two different situations: as coursework, and in exams. Clearly, under the time pressure of an exam, planning is more hurried, but can also be more critical. Organizing paragraphs to be well-organized ones help readers understand the arguments. On the other hand, it helps writers to structure their ideas effectively. In the case of longer assignments it is often better to write the main body before the introduction. With shorter essays, for example in exams such as 14 ANI SUSANA, 2012 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu Writing Task 1 of IELTS Academic Module, this is impractical, and the introduction has to be written first. Bailey adds that an introduction is crucial, not just for what it says about the topic, but for what it tells the readers about the writer’s style and approach. Unless we can introduce the subject clearly, the reader may not wish to continue. Conclusion usually links with the starting points, i.e. the title. If the title is asking a question, the answer should be contained in the conclusion. The reader may look at the conclusion first to get a summary of the main arguments or points. It may be tempting to hand in our work immediately after conclusion has been finished. However, it is almost certain that it can be improved by being revised. With longer assignments, it may be worth asking a classmate to read our work and make criticism. Proof-reading is a vital final step, which can prevent confusion or misunderstanding due to simple errors. Computer programs that check spelling will not detect other common types of mistakes. Brown 2007:348 defines that process writing approaches tend to be framed in three of writing: prewriting, drafting, and revising. It is explained that the prewriting stage encourages the generation or ideas, which can happen in numerous ways: reading a passage extensively, skimming or scanning a passage, conducting some outside research, brainstorming, listing, clustering, discussing a topic or question, instructor-initiated questions and probes, and free writing. The drafting and revising stages is the core of process writing. In the traditional approaches to writing instruction, students are either given time in-class compositions to write from start to finish within a class hour, or they are given a 15 ANI SUSANA, 2012 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu homework writing assignment. The first option gives no opportunity for systematic drafting, and the second assumes that if students did not any drafting at all, they would simply have to learn the tricks of the writing on their own. In a process approach, drafting is viewed as an important and complex set of strategies, the mastery of which takes time, patience, and trained instruction. There are a number of strategies and skills applied to the revising process in writing Brown, 2007:348: getting started by adapting the free writing technique; optimal monitoring of one’s writing without premature editing and diverted attention to wording, grammar, etc.; peer-reviewing for content by accepting or using classmate’s comments; using the instructor’s feedback; editing for grammatical errors; “Read aloud” technique, it can be done in small groups or pairs, students read their almost-final drafts to each other for a final check on errors, flow of ideas, etc., and proof-reading. Meanwhile, Shields 2010: 14-15 mentions the four stages of writing: pre- writing, drafting, revising and editing. Pre-writing involves the preparation for writing, such as reading the assignment carefully, analysing it, drawing up a rough plan, sourcing the necessary datainformation, reading widely and reading in- depth, taking and making notes, discussing ideas and information with others, refining the plan, and so on. Drafting are related with arranging ideas into some kind of structure to give the writing a shape, writing paragraphs to connect ideas, and thinking about form and function, namely the language and style that will be used. Revising is about re-drafting or re-writing, and even re-planning. This is rather more focused than writing the first draft. Editing is the final, very important 16 ANI SUSANA, 2012 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu step before the assignment is handed in. Here, checking all conventions, rules, and instructions; checking spelling, punctuation, grammar and reference; and considering the presentation or layout of the writing need to be done. However, evidence of editing is often missing in students assignments that have been put together in haste because of the alloted time. Related to the process of writing, in terms of writing Task 1 of IELTS Academic Module, McCarter 2006: 22-31 proposes several ‘golden rules’ that can be applied by candidates when they are completing the task. Since it is a task limited by minimum length and time, test takers should be effectively manage their time. The first thing to do is skimming the instructions and studying the diagram. General statement about the data should be used to help interpret the data. The 20 minutes recommended is spent on doing: analyzing and planning for about 2-3 minutes, writing in 14-15 minutes, and checking in 2-3 minutes. However, based on the researcher’s experience, it will be better to add 1-2 minute for checking our writing. In checking or editing stage, both the values and numbers on the vertical and horizontal axes of a bar graph or line graph or pie slices of a pie chart should be checked carefully. Besides, we should check the length of words; if we write less, it will affect our score. We also should comparing general trends, differences, etc. and support this with information from the diagram. If more than one graph or chart or mixtures 17 ANI SUSANA, 2012 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | repository.upi.edu are presented, the information should be linked, but we have to avoid focusing too closely on the details. Lastly, we have to make sure that we write in paragraphs: an introduction, one or two paragraphs from the body of the text, and a brief conclusion. If one of these three parts is missing, the description or summary is flawed.

2.3 The Aspects of Writing