Vocabulary coverage of a Junior High School textbook

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VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Magister Humaniora Degree
in English Language Studies

by

Leonie Irina Mutiara

Student Number: 126332033

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
GRADUATE PROGRAM
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2014

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A Thesis on

VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

by

Leonie Irina Mutiara

Student Number: 126332033

Approved by,

F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D.

27th January 2014

Sponsor

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A Thesis on
VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

by
Leonie Irina Mutiara
Student Number: 126332033
Defended before the Board of Examiners
and Declared Acceptable

Board of Examiners
Chairperson

: Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M.A.

__________________

Secretary

: F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D.

__________________

Member

: Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.

__________________

Member

: Dr. J. Bismoko

__________________

Yogyakarta, 7th February 2014

The Graduate Program Director
Sanata Dharma University

Prof. Dr. A. Supratiknya

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For Everyone who asks and keeps on asking receives;
and he who seeks and keeps on seeking finds;
and to him who knocks and keeps on knocking,

the door shall be opened.
Luke 11: 10

This thesis is a symbol of my love and dedication to
God, my savior,
my beloved parents and sisters,
my grandma and late grandpa,
my lovely fiance,
myself

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated,
are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands
the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else s
ideas, phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.

Yogyakarta, 27th January 2014
The Writer

Leonie Irina Mutiara
126332033

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ABSTRACT
Mutiara, Leonie Irina. 2014. Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School
Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta.
This research was aimed to investigate the vocabulary coverage and word
recycling in a Junior High School (JHS) textbook. With two research questions,
which are: (1) What is the vocabulary coverage of Junior High School textbooks?;
and (2) How are the words recycled?, this research tried to reach the subsequent
objectives: (1) to find out the number of types, tokens, and word families in JHS
textbook and its implication and (2) to explain how the words are recycled and in
what context they are recycled and its implication.
The research method was corpus-based research. The corpus were
obtained from a JHS textbook entitled When English Rings the Bell by
converting the pdf file of the textbook to txt file. The textbook was published by
the Ministry of Education and Culture in connection with Curriculum 2013.
Concordances were used as intruments for data analysis. They were RANGE and
FREQUENCY. Then, the data analysis results were interpreted to answer the
research questions.
The findings suggest that in total, there are 6,213 tokens, 1,049 types, and
637 word families in the textbook. They are divided into four categories: the first

and second 1,000 most English frequent words from A General Service List of
English Words (GSL_1 and GSL_2), the Academic Word List (AWL), and not in
the three lists (not in the list). Of the total number, 85.69% tokens, 61.20% types,
and 443 word families are listed in GSL_1; 6.52% tokens, 16.30% types, and 147
word families are listed in GSL_2; 1.79% tokens, 4.58% types, and 47 word
families are listed in AWL; 6.00% tokens, 17.92% types, and not available
number of word family are listed in not in the list. Then the word families are
counted with the number of occurence basis. Of the 637 word families, 36.89% is
recycled only once, 28.89% is recycled 2-4 times, 16.48% is recycled 5-9 times,
and 17.74% is recycled 10 times or more throughout the textbook.
The research concludes that the textbook is appropriate for students in the
beginning level of learning English as most of the types, tokens, and families are
listed in the first 2,000 frequent English words list. In addition, the number of
types are also appropriate with the ideal number for beginners. On average, the
word family is repeated ten times as tokens spreaded throughout the textbook. It
also contains 1,049 types, appropriate number of tokens for beginners. The
textbook also contains a lot of chunks, which provide opportunities to learn words
in contexts with their functional usage. On the other side, it does not provide
opportunities for incidental learning.

Keyword: vocabulary coverage, Junior High School textbook, word recycling

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ABSTRAK
Mutiara, Leonie Irina. 2014. Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School
Textbook. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta.
Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk menginvestigasi cakupan kosakata dan
penggunaan ulang kata di buku pegangan Sekolah Menangah Pertama (SMP).
Ada dua pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini: (1) Bagaimana cakupan kosakata di
buku pegangan SMP? (2) Bagaimana kata digunakan ulang? Penelitian ini
mencakup tiga objektif: (1) untuk menemukan jumlah token, type, dan word
family di buku SMP dan implikasinya dan (2) untuk menjelaskan bagaimana kata

digunakan ulang dan di konteks apa dan implikasinya.
Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian berbasis korpus. Korpus didapatkan
dari sebuah buku pegangan di SMP berjudul When English Rings the Bell dengan
cara mengubah bentuk arsip pdf menjadi arsip txt. Buku tersebut diterbitkan oleh
Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan sehubungan dengan Kurikulum 2013.
Dua buah program bernama RANGE dan FREQUENCY digunakan sebagai
instrumen analisis data. Kemudian hasil analisis data diinterpretasi untuk
menemukan jawaban atas pertanyaan penelitian ini.
Penemuan menunjukkan bahwa secara total ada 6.213 token, 1.049 type,
dan 637 word family di buku tersebut. Dibagi menjadi empat kategori; 1.000 kata
bahasa Inggris pertama dan kedua yang sering dipakai dari A General Service List
of English Words (GSL_1 and GSL_2), Academic Word List (AWL), dan kata
yang tidak ditemukan di tiga kategori tersebut (not in the list). Dari jumlah
keseluruhan, 85,69% token, 61,20% type, dan 443 word family terdaftar di
GSL_1; 6,52% token, 16,30% type, dan 147 word family terdaftar di GSL_2;
1,79% token, 4,58% type, dan 47 word family terdaftar di AWL; 6,00% token,
17,92% type, dan word family yang tidak terdeteksi terdaftar di not in the list.
Kemudian word family dihitung berdasarkan jumlah pengulangan. Dari 637 word
family, 36,89% hanya digunakan sekali, 28,89% digunakan 2-4 kali, 16,48%
digunakan 5-9 kali, dan 17,74% digunakan 10 kali atau lebih di seluruh bagian
buku.
Dari penelitian ini, disimpulkan bahwa buku When English Rings the Bell
cocok digunakan untuk siswa di tingkat permulaan dalam belajar bahasa Inggris
karena sebagian besar type, token, dan word familynya terdaftar di daftar 2.000
kata bahasa Inggris pertama yang sering dipakai. Jumlah typenya pun juga sesuai
dengan angka ideal untuk pemula. Rata-rata, word familynya diulang sepuluh kali
sebagai token yang tersebar di seluruh bagian buku. Di buku tersebut juga terdapat
1.049 type, angka yang sesuai untuk pemula. Chunk dalam jumlah banyak juga
terdapat di buku tersebut untuk membantu murid mempelajari kosakata dalam
konteks dengan penggunaan fungsionalnya. Namun di sisi lain, buku tersebut
tidak memberi kesempatan untuk pembelajaran insidental.
Kata kunci: cakupan kosakata, buku pegangan Sekolah Menengah Pertama,
penggunaan ulang kata

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama

Nomor Mahasiswa

: Leonie Irina Mutiara

: 126332033

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan

kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,
mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan

data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau

media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya
maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya
sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 27 Januari 2014
Yang menyatakan,

Leonie Irina Mutiara

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the Almighty
God for always guiding and blessing me. He always gives everything I need. I
believe a bright future is prepared for me. Without Him, I will be nothing.
My sincere appreciation goes to my sponsor, Bapak F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D.,
for guiding, giving suggestions, and supporting me during my finishing this thesis.
I would like also to express my gratefulness to my lecturers in English Language
Studies for the inspiration they bring. I learn much from them.
Sincere love and gratitude is also expressed to my parents, Bapak Drs.
Wardani Sugiyanto, M.Pd. and Ibu Dra. Listyawati Sri Rahayuningsih, for their
love, pray, kindness, and support. I also thank my beloved sisters, Nada Dian
Sejati and Intan Ayu Nugraha, for making me laugh and always be cheerful. Not
to forget, my great thankfulness goes to my beloved fiance, Surya Adi Prasetya
Nugraha, for his love, time, and support. I also owe much to my friends, Maria
Asumpta Deny, Agatha Piscesia, Yustinus Calvin, and all KBI friends for their
willingness to share their knowledge and for happiness we share.
At last, my deepest appreciation also goes for Ibu Hardiati Agustine,
Bapak Arief Rahman, and all friends and teachers in SMK-SMAK Bogor and for
many other names whose names cannot be mentioned one by one. I thank them
for helping and supporting me in finishing my thesis. May God bless us all.

Leonie Irina Mutiara

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
TITLE PAGE....................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGES.
......... ii
DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGES
........... iii
DEDICATION PAGE.
... iv
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
................
... v
ABSTRACT.
... vi
ABSTRAK.
... vii
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI.
. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
... x
LIST OF TABLES
............. xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
........ xiv
LIST OF PICTURE
.. .. ..... xv
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
......................................
.
.... 1
B. Problem Limitation
........................................... . 6
C. Problem Formulation......................................................................................... 7
D. Research Objectives.................
......................................
. .. 7
E. Research Benefit.
.......................................
.. ....... 7
CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Theoretical Review
.................................................... 9
1. The Nature of Vocabulary
....................................... .. ... 9
a. The Concept of Vocabulary...................................................................... 9
b. Vocabulary Distribution.......................................................................... 11
1) Types and Tokens............................................................................... 11
2) Word Family....................................................................................... 12
c. Word Recycling....................................................................................... 13
d. Word Form............................................................................................... 15
e. Word Meaning......................................................................................... 16
f. Word Use................................................................................................. 16
2. The Importance of Vocabulary
....................................... .. .. . 17
a. Vocabulary as Input................................................................................. 17
b. Input and Acquisition.............................................................................. 18
3. Vocabulary Teaching and Learning. .......................................... ...... 20
a. Goals of Vocabulary Learning................................................................. 20
b. Principles of Learning and Teaching Vocabulary................................... 21
c. Vocabulary Acquisition........................................................................... 22
d. Learning Vocabulary............................................................................... 23
1) Low Frequency Words....................................................................... 24
a) Word Guessing from Context........................................................ 24
b) Deliberate Learning with Word Cards........................................... 25
c) Memorization with Word Parts...................................................... 25
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d) Dictionary Use............................................................................... 26
2) High Frequency Words....................................................................... 26
a) Meaning-focused Input.................................................................. 26
b) Meaning-focused Output............................................................... 27
c) Language-focused Learning........................................................... 28
d) Fluency Development.................................................................... 29
e. Vocabulary to Learn................................................................................. 30
4. Textbook
............................................................................. ..... 31
a. The Role of Textbook.............................................................................. 32
1) Textbooks as a Basis for Negotiation................................................. 33
2) Textbooks as a Flexible Framework................................................... 33
3) Textbooks and Teacher Development................................................ 34
4) Textbooks as a Workable Compromise.............................................. 34
b. Characteristics of Materials in Use in South East Asia........................... 35
1) Imported Coursebook......................................................................... 35
2) In-country Coursebook....................................................................... 36
3) Regional Coursebook......................................................................... 37
c. The Importance of Evaluating Textbooks............................................... 37
d. Criteria for a Good Textbook.................................................................. 38
5. Curriculum 2013.......................................................................................... 40
B. Theoretical Framework
.....................................
... 41
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY
A. Nature of Data
......................................
B. Research Design
.....................................
C. Data Analysis
......................................

...... ... ... 44
........
.. 46
............ .. 47

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
A. Vocabulary Coverage of When English Rings the Bell ................................ 50
1. Vocabulary Coverage of the Textbook. .. ............................................. 50
2. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I.
.. ........................................... 54
3. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II. .....................................
.. .... 56
4. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III. ..................................... ...... ... 57
5. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV. .....................................
.. ... 58
6. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V.
....................................... .... 59
7. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI.
.. ........................................ 60
8. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII.
....................................... .. 61
9. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII
....................................... . 62
10. Vocabulary Coverage of Classroom Language for Students.
. .. 63
11. Vocabulary Coverage of Glosarium.
.. ....................................... 64
B. Word Recycling in When English Rings the Bell ......................................... 67
1. Word Recycling in the Textbook.
. ............................................... 67
2. Word Recycling in Chapter I.
.......... ............................................ 74
3. Word Recycling in Chapter II.
.. ................................................... 75
4. Word Recycling in Chapter III.
....................................................... 76
5. Word Recycling in Chapter IV.
.. ................................................. 77

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6. Word Recycling in Chapter V.
........... .......................................... 79
7. Word Recycling in Chapter VI.
........... ........................................ 80
8. Word Recycling in Chapter VII.
............................................... ... 81
9. Word Recycling in Chapter VIII
.. ................................................ 83
10. Word Recycling in Classroom Language for Students. .........
. ... 84
11. Word Recycling in Glosarium.
.. ................................................. 85
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions
.....................................
B. Recommendations ..
.....................................
REFERENCES

...

...

.. 89
.. 91
...... 92

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A..................................................................................................... 98
APPENDIX B..................................................................................................... 124
APPENDIX C..................................................................................................... 131
APPENDIX D..................................................................................................... 147

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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
2.1 English Language Teaching Textbook Checklist.......................................... 38
2.2 Curriculum Structure for JHS........................................................................ 40
3.1 Data Analysis Process.................................................................................... 49
4.1 Vocabulary Coverage of When English Rings the Bell .............................. 51
4.2 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I................................................................ 54
4.3 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II.............................................................. 56
4.4 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III............................................................. 57
4.5 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV............................................................. 58
4.6 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V.............................................................. 59
4.7 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI............................................................. 60
4.8 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII........................................................... 61
4.9 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII.......................................................... 62
4.10 Vocabulary Coverage of Classroom Language for Students....................... 63
4.11 Vocabulary Coverage of Glosarium............................................................. 64
4.12 The 20 Most Frequent Word Types
in When English Rings the Bell ............................................................... 67
4.13 Repetition of Word Families in When English Rings the Bell .................. 73
4.14 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter I................................................... 74
4.15 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter I ................................................... 75
4.16 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter III................................................. 76
4.17 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter IV................................................. 77
4.18 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter V................................................... 79
4.19 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VI................................................. 80
4.20 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VII................................................ 81
4.21 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VIII.............................................. 83
4.22 Repetition of Word Families in Classroom Language for Students............. 84
4.23 Repetition of Word Families in Glosarium................................................... 85

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
4.1 The Percentage of Tokens from Each Word List in Each Part
.............. 65
4.2 The Percentage of Word Family from Each Category of Occurence............ 87

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LIST OF PICTURES
Picture
Page
3.1 Cover of When English Rings the Bell ....................................................... 45

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    an almost universal element of ELT (English
Language Teaching) . In other words, a textbook can be found almost in every
English language class in the world.
In Indonesia, almost every language program, course, or class is also
equipped by at least one textbook as the teaching learning material. For some rich
institutions, the textbook might not be the only learning resource. Other resources
like workbook, teacher s guide, and cassettes even supplement the use of

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DEFDGHHIJ KHL MHNE OPMDODQDOHPM RSELE TOPUPVE GEVHNEM U WLHGXEN, DSE DEUVSOPY
UPZ XEULPOPY LEMHQLVE NU[ PHD GE UM VHNWXEDE UM DSE LOVS HPEM SU\E. ]HRE\EL, DSE
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XEULPOPY ^PYXOMSJ _[LZ (C``a) UXMH MDUDEM DSUD U DEFDGHHI MEL\EM UM U VHPDEPD UPZ
DEUVSOPY/learning activities provider, which determines what happens in a
classroom. Byrd s statement confirms that a textbook really takes part in English
teaching and learning activities. This shows how important a textbook is in ELT.
Behind the importance of a textbook as a guideline, however, teachers
should be aware of their being unconsciously replaced by the textbook itself.
Instead of participating in deciding what to teach and how to teach next based on
today s students development, they just rely on the ready-made textbook and
believe the author knows what is good for them Hutchinson and Torres (1994:
315).
This research on vocabulary used in a textbook is conducted due to the
importance of vocabulary in language learning. Of course a textbook consists of a
lot of words and they are what the students learn and they also serve as a medium
to learn the other language skills and elements presented in it. Vocabulary is seen
as basic to communication. Krashen (1987) in Lewis (2008: iii) states that when
students travel, they do not carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries . And
that is what we experience in our daily life. When we travel to foreign country, we
rarely bring grammar books. Instead, to make our communication easier with the
people there, what we need is dictionary, which helps us find the appropriate

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cdefg hd ijdkf lkgmnfoeghinfknp. qorkg kg joes kltdehinh kn udllmnkuihkdn
vouimgo a lexical mistake often causes misunderstandings, while a grammar
mistake rarely does , as suggested by Sinclair (1996) as cited in Lewis (2008:16)
and Wilkins as cited in Lewis (2008:16) with his well-known statement, without
grammar little can be conveyed; without lexis nothing can be conveyed ,
emphasizing that vocabulary is a very crucial input in language learning. This is
supported by what Gass and Selinker (2001: 449) and Gass (1988) say that
vocabulary or lexicon may be the most crucial language component for learners as
the errors may interfere with communication.
In Indonesia, it is very surprising that research by Nurweni and Read
(1999) reveals that on average, students in Indonesia had vocabulary knowledge
of only 1226 English words (referring to type), falling far short from the number
of 3000-5000 word range where it is the threshold level needed for independent
reading of unsimplified texts. In terms of breadth (quantity) and depth (quality) of
vocabulary knowledge, only a small number of students were close to the
threshold level. It is something teachers should note in English education in
Indonesia, considering that vocabulary is very important language learning input
and element.
This research concerns with the vocabulary coverage of a Junior High
School (JHS) textbook which is now used in schools that have implemented
Curriculum 2013. It also deals with the word recycling in the textbook. The same
research done by Alberding (2006) highlights the use of a commercially produced
textbook required to teachers in many English courses in Japanese universities.

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|n this part} the literature review of this research is explained to clarify
concepts~ € main issues of this part are the nature of vocabulary} the importance
of vocabulary} teaching and learning vocabulary} textbook} and curriculum

‚ƒ„…~

†‡ch part is then divided into several smaller parts~
ˆ‰ Š‹ŒŽŒŠˆ‘ ŽŒ’Œ“
€”s

part covers the discussion about the nature of vocabulary} the

importance of vocabulary} teaching and learning vocabulary} textbook} and
curriculum ‚ƒ„…•

„~ € –ature of —ocabulary
|n

this part} the concept of vocabulary} vocabulary distribution} word

recycling} ˜ord form} ˜ord meaning} ‡nd word use are clarified~
a~ € ™oncept of —ocabulary

†šryone

must know what a word is~

›owever}

many might confuse

what vocabulary is exactly and how word and vocabulary differ~

œccording to

–unan „ooož} vocabulary is target language words presented in a list~ |t means
that vocabulary consists of a number of words~
vocabulary differ~

–ow it is clear how word and

Ÿne word can stand alone as a word} but vocabulary should

consist of more than one word~

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¢nowing a word£ according to ¤arter ¥ ¦¦§¨ ©ª£ is «¬­®¯¬° ±²³ ´¯µµ³¶³¬±
·³¸¬¯¬°¹ º¸¶¶¯³´ »¼ ¸ ¹¯¬°½³ µ­¶·

. Thus, he clarifies that it is more accurate to

define a word as a minimum meaningful unit of language. Words can be in
different form, but it does not mean that they are counted as different words.
The concept of lexeme may help us in understanding the concept of word
more clearly. Carter defines lexeme as the abstract unit underlying variants (e.g.

¾¿ÀÁ ¾¿ÃÀ, ¾¿Äþ ÅÀÃÆ) related to

word . Thus, GO is the lexeme of the word-

forms goes , gone , going , and went . Lexeme is the basic, contrasting units
of vocabulary in a language . If we search for a meaning in dictionary, we are
looking for lexeme rather than words. Then we would find the word-forms under
the lexeme. The terms lexeme and word-forms are important theoretical concepts
used when theoretical distinctions are needed. If not, we can just use the terms
lexical items, vocabulary items, or items to refer to words.
The discussion above then leads to a concept of lexical words. It can also
be called

full words

adjectives (ÁËÇÌÆ,

or

ÍÄÉľÀÃÆ),

content words . It includes nouns (ÆÇÈÉÀ,
verbs (ÅÇÉÎ,

¾¿),

ÊÇÃ),

and adverbs (ÁÆÀÇÍÄÉÏ, quickly),

bringing high information content. Lexical words are syntactically structured by
grammatical words. Grammatical words include pronouns (you, she), articles (a,
the), auxiliary verbs (can, should), prepositions (in, among), and conjunctions
(but, and). According to Carter, they are also called functional word or empty
words . In the counting process of tokens, types, and word families in this
research, content words and function words are considered the same, for example

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ÐÑ as a content word and ÐÑ as a functional word. However, they are discussed
and treated as having a different category in the discussion part.

b. Vocabulary Distribution
This research is about vocabulary coverage and its recycling, which deals
with frequency. In the topic of coverage, types, tokens, and word families are the
important terms. Thus, it is important to define what they are.
1) Types and Tokens
If we intend to count how long a textbook is, we deal with token (Nation
and Meara, 2002), or can be called as running words (Nation 2001). Even
though the word, for example

ÒÓÔÕÑÔÖ has occurred and been counted, it should

still be counted every time it occurs again. The same words are counted as a new
word each time it occurs. If we are counting types, the same words are only
counted once although it occurs more than once. Any occurrence of the same
word is not counted as a new word, but as another occurrence of the same type
(Nation, 1983: 10). The sentence

×ØÙ ÚÙÐ ØÑÛÜÙ ÝÙÒÑÞßÜ ÕÑ ÕØÙ ßàÚÒ áàÕØ ÚÙÐ ÜØàÚÕ

contains ten tokens and eight types. After the first occurrence, the words

ÕØÙ and

ÚÙÐ are not counted again.
Based on the definition above, the same words with different meaning
are counted as one type. Due to the reason of counting, which is related to
vocabulary learning, words like â ll, I m, and let s are counted as having two types
and two tokens. Words like student s and family s (possession) are also counted
as having two types and two tokens. Numbers and proper nouns are also excluded.

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The analysis and interpretation is only limited to English words only in the
material presentation of the book.

2) Word Family
Based on the explanation by Bauer and Nation (1993), the concept of
word family is crucial for systematic approach in vocabulary teaching and
deciding the vocabulary load of texts which will be used. To know what is
included in a word family, one way is to count lemmas. A lemma is a set of
related words which have the stem form and inflected forms that come from the
same part of speech (Nation and Meara, 2002). Thus,

ãäå ãäæçå èæéê, ãäëéã are

under the same lemma because their stems are the same, and they are all verbs.
However, word family does not only consist of a lemma. Word family also
includes words with derivational affixes such as

éäé- and suffixes such as -ness

whose stem are the same. Words under the same word family do not have to be in
the same part of speech. Once the stem of words is known, learners will require
less effort to recognize other words under the same word family. As they are more
proficient, they tend to acquire more number of words in their word families
(Bauer and Nation, 1993).
Furthermore, Nation and Meara (2002) also argue that there are some
groups of words which are usually used together such as single words. Some of
them are not analyzed into parts, but learned and used as complete units. Such
words are called multi-word units (MWUs). One criteria of MWU is that no word
in the unit can be substituted by any other word. According to Schmitt (2000a:

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400), a single meaning is given to an MWU, such as in phrasal verbs (ìíîï

ðñ),

compounds (òóïïze-dry), and idioms (burn the midnight oil) . However, in this
research, MWU is counted as separate words.
On the other hand, Schmitt continues that the coverage of collocation
(words which tend to occur together) is far beyond the level of MWUs. In fact,
longer sequences of words to occur together are common and frequently found
and some of them are treated as units, like have you ever heard the one about___?
The term which is commonly used to refer to this type of sequence is lexical
chunk or lexical phrases. Lexical chunk is very common for its relation to
functional language use. For example, the above lexical chunk is usually used to
introduce a joke. In this research, lexical chunk is regarded as words occuring
together which has functional language use. However, it is counted as separate
words.

c. Word Recycling
In this research, word recycling refers to how many times a word occurs
in a textbook and in what context it occurs. In another word, we can call it as
frequency. According to Nation (1983), most frequency count is based on a
sample of text with at least one million words.
Frequency itself has its own purpose. It provides a rational basis for
learners vocabulary learning, like what is stated by Nation and Waring (1997).
Frequency information provides a rational basis for making sure
that learners get the best return for their vocabulary learning
effort by ensuring that words studied will be met often. (p. 17)

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Thus, it is very important to know the frequent words in a textbook before
teachers use a certain textbook and ensure that the vocabulary learned is useful for
the learners.
Other experts also note the role of frequency in vocabulary learning.
According to Coady and Nation (1988), word frequency in a textbook has some
effects on some learners. Ten times in minimum is enough to have an effect on
them. There is no exact number of frequency which contributes to vocabulary
acquisition, but the more the better in subsequent level (Nation and Wang, 1999).
However, Pienemann and Johnston s model, as stated in Gass and Mackey (2002),
suggests that regardless the frequency of input one receives, the acquisition of
communicative value will hardly depend on particular developmental order.
Otherwise, it will be kept and made available when one is ready for processing
and use (Gass, 1997). It means that high frequency input does not necessarily
bring effects on one s acquisition of the input.
Learners can also learn words from the context in which they occur. It
provides clues for learners to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words. However,
the result of learning words from context is not as great as it is expected. Although
it tends to be low, if hundreds or perhaps thousands of unfamiliar words are met,
it could result in learning a number of words. And frequent words should have
effect on learners (Coady and Nation, 1988). Thus, presenting the same words
frequently in some contexts will provide opportunities for learners to acquire
vocabulary.

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According to Thomas, Pfister, and Peterson (2004) words with high
frequency usually includes functional/structural words like

ôõ, ö÷, ÷ø,

and

ø÷ù.

High-frequency words tend not to contain conceptual validity for an individual
word or for the text where the words occur. Words with medium frequency are
those with lesser generality but frequently repeated (Herdan 1964 as in Thomas úö

ûü 2004). In this medium-frequency group, some commonly used content words
may be found. He also states that words with low frequency tend to contain higher
informational value than words with higher frequency. The size of group of word
types which occur only once is called hapax legomena . It indicates word
learning and vocabulary richness of a text (Holmes, 1994).

d. Word Form
According to Nation (2006c), words which are easy to pronounce tend to
be easier to be held in working memory and the chance of entering long-term
memory is bigger. That is why words introduced early in an English course needs
to be easily pronounced. Words with unfamiliar sounds can also be learned by
listening practice and guided pronunciation practice. English spelling is irregular,
but there are some patterns and rules which can help to learn it. It can be helped if
learners learn the most common affixes and their meanings and also simple
explanation of its etymology.
Ehri

úö ûü.

(2001) states that awareness that words are composed by

separable sounds, known as phonemic awareness, can affect one s learning to read
English. Similarly, learning