Vocabulary coverage of a Junior High School textbook.

vi ABSTRACT

Mutiara, Leonie Irina. 2014. Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta.

This research was aimed to investigate the vocabulary coverage and word recycling in a Junior High School (JHS) textbook. With two research questions, which are: (1) What is the vocabulary coverage of Junior High School textbooks?; and (2) How are the words recycled?, this research tried to reach the subsequent objectives: (1) to find out the number of types, tokens, and word families in JHS textbook and its implication and (2) to explain how the words are recycled and in what context they are recycled and its implication.

The research method was corpus-based research. The corpus were obtained from a JHS textbook entitled ‘When English Rings the Bell’ by converting the pdf file of the textbook to txt file. The textbook was published by the Ministry of Education and Culture in connection with Curriculum 2013. Concordances were used as intruments for data analysis. They were RANGE and FREQUENCY. Then, the data analysis results were interpreted to answer the research questions.

The findings suggest that in total, there are 6,213 tokens, 1,049 types, and 637 word families in the textbook. They are divided into four categories: the first and second 1,000 most English frequent words from A General Service List of English Words (GSL_1 and GSL_2), the Academic Word List (AWL), and not in the three lists (not in the list). Of the total number, 85.69% tokens, 61.20% types, and 443 word families are listed in GSL_1; 6.52% tokens, 16.30% types, and 147 word families are listed in GSL_2; 1.79% tokens, 4.58% types, and 47 word families are listed in AWL; 6.00% tokens, 17.92% types, and not available number of word family are listed in not in the list. Then the word families are counted with the number of occurence basis. Of the 637 word families, 36.89% is recycled only once, 28.89% is recycled 2-4 times, 16.48% is recycled 5-9 times, and 17.74% is recycled 10 times or more throughout the textbook.

The research concludes that the textbook is appropriate for students in the beginning level of learning English as most of the types, tokens, and families are listed in the first 2,000 frequent English words list. In addition, the number of types are also appropriate with the ideal number for beginners. On average, the word family is repeated ten times as tokens spreaded throughout the textbook. It also contains 1,049 types, appropriate number of tokens for beginners. The textbook also contains a lot of chunks, which provide opportunities to learn words in contexts with their functional usage. On the other side, it does not provide opportunities for incidental learning.

vii ABSTRAK

Mutiara, Leonie Irina. 2014. Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta.

Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk menginvestigasi cakupan kosakata dan penggunaan ulang kata di buku pegangan Sekolah Menangah Pertama (SMP). Ada dua pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini: (1) Bagaimana cakupan kosakata di buku pegangan SMP? (2) Bagaimana kata digunakan ulang? Penelitian ini mencakup tiga objektif: (1) untuk menemukan jumlah token, type, dan word family di buku SMP dan implikasinya dan (2) untuk menjelaskan bagaimana kata digunakan ulang dan di konteks apa dan implikasinya.

Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian berbasis korpus. Korpus didapatkan dari sebuah buku pegangan di SMP berjudul When English Rings the Bell dengan cara mengubah bentuk arsip pdf menjadi arsip txt. Buku tersebut diterbitkan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan sehubungan dengan Kurikulum 2013. Dua buah program bernama RANGE dan FREQUENCY digunakan sebagai instrumen analisis data. Kemudian hasil analisis data diinterpretasi untuk menemukan jawaban atas pertanyaan penelitian ini.

Penemuan menunjukkan bahwa secara total ada 6.213 token, 1.049 type, dan 637 word family di buku tersebut. Dibagi menjadi empat kategori; 1.000 kata bahasa Inggris pertama dan kedua yang sering dipakai dari A General Service List of English Words (GSL_1 and GSL_2), Academic Word List (AWL), dan kata yang tidak ditemukan di tiga kategori tersebut (not in the list). Dari jumlah keseluruhan, 85,69% token, 61,20% type, dan 443 word family terdaftar di GSL_1; 6,52% token, 16,30% type, dan 147 word family terdaftar di GSL_2; 1,79% token, 4,58% type, dan 47 word family terdaftar di AWL; 6,00% token, 17,92% type, dan word family yang tidak terdeteksi terdaftar di not in the list. Kemudian word family dihitung berdasarkan jumlah pengulangan. Dari 637 word family, 36,89% hanya digunakan sekali, 28,89% digunakan 2-4 kali, 16,48% digunakan 5-9 kali, dan 17,74% digunakan 10 kali atau lebih di seluruh bagian buku.

Dari penelitian ini, disimpulkan bahwa buku When English Rings the Bell cocok digunakan untuk siswa di tingkat permulaan dalam belajar bahasa Inggris karena sebagian besar type, token, dan word familynya terdaftar di daftar 2.000 kata bahasa Inggris pertama yang sering dipakai. Jumlah typenya pun juga sesuai dengan angka ideal untuk pemula. Rata-rata, word familynya diulang sepuluh kali sebagai token yang tersebar di seluruh bagian buku. Di buku tersebut juga terdapat 1.049 type, angka yang sesuai untuk pemula. Chunk dalam jumlah banyak juga terdapat di buku tersebut untuk membantu murid mempelajari kosakata dalam konteks dengan penggunaan fungsionalnya. Namun di sisi lain, buku tersebut tidak memberi kesempatan untuk pembelajaran insidental.

Kata kunci: cakupan kosakata, buku pegangan Sekolah Menengah Pertama, penggunaan ulang kata

i

VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain theMagister HumanioraDegree

in English Language Studies

by

Leonie Irina Mutiara Student Number: 126332033

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES GRADUATE PROGRAM SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2014

ii A Thesis on

VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

by

Leonie Irina Mutiara Student Number: 126332033

Approved by,

F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D. 27thJanuary 2014

iii A Thesis on

VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

by

Leonie Irina Mutiara Student Number: 126332033

Defended before the Board of Examiners and Declared Acceptable

Board of Examiners

Chairperson : Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. __________________

Secretary : F. X. Mukarto, Ph.D. __________________

Member : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. __________________

Member : Dr. J. Bismoko __________________

Yogyakarta, 7thFebruary 2014 The Graduate Program Director Sanata Dharma University

iv

For Everyone who asks and keeps on asking receives;

and he who seeks and keeps on seeking finds;

and to him who knocks and keeps on knocking,

the door shall be opened.

Luke 11: 10

This thesis is a symbol of my love and dedication to

God, my savior,

my beloved parents and sisters,

my grandma and late grandpa,

my lovely fiance,

myself

v

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s ideas, phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.

Yogyakarta, 27thJanuary 2014 The Writer

Leonie Irina Mutiara 126332033

vi ABSTRACT

Mutiara, Leonie Irina. 2014. Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School Textbook.Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta.

This research was aimed to investigate the vocabulary coverage and word recycling in a Junior High School (JHS) textbook. With two research questions, which are: (1) What is the vocabulary coverage of Junior High School textbooks?; and (2) How are the words recycled?, this research tried to reach the subsequent objectives: (1) to find out the number of types, tokens, and word families in JHS textbook and its implication and (2) to explain how the words are recycled and in what context they are recycled and its implication.

The research method was corpus-based research. The corpus were obtained from a JHS textbook entitled ‘When English Rings the Bell’ by converting the pdf file of the textbook to txt file. The textbook was published by the Ministry of Education and Culture in connection with Curriculum 2013. Concordances were used as intruments for data analysis. They were RANGE and FREQUENCY. Then, the data analysis results were interpreted to answer the research questions.

The findings suggest that in total, there are 6,213 tokens, 1,049 types, and 637 word families in the textbook. They are divided into four categories: the first and second 1,000 most English frequent words from A General Service List of English Words (GSL_1 and GSL_2), the Academic Word List (AWL), and not in the three lists (not in the list). Of the total number, 85.69% tokens, 61.20% types, and 443 word families are listed in GSL_1; 6.52% tokens, 16.30% types, and 147 word families are listed in GSL_2; 1.79% tokens, 4.58% types, and 47 word families are listed in AWL; 6.00% tokens, 17.92% types, and not available number of word family are listed in not in the list. Then the word families are counted with the number of occurence basis. Of the 637 word families, 36.89% is recycled only once, 28.89% is recycled 2-4 times, 16.48% is recycled 5-9 times, and 17.74% is recycled 10 times or more throughout the textbook.

The research concludes that the textbook is appropriate for students in the beginning level of learning English as most of the types, tokens, and families are listed in the first 2,000 frequent English words list. In addition, the number of types are also appropriate with the ideal number for beginners. On average, the word family is repeated ten times as tokens spreaded throughout the textbook. It also contains 1,049 types, appropriate number of tokens for beginners. The textbook also contains a lot of chunks, which provide opportunities to learn words in contexts with their functional usage. On the other side, it does not provide opportunities for incidental learning.

vii ABSTRAK

Mutiara, Leonie Irina. 2014. Vocabulary Coverage of a Junior High School Textbook.Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta.

Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk menginvestigasi cakupan kosakata dan penggunaan ulang kata di buku pegangan Sekolah Menangah Pertama (SMP). Ada dua pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini: (1) Bagaimana cakupan kosakata di buku pegangan SMP? (2) Bagaimana kata digunakan ulang? Penelitian ini mencakup tiga objektif: (1) untuk menemukan jumlah token, type, dan word family di buku SMP dan implikasinya dan (2) untuk menjelaskan bagaimana kata digunakan ulang dan di konteks apa dan implikasinya.

Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian berbasis korpus. Korpus didapatkan dari sebuah buku pegangan di SMP berjudul When English Rings the Bell dengan cara mengubah bentuk arsip pdf menjadi arsip txt. Buku tersebut diterbitkan oleh Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan sehubungan dengan Kurikulum 2013. Dua buah program bernama RANGE dan FREQUENCY digunakan sebagai instrumen analisis data. Kemudian hasil analisis data diinterpretasi untuk menemukan jawaban atas pertanyaan penelitian ini.

Penemuan menunjukkan bahwa secara total ada 6.213 token, 1.049type, dan 637word family di buku tersebut. Dibagi menjadi empat kategori; 1.000 kata bahasa Inggris pertama dan kedua yang sering dipakai dari A General Service List of English Words (GSL_1 and GSL_2), Academic Word List (AWL), dan kata yang tidak ditemukan di tiga kategori tersebut (not in the list). Dari jumlah keseluruhan, 85,69% token, 61,20% type, dan 443 word family terdaftar di GSL_1; 6,52% token, 16,30% type, dan 147 word family terdaftar di GSL_2; 1,79% token, 4,58% type, dan 47 word family terdaftar di AWL; 6,00% token, 17,92% type, dan word family yang tidak terdeteksi terdaftar di not in the list. Kemudianword family dihitung berdasarkan jumlah pengulangan. Dari 637word family, 36,89% hanya digunakan sekali, 28,89% digunakan 2-4 kali, 16,48% digunakan 5-9 kali, dan 17,74% digunakan 10 kali atau lebih di seluruh bagian buku.

Dari penelitian ini, disimpulkan bahwa bukuWhen English Rings the Bell cocok digunakan untuk siswa di tingkat permulaan dalam belajar bahasa Inggris karena sebagian besar type, token, dan word familynya terdaftar di daftar 2.000 kata bahasa Inggris pertama yang sering dipakai. Jumlah typenya pun juga sesuai dengan angka ideal untuk pemula. Rata-rata,word familynya diulang sepuluh kali sebagaitokenyang tersebar di seluruh bagian buku. Di buku tersebut juga terdapat 1.049 type, angka yang sesuai untuk pemula. Chunk dalam jumlah banyak juga terdapat di buku tersebut untuk membantu murid mempelajari kosakata dalam konteks dengan penggunaan fungsionalnya. Namun di sisi lain, buku tersebut tidak memberi kesempatan untuk pembelajaran insidental.

Kata kunci: cakupan kosakata, buku pegangan Sekolah Menengah Pertama, penggunaan ulang kata

viii

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Leonie Irina Mutiara

Nomor Mahasiswa : 126332033

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

VOCABULARY COVERAGE

OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 27 Januari 2014 Yang menyatakan,

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the Almighty God for always guiding and blessing me. He always gives everything I need. I believe a bright future is prepared for me. Without Him, I will be nothing.

My sincere appreciation goes to my sponsor,BapakF. X. Mukarto, Ph.D., for guiding, giving suggestions, and supporting me during my finishing this thesis. I would like also to express my gratefulness to my lecturers in English Language Studies for the inspiration they bring. I learn much from them.

Sincere love and gratitude is also expressed to my parents, Bapak Drs. Wardani Sugiyanto, M.Pd. and Ibu Dra. Listyawati Sri Rahayuningsih, for their love, pray, kindness, and support. I also thank my beloved sisters, Nada Dian Sejati and Intan Ayu Nugraha, for making me laugh and always be cheerful. Not to forget, my great thankfulness goes to my beloved fiance, Surya Adi Prasetya Nugraha, for his love, time, and support. I also owe much to my friends, Maria Asumpta Deny, Agatha Piscesia, Yustinus Calvin, and all KBI friends for their willingness to share their knowledge and for happiness we share.

At last, my deepest appreciation also goes for Ibu Hardiati Agustine, BapakArief Rahman, and all friends and teachers in SMK-SMAK Bogor and for many other names whose names cannot be mentioned one by one. I thank them for helping and supporting me in finishing my thesis. May God bless us all.

x

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE... i

APPROVAL PAGES.………... ii

DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGES………... iii

DEDICATION PAGE.………... iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY………...………... v

ABSTRACT.………... vi

ABSTRAK.………... vii

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI.………. viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.………... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS.………... x

LIST OF TABLES………... xiii

LIST OF FIGURES………... xiv

LIST OF PICTURE………..…..…... xv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background………...………….…….... 1

B. Problem Limitation………...…. 6

C. Problem Formulation... 7

D. Research Objectives...…………...……….….. 7

E. Research Benefit.………...……..…... 7

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW A. Theoretical Review………... 9

1. The Nature of Vocabulary………...…..…... 9

a. The Concept of Vocabulary... 9

b. Vocabulary Distribution... 11

1) Types and Tokens... 11

2) Word Family... 12

c. Word Recycling... 13

d. Word Form... 15

e. Word Meaning... 16

f. Word Use... 16

2. The Importance of Vocabulary………...…..…..…. 17

a. Vocabulary as Input... 17

b. Input and Acquisition... 18

3. Vocabulary Teaching and Learning.…...…...… 20

a. Goals of Vocabulary Learning... 20

b. Principles of Learning and Teaching Vocabulary... 21

c. Vocabulary Acquisition... 22

d. Learning Vocabulary... 23

1) Low Frequency Words... 24

a) Word Guessing from Context... 24

b) Deliberate Learning with Word Cards... 25

xi

d) Dictionary Use... 26

2) High Frequency Words... 26

a) Meaning-focused Input... 26

b) Meaning-focused Output... 27

c) Language-focused Learning... 28

d) Fluency Development... 29

e. Vocabulary to Learn... 30

4. Textbook…………...…... 31

a. The Role of Textbook... 32

1) Textbooks as a Basis for Negotiation... 33

2) Textbooks as a Flexible Framework... 33

3) Textbooks and Teacher Development... 34

4) Textbooks as a Workable Compromise... 34

b. Characteristics of Materials in Use in South East Asia... 35

1) Imported Coursebook... 35

2) In-country Coursebook... 36

3) Regional Coursebook... 37

c. The Importance of Evaluating Textbooks... 37

d. Criteria for a Good Textbook... 38

5. Curriculum 2013... 40

B. Theoretical Framework………...………... 41

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY A. Nature of Data…………...………...…...…... 44

B. Research Design………...………...…….. 46

C. Data Analysis………...………...….. 47

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Vocabulary Coverage of ‘When English Rings the Bell’... 50

1. Vocabulary Coverage of the Textbook.…..…... 50

2. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I.………..…... 54

3. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II.…...……..….... 56

4. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III.…...…...…... 57

5. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV.…...……..…... 58

6. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V.………...….... 59

7. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI.………..…... 60

8. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII.………...….. 61

9. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII………...…. 62

10. Vocabulary Coverage of Classroom Language for Students.……….….. 63

11. Vocabulary Coverage of Glosarium.………..…... 64

B. Word Recycling in ‘When English Rings the Bell’... 67

1. Word Recycling in the Textbook.……….…... 67

2. Word Recycling in Chapter I.………...…... 74

3. Word Recycling in Chapter II.………..…... 75

4. Word Recycling in Chapter III.………... 76

xii

6. Word Recycling in Chapter V.………...…... 79

7. Word Recycling in Chapter VI.………...…... 80

8. Word Recycling in Chapter VII.………...…... 81

9. Word Recycling in Chapter VIII………..…... 83

10. Word Recycling in Classroom Language for Students.…...…….…... 84

11. Word Recycling in Glosarium.………..…... 85

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusions………...………...….. 89

B. Recommendations…..………...………...…….. 91

REFERENCES………... 92

APPENDICES APPENDIX A... 98

APPENDIX B... 124

APPENDIX C... 131

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 English Language Teaching Textbook Checklist... 38

2.2 Curriculum Structure for JHS... 40

3.1 Data Analysis Process... 49

4.1 Vocabulary Coverage of ‘When English Rings the Bell’... 51

4.2 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I... 54

4.3 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II... 56

4.4 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III... 57

4.5 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV... 58

4.6 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V... 59

4.7 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI... 60

4.8 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII... 61

4.9 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII... 62

4.10 Vocabulary Coverage of Classroom Language for Students... 63

4.11 Vocabulary Coverage of Glosarium... 64

4.12 The 20 Most Frequent Word Types in ‘When English Rings the Bell’... 67

4.13 Repetition of Word Families in ‘When English Rings the Bell’... 73

4.14 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter I... 74

4.15 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter I ... 75

4.16 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter III... 76

4.17 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter IV... 77

4.18 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter V... 79

4.19 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VI... 80

4.20 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VII... 81

4.21 Repetition of Word Families in Chapter VIII... 83

4.22 Repetition of Word Families in Classroom Language for Students... 84

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

4.1 The Percentage of Tokens from Each Word List in Each Part……... 65 4.2 The Percentage of Word Family from Each Category of Occurence... 87

xv

LIST OF PICTURES

Picture Page

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the role of textbook in language teaching and learning, the role of vocabulary, and some previous research on vocabulary. In general, this chapter covers the background of the research, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, research goals, and research benefits.

A. BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH

Nowadays, the use of textbooks is widespread throughout schools and courses in the world. According to Andrew Littlejohn as in Tomlinson (1998: 190), although conferences, journals, and workshops are able to be used to spread new ideas, textbooks have been there to be the most powerful device for spreading new ideas in language teaching. It is indicated by the number of publishers in the world which increases year by year. It is in line with what Hutchinson and Torres (1994: 315) say that a textbook is “an almost universal element of ELT (English Language Teaching)”. In other words, a textbook can be found almost in every English language class in the world.

In Indonesia, almost every language program, course, or class is also equipped by at least one textbook as the teaching learning material. For some rich institutions, the textbook might not be the only learning resource. Other resources like workbook, teacher’s guide, and cassettes even supplement the use of

textbook. For some institutions where finance becomes a problem, the teaching and learning resource may not be as complete as the rich ones have. However, the existence of a textbook, at least one, can still be found in English language teaching and it becomes the guidance for teacher and students in teaching and learning English. Byrd (2001) also states that a textbook serves as a content and teaching/learning activities provider, which determines what happens in a classroom. Byrd’s statement confirms that a textbook really takes part in English teaching and learning activities. This shows how important a textbook is in ELT.

Behind the importance of a textbook as a guideline, however, teachers should be aware of their being unconsciously replaced by the textbook itself. Instead of participating in deciding what to teach and how to teach next based on today’s students’ development, they just rely on the ready-made textbook and believe the author knows what is good for them Hutchinson and Torres (1994: 315).

This research on vocabulary used in a textbook is conducted due to the importance of vocabulary in language learning. Of course a textbook consists of a lot of words and they are what the students learn and they also serve as a medium to learn the other language skills and elements presented in it. Vocabulary is seen as basic to communication. Krashen (1987) in Lewis (2008: iii) states that “when students travel, they do not carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries”. And that is what we experience in our daily life. When we travel to foreign country, we rarely bring grammar books. Instead, to make our communication easier with the people there, what we need is dictionary, which helps us find the appropriate

words to avoid misunderstanding. Lexis is very important in communication because “a lexical mistake often causes misunderstandings, while a grammar mistake rarely does”, as suggested by Sinclair (1996) as cited in Lewis (2008:16) and Wilkins as cited in Lewis (2008:16) with his well-known statement, “without grammar little can be conveyed; without lexis nothing can be conveyed”, emphasizing that vocabulary is a very crucial input in language learning. This is supported by what Gass and Selinker (2001: 449) and Gass (1988) say that vocabulary or lexicon may be the most crucial language component for learners as the errors may interfere with communication.

In Indonesia, it is very surprising that research by Nurweni and Read (1999) reveals that on average, students in Indonesia had vocabulary knowledge of only 1226 English words (referring to type), falling far short from the number of 3000-5000 word range where it is the threshold level needed for independent reading of unsimplified texts. In terms of breadth (quantity) and depth (quality) of vocabulary knowledge, only a small number of students were close to the threshold level. It is something teachers should note in English education in Indonesia, considering that vocabulary is very important language learning input and element.

This research concerns with the vocabulary coverage of a Junior High School (JHS) textbook which is now used in schools that have implemented Curriculum 2013. It also deals with the word recycling in the textbook. The same research done by Alberding (2006) highlights the use of a commercially produced textbook required to teachers in many English courses in Japanese universities.

Whereas, every group of students had different needs and background knowledge. This, then, raised some question regarding to the vocabulary level, which might be appropriate for certain group but might not be appropriate for the others. Fortunately, the research shows that the vocabulary level in the textbook was appropriate for the groups of students using it. However, the textbook did not contain enough vocabulary items for a year-long course and enough spaced repetition of the vocabulary items. Thus, other significant supplementary materials were suggested to extend vocabulary learning beyond the textbook.

Almost the same research findings come from Matsuoka and Hirsh (2010) toward their analysis of an ELT textbook. The findings also suggested that it only provided minimal opportunities for students to develop vocabulary knowledge beyond frequency and academic words. It shows a need to supplement the textbook with an extensive reading program and other programs with rich input to promote vocabulary development. Another research on vocabulary coverage by Hsu (2009) also finds that vocabulary levels of the textbooks he examined did not seem to be in line with the one claimed by the publishers. This finding, then, results in suggestion for teachers to raise their awareness of considering vocabulary level when choosing an English textbook.

The same research on vocabulary use was also done by Kusumaningrum (2014). The research also deals with vocabulary coverage in a Junior High School textbook. What makes Kusumaningrum’s research different with this research is that her research used a textbook which was designed and published for Curriculum 2006, while this research used a textbook which was designed and

published for Curriculum 2013. The research concluded that recognizing the 2,000 most frequent types would not bring 95% text coverage. Thus, some types needed to be pre-taught. The textbook also contained little types with more than five-time occurences. However, the textbook was still appropriate with Junior High School students using Curriculum 2006.

As stated above, vocabulary is seen as a very important part in language learning. Vocabulary is considered as one parameter for the success of language learning. Inadequacy of vocabulary may result in more serious effects than grammatical errors do. Thus, many ways are done by teachers to improve students’ vocabulary, either receptive or productive one to promote their vocabulary development.

The new Curriculum 2013, in which the Ministry of Education and Culture publishes several English textbooks also raise some questions for the researcher dealing with the vocabulary content. The book is used by a number of schools in Indonesia which has implemented the new curriculum. However, students in each school have their own background knowledge which is different with the ones in other schools. Schools in urban area may need a book providing high level vocabulary due to the facilities there, like internet connection, which helps students improve their vocabulary more quickly. Unlike schools in urban area, many schools in rural area are lack of facilities. There is no internet connection, television or CD player, even enough books to support their learning and thus it affects their vocabulary level. This condition leads to the different needs of every school in Indonesia.

Those phenomena then evoke the researcher to do this research. Since

When English Rings the Bellis a new textbook, this research tries to elaborate the vocabulary items used in the textbook and their suitability to help teachers make decisions of how to use the textbook to support students’ learning achievement.

B. PROBLEM LIMITATION

In this research, the researcher limits the research study of textbook evaluation, focusing on vocabulary. Particularly, this research will deal with vocabulary coverage (types, tokens, word family and word recycling (word frequency and the context)) on a certain textbook. This limitation aims to obtain deeper investigation and discussion.

Some limitations should also be considered in this research. First, the interpretation is done by the researcher and it may be subjective, although literature review is also used. Therefore, triangulation is used in form of expert check to minimize subjectivity. Second, the scope of this research is only vocabulary. It does not cover other scopes in textbook evaluation such as learner’s roles, teacher’s roles, learning activities, pictures, and texts. Third, there is no exact picture of what JHS students in Indonesia need and want dealing with vocabulary. The exact level of their vocabulary is also unknown. Moreover, the difference of their background knowledge is very various and diverse. Thus, the interpretation result cannot be generalized in world reality happening in Indonesia.

C. PROBLEM FORMULATION

This research aims to address these two following questions: 1. What is the vocabulary coverage of Junior High School textbooks? 2. How are the words recycled?

D. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This research deals with vocabulary which is used in Junior High School textbook. It aims to investigate the vocabulary coverage and word recycling in the JHS textbook. In particular, this research is intended to reach the subsequent objectives: (1) to find out the number of types, tokens, and word families in JHS textbook and its implication and (2) to explain how the words are recycled and in what context they are recycled and its implication.

After the vocabulary coverage and words recycling in JHS textbook are revealed, teachers are hoped to put enough consideration and pay close attention to the content of certain English textbooks, especially the vocabulary, before they pick one of them in order to meet students’ needs and wants. After picking a textbook which is considered the best for the students, every teacher should also take another decision whether to supplement, adopt, or adapt the textbook.

E. RESEARCH BENEFITS

This research investigates the vocabulary coverage and words recycling of JHS textbook. It clarifies the number of types, tokens, and words families in it as well as explains how the words are recycled and the context. Based on the

findings, the research will then discuss how the textbook contributes to English learning in terms of its vocabulary.

This research, scientifically, will elaborate the importance of vocabulary in language learning. Thus, it is also necessary for teachers to consider several aspects before they select a textbook. This research will also emphasize how important it is for teachers to adjust the level of vocabulary with students’ background experience. This research is hoped to improve teachers’ awareness in selecting the best textbook for their students based on students’ needs. It also gives a detailed picture of vocabulary which is used in a JHS textbook, so it can be one of teachers’ considerations in choosing a textbook which best meets their students need. In practical level, this research will investigate the vocabulary coverage and word recycling in a JHS textbook published by the Ministry of Education and Culture to support Curriculum 2013 and to help teachers make decision to reject, adopt, adapt, or supplement the textbook based on students’ needs. Therefore, the vocabulary can support their language learning.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this part, the literature review of this research is explained to clarify concepts. The main issues of this part are the nature of vocabulary, the importance of vocabulary, teaching and learning vocabulary, textbook, and curriculum 2013. Each part is then divided into several smaller parts.

A. THEORETICAL REVIEW

This part covers the discussion about the nature of vocabulary, the importance of vocabulary, teaching and learning vocabulary, textbook, and curriculum 2013.

1. The Nature of Vocabulary

In this part, the concept of vocabulary, vocabulary distribution, word recycling, word form, word meaning, and word use are clarified.

a. The Concept of Vocabulary

Everyone must know what a word is. However, many might confuse what vocabulary is exactly and how word and vocabulary differ. According to Nunan (1999), vocabulary is target language words presented in a list. It means that vocabulary consists of a number of words. Now it is clear how word and vocabulary differ. One word can stand alone as a word, but vocabulary should consist of more than one word.

Knowing a word, according to Carter (1998: 5), is “knowing the different meanings carried by a single form”. Thus, he clarifies that it is more accurate to define a word as a minimum meaningful unit of language. Words can be in different form, but it does not mean that they are counted as different words.

The concept of lexeme may help us in understanding the concept of word more clearly. Carter defines lexeme as the abstract unit underlying variants (e.g. goes, gone, going, went) related to ‘word’. Thus, GO is the lexeme of the word-forms ‘goes’, ‘gone’, ‘going’, and ‘went’. Lexeme is ‘the basic, contrasting units of vocabulary in a language’. If we search for a meaning in dictionary, we are looking for lexeme rather than words. Then we would find the word-forms under the lexeme. The terms lexeme and word-forms are important theoretical concepts used when theoretical distinctions are needed. If not, we can just use the terms lexical items, vocabulary items, or items to refer to words.

The discussion above then leads to a concept of lexical words. It can also be called “full words” or “content words”. It includes nouns (table, fan), adjectives (smart, diligent), verbs (walk, go), and adverbs (steadily, quickly), bringing high information content. Lexical words are syntactically structured by grammatical words. Grammatical words include pronouns (you, she), articles (a, the), auxiliary verbs (can, should), prepositions (in, among), and conjunctions (but, and). According to Carter, they are also called “functional word” or “empty words”. In the counting process of tokens, types, and word families in this research, content words and function words are considered the same, for example

do as a content word and do as a functional word. However, they are discussed and treated as having a different category in the discussion part.

b. Vocabulary Distribution

This research is about vocabulary coverage and its recycling, which deals with frequency. In the topic of coverage, types, tokens, and word families are the important terms. Thus, it is important to define what they are.

1) Types and Tokens

If we intend to count how long a textbook is, we deal with token (Nation and Meara, 2002), or can be called as ‘running words’ (Nation 2001). Even though the word, for example laptop, has occurred and been counted, it should still be counted every time it occurs again. The same words are counted as a new word each time it occurs. If we are counting types, the same words are only counted once although it occurs more than once. Any occurrence of the same word is not counted as a new word, but “as another occurrence of the same type” (Nation, 1983: 10). The sentence The red house belongs to the girl with red shirt contains ten tokens and eight types. After the first occurrence, the words theand redare not counted again.

Based on the definition above, the same words with different meaning are counted as one type. Due to the reason of counting, which is related to vocabulary learning, words likeI’ll,I’m,andlet’sare counted as having two types and two tokens. Words like student’s and family’s (possession) are also counted as having two types and two tokens. Numbers and proper nouns are also excluded.

The analysis and interpretation is only limited to English words only in the material presentation of the book.

2) Word Family

Based on the explanation by Bauer and Nation (1993), the concept of word family is crucial for systematic approach in vocabulary teaching and deciding the vocabulary load of texts which will be used. To know what is included in a word family, one way is to count lemmas. A lemma is a set of related words which have the stem form and inflected forms that come from the same part of speech (Nation and Meara, 2002). Thus, go, goes, went, going are under the same lemma because their stems are the same, and they are all verbs. However, word family does not only consist of a lemma. Word family also includes words with derivational affixes such as non- and suffixes such as -ness whose stem are the same. Words under the same word family do not have to be in the same part of speech. Once the stem of words is known, learners will require less effort to recognize other words under the same word family. As they are more proficient, they tend to acquire more number of words in their word families (Bauer and Nation, 1993).

Furthermore, Nation and Meara (2002) also argue that there are some groups of words which are usually used together such as single words. Some of them are not analyzed into parts, but learned and used as complete units. Such words are called multi-word units (MWUs). One criteria of MWU is that no word in the unit can be substituted by any other word. According to Schmitt (2000a:

400), a single meaning is given to an MWU, such as in phrasal verbs (give up), compounds (freeze-dry), and idioms (burn the midnight oil)’. However, in this research, MWU is counted as separate words.

On the other hand, Schmitt continues that the coverage of collocation (words which tend to occur together) is far beyond the level of MWUs. In fact, longer sequences of words to occur together are common and frequently found and some of them are treated as units, likehave you ever heard the one about___? The term which is commonly used to refer to this type of sequence is lexical chunk or lexical phrases. Lexical chunk is very common for its relation to functional language use. For example, the above lexical chunk is usually used to introduce a joke. In this research, lexical chunk is regarded as words occuring together which has functional language use. However, it is counted as separate words.

c. Word Recycling

In this research, word recycling refers to how many times a word occurs in a textbook and in what context it occurs. In another word, we can call it as frequency. According to Nation (1983), most frequency count is based on a sample of text with at least one million words.

Frequency itself has its own purpose. It provides a rational basis for learners vocabulary learning, like what is stated by Nation and Waring (1997).

Frequency information provides a rational basis for making sure that learners get the best return for their vocabulary learning effort by ensuring that words studied will be met often. (p. 17)

Thus, it is very important to know the frequent words in a textbook before teachers use a certain textbook and ensure that the vocabulary learned is useful for the learners.

Other experts also note the role of frequency in vocabulary learning. According to Coady and Nation (1988), word frequency in a textbook has some effects on some learners. Ten times in minimum is enough to have an effect on them. There is no exact number of frequency which contributes to vocabulary acquisition, but the more the better in subsequent level (Nation and Wang, 1999). However, Pienemann and Johnston’s model, as stated in Gass and Mackey (2002), suggests that regardless the frequency of input one receives, the acquisition of communicative value will hardly depend on particular developmental order. Otherwise, it will be kept and made available when one is ready for processing and use (Gass, 1997). It means that high frequency input does not necessarily bring effects on one’s acquisition of the input.

Learners can also learn words from the context in which they occur. It provides clues for learners to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words. However, the result of learning words from context is not as great as it is expected. Although it tends to be low, if hundreds or perhaps thousands of unfamiliar words are met, it could result in learning a number of words. And frequent words should have effect on learners (Coady and Nation, 1988). Thus, presenting the same words frequently in some contexts will provide opportunities for learners to acquire vocabulary.

According to Thomas, Pfister, and Peterson (2004) words with high frequency usually includes functional/structural words like in, to, of, and for. High-frequency words tend not to contain conceptual validity for an individual word or for the text where the words occur. Words with medium frequency are those with lesser generality but frequently repeated (Herdan 1964 as in Thomas et al 2004). In this medium-frequency group, some commonly used content words may be found. He also states that words with low frequency tend to contain higher informational value than words with higher frequency. The size of group of word types which occur only once is called ‘hapax legomena’. It indicates word learning and vocabulary richness of a text (Holmes, 1994).

d. Word Form

According to Nation (2006c), words which are easy to pronounce tend to be easier to be held in working memory and the chance of entering long-term memory is bigger. That is why words introduced early in an English course needs to be easily pronounced. Words with unfamiliar sounds can also be learned by listening practice and guided pronunciation practice. English spelling is irregular, but there are some patterns and rules which can help to learn it. It can be helped if learners learn the most common affixes and their meanings and also simple explanation of its etymology.

Ehri et al. (2001) states that awareness that words are composed by separable sounds, known as phonemic awareness, can affect one’s learning to read English. Similarly, learning to write and read can also be helped by paying close

attention to phonics (relationships between sound and spelling) (Stahl, Duffy, & Stahl, 1998).

e. Word Meaning

Nation (2006c: 449) states that “if an L2 word is a loan word or a cognate in L1, it is then very easy to relate the form of the word to its meaning”. For example, over a half of English words was derived from French and Latin (Roberts 1965, as in Nation 2006c). Thus, other languages derived from French or Latin share a lot of vocabulary. This can help the learning process of the words by analyzing them into parts and paying close attention to prefixes and suffixes.

Furthermore, Nation also argues that developing considerable concept is required for understanding the meaning of some English words, especially for learners with certain first languages. For example, Indonesian language does not have different pronouns for people with different sex, while English has. English differenciates words for siblings based on the sex (brother and sister), while Indonesian differenciates them by age (kakakandadik). However, developing L2 concept for words may be helped if the L1 equivalent is sufficient. If the range of senses corresponds much to the L1, the learning burden will decrease.

f. Word Use

If a word has different grammar and collocations with the one in learners’ first language or in the second language which they are familiar with, learning burden tends to increase. Enough time is needed to learn this aspect.

However, native speakers are able to use the language appropriately because they have learned and stored units of language, such as That’s all very well for you to say, which is larger than a word, and access and use them whenever they need them. Thus, they just need quick time to produce language accurately (Nation 2006c). In addition, Nation also proposes his idea about restrictions in word use.

Some words such as faucet, kid, bugger, and explicate have restrictions on their use. These restrictions include geographical restrictions (Americans use faucet; British use tap), register (expedite is very formal; speed up is more colloquial), currency (some words such as forsooth and breeches are no longer in use), age restrictions (potty and choo-choo are used by and with children), gender restrictions (fabulous tends to be used by women), and frequency (some words such as diligent and capricious are not commonly used). (p. 449)

When learning a language, learning those restrictions is very necessary. It helps learners to produce language naturally.

2. The Importance of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is important in language learning. It is clarified in this part, including the discussion of vocabulary as input and input and acquisition.

a. Vocabulary as Input

According to Gass and Selinker (2001: 305), input is “what is available to learners to support their learning”. Here, the discussion is about vocabulary as language input. A memorable note written by Wilkins, as in Lewis (2008: 16) leads the researcher to realize that vocabulary is very important. He wrote that “without grammar little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”. The statement makes sense in terms of language comprehension. For

example, if a learner in a very early stage writes the sentence I yesterday buy much books on the store book.The grammar is totally wrong. The sentence should beYesterday, I bought many books in the book store.Although, the sentence uses wrong grammar, readers can still understand what it means. However, if the learner wants to express his idea in the same target language, he cannot do it without having enough vocabulary knowledge. Even a word cannot be spoken or written and no information is delivered if he does not know any vocabulary in the target language.

The idea that vocabulary is important is also supported by Sinclair at IATEFL 1996, as in Lewis (2008: 16). He states that “a lexical mistake often causes misunderstanding, while a grammar mistake rarely”. The sentenceMy note book was lost carries meaning that someone’s book which he used to take note in is not with him anymore. However, what he intends to say is netbook,a smaller version of laptop. Then, the lexical mistake causes misunderstanding to whom he is talking to. Otherwise, the sentence My netbook lost will rarely causes misunderstanding although the grammar is wrong. The researcher does not intend to say that grammar is not important. Grammar is important, but not as important as vocabulary because it is vocabulary which carries more meaning.

b. Input and Acquisition

In the previous discussion, input is considered very important in language learning. Krashen and Terrell (1995) state their point of view about vocabulary in its relation to acquisition.

Acquisition depends crucially on the input being

comprehensible. And comprehensibility is dependent directly on the ability to recognize the meaning of key elements in the utterance. Thus, acquisition will not take place without comprehension of vocabulary. (p. 155)

Vocabulary is seen very crucial as language input. Without comprehending vocabulary, learners will not acquire language. Learners’ recognition of the meaning of vocabulary in certain utterance affects their comprehensibility because vocabulary is the key element of language. That is why without having enough input, language acquisition would be hard to occur.

Based on the Input Hypothesis by Krashen, input also has a great implication on second language acquisition. He proposes that second languages are acquired “by understanding messages or by receiving ‘comprehensible input’“ (Krashen, 1985: 2). Input is comprehensible if it is ahead of learners’ existing knowledge background. Thus, language input that learners hear/read which contains structures that they already know will not support and facilitate language acquisition as they can “do” nothing with the structures. Krashen defines learners’ current level of competence as i and the next stage as + 1. Then, the input which should be exposed to learners should be at the i + 1 level in order for acquisition to occur. He also adds that the Input Hypothesis is central to all acquisition. Without any comprehensible input, acquisition will never occur. In addition, the amount of comprehensible input needs to be sufficient, depending on learners’ developmental level and how ready they are to acquire new knowledge.

3. Vocabulary Teaching and Learning

The concept of teaching and learning vocabulary is explained in this part. It includes goals of vocabulary learning, principles of learning and teaching vocabulary, vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary teaching and learning, and what vocabulary should be learned.

a. Goals of Vocabulary Learning

When planning or designing a language course, it is important to define its goals. Setting learning goals is very useful to determine the material, learning activities, our teaching method, and so on. It becomes the guidance as well as the end point of a course.

According to Nation (2001, 2006a), when planning vocabulary learning goals in a long-term course, we should pay close attention to three types of information to help us decide how much vocabulary to learn. First, it is the number of words in the language. There are a number of specialist vocabulary like those in medical area and educational field. However, the question is not easy to answer because what can be counted as a word is not clear yet. Second, it is the number of words native speakers know. The result of a reliable study by Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990) argues that educated English native speakers know around 20,000 word families. The number tends to be rather low because the counting unit is word family. On average, native speakers add 1,000 word families to their vocabulary per year. And this is possible for English non-native speakers, especially learners of English as a second language. Third, it is the number of words that learners need to use another language. According to Schmitt

(2000b), the first 2,000 most frequent types of English is referred as the level for the basic initial goal of second language learners. However, only the first 1,000 most frequent types needs to be recognized by elementary level students (Sánchez & Criado, 2009).

Nation (2001: 9) proposes that studies in native speaker’s vocabulary suggest that “second language learners need to know very large numbers of words”, which can be useful in a long term. It is because the studies consider that all words are of equal value for learners. However, frequency based studies see that some words are more useful than others.

b. Principles of Learning and Teaching Vocabulary

Learning vocabulary in a language course will be more effective if well-supported principles are applied as vocabulary growth is very essential in second language proficiency development. Those principles should be clearly known by both teachers and learners. According to Nation (2006b: 498), such principles should include the following: 1) Vocabulary learning should be started with high frequency vocabulary and special purposes vocabulary, then moving to low frequency vocabulary; 2) Learning and teaching high frequency vocabulary and special purposes vocabulary should be based on four strands. They are meaning-focused input, meaning-meaning-focused output, language-meaning-focused learning, and fluency development; 3) In teaching low frequency vocabulary, some strategies like guessing from context, learning word cards, using word parts, and using the dictionary should be the main focus; 4) It is important to design learning activities

which “encourage thoughtful processing of vocabulary through retrieval, generative use, and the use of mnemonic devices where needed”; 5) Teachers should help learners to “take responsibility for their own vocabulary learning”.

c. Vocabulary Acquisition

It is rather surprising that descriptive studies in vocabulary development patterns are still limited. The possible reason is that what is meant by ‘knowing’ a word is not very clearly defined (Ellis, 2008). Another reason is the absence of agreed terminal stage for word knowledge. Unlike grammar, vocabulary has an open system and every native speaker has different, various vocabulary size and depth of knowledge of words.

Ellis (1997) states learning vocabulary is not necessarily learning word by word in phrases. If a learner saysI am fine, it does not mean that he knows the words I, am, and fine. Ellis notes that vocabulary or lexical acquisition occurs through segmentation process when learners realize that formulaic sequences are constructed by separate words so they need additional formulas, identify recurring elements, and make open slots in them. In this case, the process of acquiring a word may not be so different from the process of developing grammar.

Studies in learners’ vocabulary development should consider both “quantitative changes in vocabulary size over time and qualitative changes in learners’ knowledge of individual words” (Ellis 2008: 99). Although it is not possible to exactly determine how many words learners know, estimates can still be obtained. To do that, some forms of test can be used, such as Vocabulary Size

Test by Nation and Beglar (2007). Over time, by being given more and more input, learners will acquire larger number of words.

Studies in vocabulary qualitative changes require information about some dimensions of word knowledge. The three dimensions by Haastrup and Henriksen (1998) are: 1) partial-precise, referring to learners’ level of comprehension of the same given word; 2) receptive-productive, referring to learners’ knowledge of a given word, whether learners can use it receptively or productively; and 3) depth of knowledge, referring to the extent to which learners have acquired properties if a given word like word’s paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.

Another way to measure learners’ vocabulary development is using Paribakht and Wesche’s (1993) Vocabulary Knowledge Scale. The scale includes five levels which explain learner’s level of knowledge of specific words. These levels start from total unfamiliarity to ability to use the words in a sentence. The stages are: 1. Learners have never seen the word before; 2. Learners have seen the word, but they do not know what it means; 3. Learners have seen the word before, and may know what it means (synonym or translation), 4. Learners know the word and its meaning (synonym or translation), 5. Learners can use the word in a sentence. This process of acquisition proceeds cumulatively, where learners gradually obtain information related to word form and word meaning.

d. Learning Vocabulary

When planning a language course, it is important to differentiate between high and low frequency words. Because of its wide use and occurrence, high

frequency words deserver more classroom time (Nation, 2006b). On the other hand, because of its low occurrence, low frequency words do not deserve much classroom time. After learners know the high frequency words, they can begin learning the low frequency words. However, the focus is learning the strategy how to deal with the words. Here are some approaches and strategies in dealing with low and high frequency words.

1) Low Frequency Words

Nation proposes four strategies in dealing with low frequency words, namely guessing words from context, deliberate learning using word cards, using word part analysis to help memory, and dictionary use.

a) Word Guessing from Context

According to Nation and Meara (2002), the most useful strategies of all is guessing from context. However, in order to be successful in guessing, learners should know 95-98% of the tokens in a text. In other words, the unknown word to guess should be surrounded by supporting context which learners can comprehend. The success of this strategy also depends on learners’ listening and reading skill. Besides, based on guessing procedures proposed by Clarke and Nation (1980), guessing strategy will be successful if learners are able to follow the idea presented in the text and they have background knowledge of the text (Coady and Nation, 1988). In second language learning area, guessing meaning from context is included in meaning-focused input strand. After successfully guessing the meaning of a word, direct learning of the same word should be followed to support the learning.

b) Deliberate Learning with Word Cards

Using word cards in vocabulary learning is included in deliberate one. Deliberate vocabulary learning is more effective than incidental vocabulary learning since it is more focused and goal oriented (Nation and Meara, 2002). In order to be successful in this strategy, Nation (2001) suggests a set of learning guidelines through the use of word cards, which are: i) retrieval rather than recognition; ii) the use of appropriately sized groups of cards; iii) repetition spacing; iv) word aloud repetition; v) word processing; vi) interference avoidance; vii) serial learning effect avoidance; and viii) the use of context when needed.

c) Memorization with Word Parts

This strategy helps learners memorize unfamiliar words by analyzing its parts. According to Coady and Nation (1988: 107), an unknown word can be analyzed by checking its “prefixes and stem, as a clue to its meaning”, for example, the word apposition, which comes from the words ap- (a form of ad-), pos, and -ition. The meaning of apposition can be obtained by relating “the meaning of the parts to the meaning of the whole word” (Nation and Meara, 2002: 45). This strategy requires practice and learning. However, according to Nation and Meara (2002: 45), “word part analysis is not a reliable means of guessing, but it is a very useful way of checking on the accuracy of a guess based on context clues”.

d) Dictionary Use

Nation and Meara (2002) propose that there are some types of dictionary; monolingual, bilingual, or bilingualized. They can be used receptively (to support listening and reading) or productively (to support speaking and writing). There are some subskills in using dictionaries, as suggested by Nation and Meara (2002)

Dictionary use involves numerous subskills such as reading a phonemic transcription, interpreting grammatical information, generalizing from example sentences and guessing from context to help choose from alternative meanings. (p.46)

2) High Frequency Words

According to Nation (2006b), teaching and learning vocabulary with high frequency can be divided into four strands, namely meaning focused input,

meaning focus output, language focused learning, and fluency development. a) Meaning-focused Input

Nation and Meara (2002) suggest that meaning focused input is included in incidental vocabulary learning through reading and listening. In order for this strategy to occur, non-native speakers should meet three conditions. First, only a small amount of unknown vocabulary is allowed in a text, around two per cent, or one unknown word in 50 (Hu and Nation, 2000). Second, the non-native speakers should receive large amount of input, at least one million tokens or more per year. Third, there should be more deliberate attention to the unknown word to increase the learning.

In terms of the familiarity of a text, Nation (2006b) suggests that teachers can make use of specially written or simplified material with appropriate language

level, containing around 95% familiar words. Those texts can be used in reading and listening activities. In class, teachers’ instruction and interaction with learners are also a good source of listening input. If teachers use high vocabulary words, then learners have enough opportunities for vocabulary learning.

If an extensive reading program is well-managed, well-designed, it can also provide opportunities to learn and develop vocabulary knowledge. A good extensive reading program, based on what Nation and Wang (1999) state, a) provides interesting materials in which learners know 98% of the running words, b) inspires learners to read at least one book every two weeks, c) encourages learners to read at least three books at the same level before reading those at higher level, d) encourages learners to learn the unknown words in the texts deliberately, and e) facilitates learners to talk and write about what they read with enough amount of time, not much.

b) Meaning-focused Output

Learning from meaning-focused output refers to learning through speaking and writing, from receptive skill to productive skill. According to Nation and Meara (2002), the use of vocabulary in productive skill can be increased by designing activities which encourage learners to use new vocabulary, providing opportunities for learners, such as speaking activities in groups, to negotiate the meanings of unknown words, and encouraging learners to use partly known words in speaking and writing to increase their knowledge of the words.

Negotiation of meaning is a powerful aspect in learning vocabulary through speaking (Nation, 2006b). However, the proportion of negotiation of words learned through spoken communication activities is still small. Nation adds that to design speaking tasks which facilitate vocabulary learning, some considerations should be put into account. Those are: i) the target vocabulary should be included in the written input, ii) the vocabulary should be used when performing the tasks, iii) it is necessary to provide various opportunities in the task for learners to use the vocabulary, iv) learners are required to use the vocabulary in a different way from the one in the written input.

Learning from meaning-focused output can also occur in writing activities. (Nation, 2006b) proposes that useful writing activities require written or spoken output as a source of information to write about. For example, the Internet is a good media for learning vocabulary since it provides learners opportunities to communicate and discuss through writing which includes negotiation of vocabulary. Besides, synthesizing information from some texts can also be a useful written input as a source of vocabulary learning.

c) Language-focused Learning

(Nation, 2006b) explains that vocabulary learning though language focused learning occurs in many opportunities, such as giving deliberate attention through activities like intensive reading, making use of word cards, pre-teaching of vocabulary, and deliberate learning. The most obvious place for direct vocabulary learning is in intensive reading activities. Intensive reading requires

teachers and learners to work together in a text, looking at the language features and content.

From vocabulary perspective, teaching unknown words can be solved by pre-teaching them, giving the meanings directly, giving training in using strategies of guessing from context, analyzing word parts, and using dictionary. The selection of which one to use depends on whether it is high frequency or low frequency word, whether it is important in the text, the nature of the word, and the context in the text.

d) Fluency Development

For sure, for fluency development, unknown words are not included. Learners do not learn new vocabulary, but learn how to make the best use of vocabulary that they already know or learn before. According to Nation and Meara (2002), developing vocabulary fluency needs several conditions. It requires familiar materials in a large number, focuses on the message, and enough pressure to learn at higher level. Vocabulary fluency development does not focus specifically on vocabulary or grammar anymore. Above that, it aims to develop fluency in listening, speaking, reading, or writing

Nation and Meara adds that there are two approaches in developing vocabulary fluency. The first approach is repetition. It involves repeated practice on the same material so that learners can perform it fluently. The activities can be repeated reading, 4/3/2 technique (learners speak for four minutes, three minutes, and two minutes about the same topic, but to different learners), the best recording

(learners make repeated attempts to record their best-spoken text), and rehearsed talks. The second approach is making many connections and associations with a known word. It involves using a known word in various contexts and situations. The activities can be speed-reading practice, extensive reading, continuous writing, and retelling activities. It aims at developing vocabulary system in a good order. Fluency is gained by controlling the language system and using the known word in various contexts and situations well and efficiently.

According to Nation (2006b), there are some characteristics of fluency development. They are: i) involving no unknown vocabulary, grammatical features, or discourse features; ii) existence of pressure or encouragement to perform at faster speed; iii) message-focused aiming at message production or comprehension; iv) involving language use in a large number. In the level of words or phrases, like numbers, time sequences, greetings, etc, the activities can be teacher saying words or phrases quickly while learners pointing to what is being said, or done productively by doing vice versa.

e. Vocabulary to Learn

There are two considerations before determining what vocabulary should be focused on in vocabulary learning. They are the needs of learners and the usefulness of the vocabulary (Nation and Meara, 2002). Nation and Meara adds, to measure the usefulness of vocabulary items, it is necessary to count the frequency and range, which is “the occurrence of a word across several subsections of a corpus” (Nation and Waring, 1997: 13), in a relevant corpus. By

counting the frequency of vocabulary items in a relevant corpus, it enables teachers to find a list of words which is useful for learners in early stages of language learning. The high frequency words deserve more teaching time and need to be the main learners’ vocabulary goal since they are frequent and widespread. According to Read (2004) there are several things learners should be able to do with high frequency words.

Learners need to have more than just a superficial understanding of the meaning; they should develop a rich and specific meaning representation as well as knowledge of the word’s formal

features, syntactic functioning, collocational possibilities, register characteristics, and so on. (p. 155)

On the other hand, Nation and Waring continues, the low frequency words are not so frequent and thus do not deserve teaching time. However, these words should still be learned independently by learners after they have learned the high frequency words. Teachers should train them strategies how to learn those words. Beside the frequency counts, the decision also depends on learners’ need. It is necessary for teachers to look at learners’ need and make a special purposes vocabulary list.

4. Textbook

In this research, the term coursebook and textbook have the same definition. According to (Matsuoka & Hirsh, 2010: 57), a course book is defined as follows.

Unlike authentic text, course book is a book which is designed specifically to be used in a classroom language learning

environment with language teacher support including pre-teaching of target vocabulary items.

Textbook then refers to any kind of book which is used by teachers to support English language learning in a classroom.

a. The Role of Textbooks

Nowadays, the use of textbook is widespread throughout schools and courses in the world. Language learning activities seem incomplete without the use of textbook. According to Littlejohn (1998), although conferences, journals, and workshops are able to be used to spread new ideas, textbook has been there to be the most powerful device for spreading new ideas in language teaching. It is indicated by the number of publishers in the world which increases year by year. Often, learners have their own paradox about the existence of textbook in language learning, as proposed by Sheldon (1988).

It is a cruel paradox that for students, teacher-generated material (which potentially has a dynamic and maximal relevance to local needs) often has less credibility than a published textbook, no matter how inadequate that may be. (p. 238)

From an instructional design perspective, a textbook is the primary instructional resource as a material provider. The objectives, content, and teaching sequence are determined by the textbook (Kemp, 1977).

Hutchinson and Torres (1994: 324) propose a broad perspective on the role of a textbook, which makes a textbook “continues to be the mainstay of ELT provision”.

1) Textbooks as a Basis for Negotiation

The idea that a textbook only serves as a classroom material provider is totally wrong. Classroom material provider is just one of the functions that a textbook has. Instead, a textbook serves a lot of needs within classroom and beyond it. It is not only a packaged material in a certain format. More than that, it “provides a structure for the management of the lesson as a social interaction and a basis for negotiation between all the relevant parties” (Hutchinson and Torres, 1994: 324).

2) Textbooks as a Flexible Framework

A textbook is not a dictatorial instructor. Instead, it provides learners flexibility, responsibility, and freedom of choice within a structured learning environment presented by teacher through the use of a textbook (Owen, Froman, & Moscow, 1978). It enables learners to achieve their best development by providing a secure framework. The argument is proposed by Allen (2008) who argues that teachers have rights how and when to use textbooks. In other words, teachers have control over the textbook in classroom and thus, it is not a dictatorial instructor.

Although the FL textbook may be viewed as a tool to ‘standardize’ instruction and student learning, individual teachers exercise agency in how and when the tool is used. (p. 23)

3) Textbooks and Teacher Development

Textbooks provide clear things to negotiate about, thus, teachers and learners can negotiate them freely. The assumption that a highly structured textbook causes the de-skilling of teachers is not true. Hutchinson and Torres (1994) suggest that the more teachers feel comfortable with what they are doing, the more inclined they make changes and variations from the textbook. Textbooks enable variations to happen in classroom. Without structured guidance provided by textbooks, teachers tend to do the same way in teaching. Hutchinson and Torres’ argument is supported by a study by Stodolsky (1988) which reveals that teachers are not constrained by textbooks. Instead, they make variations in their teaching resulted from their convictions and preferences, the nature of materials that they use, the school context, the learners, the subject matter, and the classroom grade level.

4) Textbooks as a Workable Compromise

Due to the various needs of learners in a learning context, textbooks are regarded as a workable compromise, as Hutchinson and Torres (1994: 325-326) says that “nothing that happens in education is anything more than a workable compromise, and we cannot uniquely condemn textbooks because they are not a perfect fit”. It is teachers’ duty to decide their own way of using and adapting the textbook based on learners’ needs, as Cunningsworth (1984) proposes.

No coursebook will be totally suited to a particular teaching situation. The teacher will have to find his own way of using it and adapting it if necessary. So we should not be looking for the perfect coursebook which meets all our requirement, but rather

for the best possible fit between what the coursebook offers and what we as teachers and students need. (p. 89)

Cunningsworth’s argument is supported by Allen’s (2008) argument that the main point of using a textbook is not on what is included or not included in a textbook, but on how teachers use particular materials in their classrooms.

So the most pertinent question may not be what is included (or not) in a particular textbook package but how instructors are using it (or not) in their teaching practices and why. (p. 7)

b. Characteristics of Materials in Use in Southeast Asia

According to Bao (2008), based on his personal experience, English materials used in the ASEAN member countries can be divided into three main categories. They are imported coursebooks, in-country coursebooks, and regional coursebooks.

1) Imported Coursebook

‘Imported coursebook’ also refers to ‘foreign coursebook’ or ‘global coursebook’. It is not specifically written for Southeast Asia market, but distributed in this area. When operating in regional, some materials are helpful, some are not. Teachers in Southeast Asia believe that such coursebook has strengths and weaknesses. The strengths are: a) the various illustration and pictures encourage learners to learn; b) it is more systematic in terms of tasks and exercises; c) independent learning is promoted, d) teachers are assisted with resource banks and teacher manuals, e) the language is accurate, and f) the texts are interesting, have various genres and topics. Despite of the strengths, imported coursebook also has some weaknesses. They are: a) it is not always easy for

learners with various level to understand instructions, b) sometimes the coursebook fails to present accurate cultural information and images, c) there is little opportunity for learners to express their identity due to different country or cultural background, d) imported coursebook, for some parents, are not affordable, and e) it tends to be not in line with local examination system and national education requirement.

2) In-country Coursebook

‘In-country coursebook’ refers to ‘domestic coursebook’ or ‘local coursebook’. The coursebook fulfills educational objectives or national curriculum in a certain country where it is spesifically published. In Indonesia, there are such coursebooks, which are published by Penerbit Erlangga, Yudistira, the Ministry of Education and Culture, etc. Generally, such coursebook has the following strengths: a) it promotes “national identities, religions, and political viewpoints”, b) it presents recognizable characters to the learners, like proper names, local products, etc, c) it contains many texts reflecting “sociocultural behaviour, values, beliefs, and familiar experiences” of the learners, d) it provides “convenient connection between the materials and the local educational network” (Bao, 2008: 267). Despite of the strengths, in-country coursebook also has some weaknesses. They are: a) the design does not look appealing, b) many texts translated from mother tongue to English are sometimes linguistically inaccurate and result in vague content, c) the materials are less ideal for skill-based learning, d) some presents too much amount of new vocabulary and syntactic structures,

and e) sometimes it contains too much local-culture topic which can lower learners curiosity.

3) Regional Coursebook

This kind of coursebook is unique. It is written by non-native speakers, but exported to and accepted in some countries. This coursebook share the same strengths with in-country coursebook and has two additional strengths: a) it has efficient distribution network and b) it has good market sales with attractive design. It also shares the same weaknesses with in-country coursebook with two additional weaknesses, which are: a) the materials are not applicable in some countries due to the difference in English proficiency levels.

c. The Importance of Evaluating Textbooks

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 96), “evaluation is a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose”. In this case, it judges the fitness of a textbook for particular learners, with their learning purpose, background knowledge, needs, and so on. It is not a matter of good or bad, but how a textbook helps learners achieve the required purpose.

“Evaluation is basically a matching process: matching needs to available solutions” (p. 97). This matching needs to be done as objectively as possible. To do so, the needs and solutions should be looked separately. Although in the final analysis the choice made will be subjective, the subjectivity should not influence teachers’ judgment too soon without looking at possibly useful alternatives. A

pump 54 1 0,02 quiet 54 1 0,02 rabbit 54 1 0,02 repeat 54 1 0,02 rice 54 1 0,02 rug 54 1 0,02 scissors 54 1 0,02 sharp 54 1 0,02 shower 54 1 0,02 sick 54 1 0,02 skill 54 1 0,02 soup 54 1 0,02 spade 54 1 0,02 spare 54 1 0,02 spoon 54 1 0,02 sport 54 1 0,02 stove 54 1 0,02 straight 54 1 0,02 tail 54 1 0,02 thin 54 1 0,02 wheel 54 1 0,02 worm 54 1 0,02 worry 54 1 0,02 worship 54 1 0,02 admire 54 1 0,02 bite 54 1 0,02 cheer 54 1 0,02 comfort 54 1 0,02 conversation 54 1 0,02 engineer 54 1 0,02 examining 54 1 0,02 foot 54 1 0,02 formal 54 1 0,02 inform 54 1 0,02 intend 54 1 0,02 list 54 1 0,02 pot 54 1 0,02 programme 54 1 0,02 scatter 54 1 0,02 typical 54 1 0,02 chemical 54 1 0,02

concept 54 1 0,02 convert 54 1 0,02 denote 54 1 0,02 design 54 1 0,02 environment 54 1 0,02 globe 54 1 0,02 image 54 1 0,02 indicate 54 1 0,02 mental 54 1 0,02 perceive 54 1 0,02 previous 54 1 0,02 relevant 54 1 0,02 research 54 1 0,02 status 54 1 0,02 survey 54 1 0,02 theme 54 1 0,02 widespread 54 1 0,02 cycle 54 1 0,02 define 54 1 0,02 demonstrate 54 1 0,02 instruct 54 1 0,02 item 54 1 0,02 labour 54 1 0,02 occupy 54 1 0,02 proceed 54 1 0,02 refine 54 1 0,02 stress 54 1 0,02 survive 54 1 0,02

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APPENDIX D

Word Families in ‘When English Rings the Bell’ Based on the Word Lists

General Service List of English Words 1 (GSL_1) a

about above account act active address after air all along also always and animal answer appear april arm around art article as ask at august away b ball base be bear beauty because bed before below best

between big bird black blue board book box boy bread bring brother but by c call can car care carry catch change character child choose circle city class coin college colour come condition consider continue cry cut d

dark date daughter day dear december describe determine difference do

doctor dog door down draw dream dress e each ear earth easy eat effect eight eleven end english enter evening event every example explain express eye f fact

fair family farm fast father favour february feel fellow fill find fine first fish five floor flower fly food for force four free fresh friday friend from front future g game garden gather get girl give go god

good great green group h hand hang happen happy hard have he hear heart heavy help here high hold home hope horse hot house how hundred i if important in include independent interest into introduce it j january join july june k keep kind know l lady language last late laugh learn leave let letter library like likely listen little live long look love m make manufacture many march market material may mean measure meet member mention million miss mister monday month more morning mother move mrs much must n name nation nature next night nine no not note notice november now number o object observe occasion october of off office old on one only operate opinion or other out own p paint paper part particular pass pay people person picture place plan plant play please point possible post prepare present pretty problem produce product promise protect public put q quality question r raise rank reach read really regard relation religion represent return right roll room round rule run safe sale same saturday say school science second see september seven several she short should show sign sing sir

sister sit six size sleep small so social some soon speak special stage stand stay stop strong student study subject substance succeed such summer sunday sure

surface sweet system table take talk teach tell ten the then there they thing think thirteen thirty this thousand three thursday time to today together too

touch town trade tree tuesday turn twelve twenty two u

understand up

use usual v value very visit w wall want watch water way we wear

wednesday week well west what when where which who why wild will win window with woman word work would write y year yesterday you youth

General Service List of English Words 2 (GSL_2) admire

afraid afternoon arrange attention aunt bag bath beak bicycle birth bite bottle bowl breakfast bucket

busy cage card cat caution chair cheer chicken clean clever clock cloth collect comfort conversation cook

cow crime cupboards curl delay desk dinner duck during educate elephant engineer examining feather fence foot

fork formal frame fruit fry fur garage grammar grand grass greet guess hair health hullo hut

improve inform intend international invite joke kitchen knife lamp leg lesson list lot lunch map monkey nice nose noun pack pair

pan parent park pen pencil pet pink plate police pot practise programme pronounce pump quiet rabbit rat repeat restaurant rice rug

scale scatter scissors sentence sharp shower sick sink skill skin smooth snake sorry soup spade spare spell spoon sport staff stove

straight swim tail tall telephone thank thin tomorrow typical uncle verb warn wash waste wet wheel wing worm worry worship

Academic Word List (AWL) area

chapter chemical community concept convert cycle define demonstrate denote design display

environment exhibit globe identify image indicate instruct item label labour mental occupy

partner perceive physical previous proceed process project refine register relevant remove research

schedule significant source status stress survey survive task theme tradition widespread