An analysis of vocabulary use of a Junior High School textbook
i
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree
in English Language Studies
by
Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum Student Number: 126332046
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies Sanata Dharma University
Yogyakarta-Indonesia 2014
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ii A THESIS
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
by
Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum Student Number: 126332046
Approved by
F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. ____________________ Thesis Advisor Yogyakarta, 27th January 2014
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iii A THESIS
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
by
Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum Student Number: 126332046
Defended before the Thesis Committee and Declared Acceptable
THESIS COMMITTEE
Chairperson : Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. _________ Secretary : F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. _________ Members : 1. Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. _________
2. Dr. J. Bismoko _________
Yogyakarta, 7th February 2014 The Graduate School Director Sanata Dharma University
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are ideas, phrases, and sentences by the writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody‟s ideas, phrases or sentences without a proper reference.
Yogyakarta, 7th February 2014
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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Maria Asumpta Deny Kusumaningrum
Nomor Mahasiswa : 126332046
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
AN ANALYSIS OF VOCABULARY USE OF
A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOK
beserta perangkat yang diperlukan. Dengan demikian saya memberikan hak kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya atau memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 7 Februari 2014 Yang menyatakan
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“
BELAJARLAH UNTUK MENJADI
rendah hati,
DAN
SEMOGA
ENGKAU
AKAN
LEBIH
MENGERTI
”
I dedicated this thesis to: Jesus Christ, My beloved parents, My fiancé mas Dony, …….and everyone who stays in my heart.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My biggest gratefulness and never ending gratitude go to my faithful companions, Lord Jesus Christ and Mother Mary, for endowing me with splendid blessings and love.
My deepest gratitude goes to my only one advisor Mr. F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. for his guidance and assistance during the process, his willingness to spend his time reading and correcting my thesis patiently, and his advice as well as his encouragement from the beginning of the research until the final form of this thesis.
I am also greatly indebted to the lecturers in English Language Studies, Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S, M.A. (Hons.), Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., Dr. J. Bismoko and Mr. Widya Kiswara for their comments, suggestions and support during my study. My deepest appreciation goes to Mbak Lely for helping and guiding me in the academic process.
Thanks to all KBI 2012, especially Boti, mbak Sophie, mbak Mayang, mbak Ririn, Mbak Delfin, Karman for making my days in campus colorful. My special gratitude goes to Calvin for always remembering me to do this thesis as soon as possible. I also thank Leonie Irina Mutiara, my co-researcher in doing the research, who always patiently argues her ideas and also listens to my ideas for
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me to make improvements in my thesis. My deepest thanks go to everybody who has directly or indirectly supported me in writing this thesis.
Profound thankfulness is addressed to my beloved parents, Bapak Antonius Sugeng Widodo and Ibu Agnes Indarti, for always supporting me with magnificient love and care; to my sister Silviana Danty Kusumaningtyas, whose hard work always seems admirable to me; to Simbah Putri for the spirit in life that encourages me to do the best in this life. Appreciation is also addressed to Stefanus Dony Kurniawan for always painting my days with laughter, joy, love, support and prayers.
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xii ABSTRACT
Kusumaningrum, Maria Asumpta Deny. (2014). An Analysis of Vocabulary Use of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
In learning English, vocabulary plays an important role in the second language learning. In second language learning and teaching, vocabulary knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a second language. Students learn vocabulary through textbooks. Furthermore, the size of their vocabulary determines their language performance. Vocabulary is the most important element to build their English knowledge and has strong effect on their future language learning progress. Therefore, vocabulary provided in the textbook is necessary.
Concerning this issue, this study was designed to look throughout at the vocabulary coverage and word recycling in a Junior High School textbook of
English in Focus grade seven. The textbook was published by the government. There are two problems to be solved in this research: (1) What is the vocabulary coverage of Junior High School textbook? (2) How the words are recycled?
In this research, the researcher applied corpus based analysis. The researcher collected the data from the textbook obtained the electronic book from http://bse.kemdikbud.go.id. The researcher used RANGE and the FREQUENCY program in order to analyze the data. The program, created by Nation, is available at http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/Paul_Nation. The RANGE program was used to answer first research problem, while the FREQUENCY program was used to answer the second research problem.
The findings showed that all of the chapters have not reached the appropriate level vocabulary coverage of 95%. Chapter I has the highest level of vocabulary coverage which covers 94.85%. It means that chapter I is the easiest of all chapters for students because 94.85% of tokens found in most 2,000 frequent English words. On the other hand, glossarium has the smallest result of vocabulary coverage which covers 46.81%. The result of word recycling showed that only chapter VIII has the highest occurrence numbers in more than ten times. Overall result of the whole textbook, it needs to be suplemented with other materials containing more word families and sufficient number of recycling of each word family, based on students‟ needs, characteristics, background knowledge, and wants. However, the textbook provides a lot of activities which are familiar to the students.
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xiii ABSTRAK
Kusumaningrum, Maria Asumpta Deny. (2014). An Analysis of Vocabulary Use of a Junior High School Textbook. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Dalam Bahasa Inggris, kosa kata merupakan bagian yang penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa asing. Dalam pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa asing, pengetahuan kosa kata menajdi inti dalam kompetensi berkomunikasi dan dalam perolehan pembelajaran. Siswa belajar kosa kata melalui buku. Lagipula, besarnya kosa kata mempengaruhi kompetensi bahasa mereka. Kosa kata merupakan elemen yang penting untuk membangun kompetensi Bahasa Inggris dan mempunyai peranan yang besar dalam perkembangan pembelajaran bahasa mereka di kemudian hari. Oleh karena itu, kosa kata yang tersedia dibuku sangat penting.
Menyangkut persoalan di atas, penelitian ini dibuat untuk melihat keseluruhan besarnya kosa kata dan pengulangan kata di buku SMP kelas tujuh yang berjudul English in Focus. Buku tersebut diterbitkan oleh pemerintah. Ada dua permasalahan yang dipecahkan dipenelitian ini: (1) Bagaimana besarnya kosa kata dibuku SMP? (2) Bagaimana pengulangan kosa katanya?
Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti mengaplikasikan analisis berbasis corpus. Tidak ada instrumen dalam penelitian ini karena peneliti telah mendapatkan data dari buku yang diakses dari buku elektronik di http://bse.kemdikbud.go.id. Peneliti menggunakan program RANGE dan FREQUENCY untuk menganalisis data. Program tersebut diciptakan oleh Nation. Program-program itu diciptakan
oleh Nation yang bisa didapat diwebsite
http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/staff/Paul_Nation. Program RANGE digunakan untuk manjawab permasalahan yang pertama, sedangkan program FREQUENCY digunakan untuk menjawab permasalahan yang kedua. Untuk membuat valid dalam proses analisis, peneliti menerapkan teori dari Nation dan Waring (1997); Hwang dan Nation (1995); Coady dan Nation (1988).
Data menunjukkan bahwa semua bab belum mencapai tingkat kosa kata yang sesuai yaitu 95%. Bab I mempunyai tingkat cakupan kosa kata yang paling tinggi, yaitu 94.85%. Itu berarti bahwa bab I adalah bab yang paling mudah diantara bab-bab yang lainnya karena 94.85% dari semua kata ditemukan di 2,000 kata Bahasa Inggris yang paling sering muncul. Sebaliknya, glosarium mempunyai tingkat cakupan kosa kata yang paling rendah, yaitu 46.81%. Hasil dari pengulangan kata menunjukkan bahwa glosarium yang mempunyai tingkat pengulangan kata lebih dari sepuluh kali yang paling tinggi. Dari semua hasil keseluruhan, buku ini menyediakan tingkat kesempatan belajar untuk mendalami kosa kata yang kurang. Akan tetapi, buku ini menyediakan banyak sekali latihan yang berhubungan dengan lingkungan siswa.
Kata kunci: cakupan kosa kata, pengulangan kata, buku Sekolah Menengah Pertama
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE... ... i
APPROVAL PAGE ... ii
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS... v
DEDICATION PAGE ... vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF TABLES ... . xi
ABSTRACT... xii
ABSTRAK... ... xiii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1
A.Research Background ... 1
B.Problem Identification ... 5
C.Problem Limitation ... 6
D.Problem Formulation ... 7
E. Research Objectives ... 8
F. Research Benefits ... 8
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ... 10
A.Theoretical Review ... 10
1. The Nature of Vocabulary Knowledge ... 10
a. Definition of a Word ... 10
b. Knowing a Word ... 13
c. Categories of Word Knowledge... 16
d. Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge ... 23
e. Receptive and Productive of Vocabulary Knowledge ... 27
2. Vocabulary Coverage ... 30
a. Types and Tokens ... 31
b. Word Family ... 31
3. Texbooks... 32
a. Definition of Textbooks ... 32
b. Textbooks in School Based Curriculum ... 34
c. Curriculum of Junior High School ... 35
d. Advantages and Disadvantages of Textbooks ... 36
4. Word Recycling ... 40
a. High Frequency Words ... 41
b. Academic Words ... 46
c. Technical Words ... 46
d. Low Frequency Words ... 46
5. Corpus ... 49
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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ... 53
A.Research Method ... 53
B.Nature of Data ... 55
C.Data Analysis ... 56
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 58
A.Vocabulary Coverage of English in Focus ... 58
1. Vocabulary Coverage of the Whole Textbook ... 59
2. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I ... 64
3. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II ... 65
4. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III ... 66
5. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV ... 68
6. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V ... 69
7. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI ... 70
8. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII ... 71
9. Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII ... 72
10. Vocabulary Coverage of Glossarium ... 73
B.Word Recycling in English in Focus ... 77
1. Vocabulary Recycling in the Textbook ... 78
2. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter I ... 85
3. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter II ... 86
4. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter III ... 86
5. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter IV ... 87
6. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter V ... 88
7. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter VI ... 88
8. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter VII ... 89
9. Vocabulary Recycling in Chapter VIII ... 90
10.Vocabulary Recycling in Glossarium ... 90
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 94
A.Conclusions ... 94
B.Recommendations ... 96
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LIST OF TABLES
2.1VKS Elication Scale – Self Report Categories ... 15
2.2Knowing a Word ... 19
2.3The Group of Lessons for JHS Students ... 34
4.1 Vocabulary Coverage of Whole Parts ... 51
4.2 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter I ... 54
4.3 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter II ... 55
4.4 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter III ... 57
4.5 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter IV ... 58
4.6 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter V ... 59
4.7 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VI ... 60
4.8 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VII ... 61
4.9 Vocabulary Coverage of Chapter VIII ... 63
4.10 Vocabulary Coverage of Glossarium ... 64
4.11 Vocabulary Coverage of each Chapter ... 65
4.12 Learning Opportunity each Chapter ... 66
4.13 The 20 Most Frequent Word Types ... 68
4.14 Recycling of Word Families ... 72
4.15 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter I ... 73
4.16 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter II ... 74
4.17 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter III ... 74
4.18 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter IV ... 75
4.19 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter V ... 76
4.20 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter VI ... 77
4.21 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter VII ... 77
4.22 Recycling of Word Families in Chapter VIII ... 78
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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
The first chapter contains the background of the study. It explains my reasons for doing this study, problem identification clarifies the problem that occured in field which covers the areas being discussed. The problem limitation will limit the problem in order to explain well and problem formulation is used to guide in answering the questions. Moreover, research objectives will explain the purpose of this study and benefits of the research will explicate how this will support the development of education of English teaching and learning in Indonesia.
A. Research Background
The English language is one of the most important communication tools in the world. As a second or foreign language, English is a necessary subject for all contexts because of its popularity and importance all over the world. Moreover, most of English teachers will experience that the biggest component of English learning activity is vocabulary. It means that when learning English, students must know the vocabulary. Thus, vocabulary is an essential to English learning and the foundation of all English skills.
Vocabulary becomes an important aspectto the second language learning. There are some reasons why it is important. The first reason is vocabulary knowledge is crucial to successful communication because vocabulary plays an important role in delivering meaning (Wilkins, 1972). The second reason is
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students understand the importance of vocabulary and they are eager to learn new vocabulary items (Leki and Carson, 1994). The last one, vocabulary acquisition affects language skill‟s development. According to Schonell, Meddleton, and Shaw (1956), a vocabulary of around 2,000 word families needs to be mastered to provide 95% coverage of informal conversations. In other words, vocabulary is the key element in second language (English) skills.
Knowing vocabulary is consired necessary for language learners (Schmit and McCarthy, 1997). Vocabulary expansion is essential for learners to gain proficiency in English. In second language learning and teaching, vocabulary knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a second language. Students learn vocabulary through textbooks; and the size of their vocabulary determines their language performance. Vocabulary is the most important element to build their English knowledge and has strong effect on their future language learning progress. As Ruply, Logan and Nichols (1999) state, vocabulary is the glue that hold stories, ideas, and content together and it makes comprehension accessible.
Furthermore, students are required to use English textbook to support their learning activity. Using English textbook, students will be helped to learn more vocabulary. In other words, learning vocabulary can be from textbook. Indirectly, English textbook will influence students‟ vocabulary level. Students might be helped by their teachers in selecting many texts to read in language learning tasks. Those texts can be news articles, short stories, blog entries, and materials specifically written for students. However, the text selection is not random. The
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appropriate level in selecting texts is essential for reading tasks to be effective. Then, it is difficult for teachers in deciding whether the texts are at a suitable level for their students or not. Some texts may be understood while others are not. Thus, the coverage of a text may indicate whether or not students are able to understand written input.
Some researchers have paid attention to vocabulary. According to Read (2004), studies on second language vocabulary reached a peak in the 1990s and 2000s. Different issues on vocabulary have been the focus of the studies such as vocabulary size, learning vocabulary and word repetition. A set of research reports was given by different researchers. A research on vocabulary coverage and vocabulary recycled also conducted by Mutiara (2014). The difference between this research and Mutiara‟s research is that Mutiara analyzed the vocabulary coverage and word recycling in a Junior High School textbook curriculum 2013; while this research analyzed a Junior High School textbook curriculum 2006. The title of her research is Vocabulary Coverage of Junior High School Textbook. The result showed that the textbook is appropriate for students in the beginning level of learning English. However, the total number of word family in the textbook is still far from 2,000 word families. In addition, sufficient number of the recyling is only found in a low percentage of word families. Thus, the textbook needs to be suplemented with other materials.
An overview of the research findings covering a set of research reports on vocabulary coverage was also given by Davies and Face (2006). They conducted a study on the Spanish textbooks in terms of including realistics, frequency-based
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vocabulary. They consider two different points of view. First, quantitative terms, they considered what percentage of the vocabulary in the textbooks appears in standard frequency listings of Spanish vocabulary (vice versa). Second, in qualitative terms, they considered what type of vocabulary is over-represented and under-represented in Spanish textbooks. Corpus was used in their research to know the percentage of the vocabulary in the textbooks. They chose the textbooks to be analyzed based on the textbooks that were fairly widespread use.
Alberding (2006) also did research on vocabulary level of a textbook in Japanese universities. The result shows that the textbook covers appropriate vocabulary level for students. However, the textbook is not enough vocabulary items and repetition for a year-long course. Thus, it needs supplementary materials in order to improve students‟ vocabulary level. Another research conducted by Matsuoka and Hirsh (2010) on analysis of an ELT textbook. The result shows that the textbook provides minimal opportunities for students to develop vocabulary knowledge beyond frequency and academic words. Thus, supplement with an extensive reading program and other programs with rich input to promote vocabulary development are needed.
Considering some previous research in the field of vocabulary coverage, this research also discusses vocabulary coverage. In this research, the researcher will discuss vocabulary coverage in Junior High School textbook entitled English in Focus. From the explanation above, it is clearly seen that vocabulary takes an important role in studying English especially for students. It is because they cannot avoid English although they have graduated from Junior High School or
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even from university. Facing English all the time, students are familiar with vocabulary. It means that they should always improve their size of vocabulary in order to follow their English need. If they could not improve their vocabulary size, they would not be able to follow their English lesson well.
Considering the problem above, the researcher is going to look at the vocabulary of English Junior High School textbook. This research is based on a corpus study. This study does not attempt to judge of textbook quality, but to find the vocabulary used in the textbook, with the hope that future studies will improve on the methodology used. This research can also be used as a way to help in analyzing the overall quality of textbook and help to create better English material for students.
B. Problem Identification
As stated in the background, vocabulary mastery is seen as the main element for students to the success of second language learning. It is because vocabulary mastery covers the ability to understand the vocabulary (receptive knowledge) and to use the vocabulary in the proper term (productive knowledge). It means that if students do not master vocabulary well, they will find difficulty in following their learning activity. In other words, students‟ inadequate vocabulary makes the receptive and productive English difficult to improve. In order that the condition does not hinder students‟ success in learning English, there must be an effort to enlarge students‟ vocabulary. The effort must be done seriously so that the students have an adequate vocabulary. The students will be encouraged in using English both receptively and productively if they have enough vocabulary.
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To know how many vocabulary items (word families) that the students used, the researcher will analyze using textbook. The texbook will represent the vocabulary that the students learn. From the textbook, it can be seen the vocabulary appears and used by the students.
C. Problem Limitation
The researcher will limit the problem in order to be able to explain well. It is impossible for the researcher to study all parts of vocabulary because of the limited time, finances and ability of the researcher. Vocabulary learning can be viewed in two dimensions, breadth and depth (Qian, 2002; Read, 1988; Wesche & Paribakht, 1996). Breadth of vocabulary knowledge refers to the number of words one has at least superficial knowledge of (one‟s vocabulary coverage) and can be calculated in terms of recognition, recall or production of vocabulary items. Depth of vocabulary knowledge, on the other hand, refers to how well one knows a word. Although increasing both breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge is regarded as important to improving reading comprehension (Qian, 1999, 2002; Read, 1993), breadth has attracted more attention than depth in L2 empirical studies to date. Accordingly, the aim of this research is to focus on analyzing textbook provides for promoting breadth of vocabulary knowledge.
To answer the second research question, namely, “How are the words recycled?” the researcher will limit the problem about word recycled. The word recycled is a favorable condition in vocabulary learning (Nation, 2001). Research on the effect of word recycling on vocabulary learning has focused on three variables: (1) the number of repetitions, (2) spacing of repetitions, and (3) types of
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repetitions. However, this research only focuses on the number of repetition (word recycling) to make a deep discussion.
In order to analyze how representative the vocabulary presented in English textbooks, the researcher only focuses on one Junior High School textbook. It is the English textbook of curriculum 2006 published by the government. Since the limitation of time, the researcher only analyzes one level of Junior High School English textbook in the first grade.
To get the data, the researcher analyzed the textbook. Masuhara (1998) states that teachers who conduct the process of textbook selection consider students, teachers and administrators‟ needs and wants. In Indonesia, there are a lot of textbooks published and some of them have been recommended to be used at school by the government based on the Ministry of National Decree. Considering most of schools will use English in Focus textbook published by the government, this research will analyze it. This research only focuses on one textbook in order to get sharper investigation and discussion. Although this textbook is for curriculum 2006, some of schools still use this textbook. This research tries to elaborate the vocabulary items used in the textbook to help teachers make decisions in using the textbook to support students‟ learning activity.
D. Problem Formulation
Based on the background, there are two problems addressed in this research. They are:
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2. How are the words recycled?
E. Research Objectives
It is a qualitative research which was intended to know the students‟ mastery in vocabulary represented by textbook. The purpose of the study is to assign how are the percentage of vocabulary coverage and word recycled in English Junior High School textbook. It aims to find out the number of types, tokens, and word families in JHS textbook. Moreover, it also explains the words recycled and in what context. Eventually, it can interpret whether the vocabulary meets JHS students‟ need or not. Therefore, considering the formulation of the problem, the researcher determines two objectives in the study. They are to find out:
1. The vocabulary coverage of a Junior High School textbook. 2. How the words are recycled.
After seeing the vocabulary coverage and words recycling in JHS textbooks, teachers should have enough consideration to the content of certain English textbooks, especially the vocabulary.
F. Research Benefits
This research would delve into the vocabulary coverage and its recycling in the English Junior High School textbook. Scientifically, the result of the study may show how vocabulary coverage and word recycling represented in the textbook become an important and decisive factor in second language learning, particularly in learning vocabulary.
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Practically, this research is beneficial for both students and teachers. Moreover, this research is also beneficial for the next researchers and government. For students, the research helps the students to know their vocabulary size. For teachers, this research, hopefully, will be useful for the teachers so that by knowing the vocabulary coverage and its recycling, teachers can use the best method in their learning activity. By finding the appropriate strategy in the learning process, the teachers can help their students in improving their vocabulary they have. For the next researchers, this research also helps the next researchers or anyone who feels interested in the same study. By reading this research, they can be supported and guided to do their research. And for the government, this research can also be used for government to evaluate the textbook. By reading this research, the government can evaluate whether the English textbook is well designed for improving English skills‟ Junior High School students or not.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter consists of two major parts, namely theoretical review and theoretical framework. In the first part, the researcher would like to present and clarify the review of related theories which include the nature of vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary coverage, textbooks, word recycling and corpus. By the end of this chapter, the researcher presents the framework of the theories which gives theoretical answer for the research problems.
A. Theoretical Review
This section covers the discussion about the nature of vocabulary, vocabulary coverage, textbooks, word recycling and corpus.
1. The Nature of Vocabulary Knowledge
This section will begin with the existing definitions of a word. Then it is continued to the discussion of knowing a word, word knowledge, breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge, and receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge.
a. Definitions of a Word
It is important to know what a word is when we are discussing vocabulary. There are three definitions of a word according to Carter. The first definition is an arthographic definition (Carter, 1998: 4). The definition is based on its system of spelling. A word is defined as any sequence of letters including a limited number of other characteristics such as hypen and apostrophe, bounded on other side by a
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space or punctuation mark. Carter gives further explanation that arthographic definition has some problems related to word inflections including the use of affixes and the same form of word which carries more than one meaning. This definition only focuses on the form of the word excluding the meaning which is an important aspect of word.
The second definition of a word which is stated by Carter is the minimum unit of language. According to Carter (1998: 5), a word is the minimum meaningful unit of language. Although this definition is more precise, it assumes an overt relation between individual words and the concept of meaning. The problem in this definition is on particular meanings which are carried by more than one word. It is not easy to determine whether they should be regarded as one word or more than one word.
The third definition according to Carter is related to its pronunciation. The definition is that a word will not have more than one stressed syllable (Carter, 1998: 6). The problem in this definition is on the words, for example, prepositions and conjunctions are not usually stressed.
The most well-known definition of a word is given by Poole (1999: 10) who defines a word as a minimum free form. It implies that a word is a smallest unit of language which has its own meaning or which can stand by itself. It is the most famous description. However, Aitchison (1999: 56) gives a definition related to spoken language. According to Aitchison, it is a quite unsatisfactory description because words cannot easily defined. There is still not any clear cut definition of a word. Describing the concept of a word is not simple, either in
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theoretical terms or for different applied linguistics (Read, 2000: 17). Carter (1998: 5-6) states that defining a word is difficult. Carter lists some problems encountered in defining a word, namely; (1) orthographic, free-form or stressed based definition is meaningful, but there are many words which do not match the categories, (2) defining a word as unit of meaning produces various exception and seems unclear and asymmetrical, (3) different forms of words are not necessarily regarded as different words, (4) the same form of words can have distinct and discrete meanings, and (5) the existing idioms disturb the effort of defining words. Apart from these phenomena, it seems that one thing must get more attention in the context of vocabulary learning, therefore, identifying what is involved in knowing a word rather than knowing what a word means.
b. Knowing a Word
In order to get clearer insight of a word, it is necessary to know the aspects of word knowledge. Generally, the discussions of what is meant by knowing a word emphasize the knowledge of word forms, their meanings, and their linguistics features, and the ability to use words in different modalities and varied linguistic settings (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997: 310). Furthermore, word knowledge has also been described as consisting of some components. Richards (1976: 83) suggests some features of assumptions of word knowledge. He states that knowing a word entails: (1) knowing the degree of probability of encountering that word in speech or print and the sort of words most likely to be found associated with the word. This assumption suggests that word knowledge covers the knowledge of the frequency of the word and its collocation, (2)
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knowing the limitations imposed on the use of the word according to variations of function and situation, (3) knowing a word means knowing the syntactic behaviour associated with the word. This shows that knowledge of word comprises the understanding of relationships between specific grammatical features and the word, (4) knowing a word entails knowledge of the underlying form of a word and the derivations that can be made from it. This feature implies that knowledge of words involves the knowledge of word inflections and the use of affixes, (5) knowing a word entails knowledge of the network of associations between that word and other words in the language. This indicates that lexical knowledge includes the understanding of the association between the word and other words, (6) knowing a word means knowing the semantic value of a word, and (7) knowing a word means knowing many of the different meanings associated with a word. This covers the understanding of various meaning based on the context in which the word is used. The seven aspects provide clear points that must be considered in learning vocabulary.
It is reasonable that vocabulary is related to all language learning and learners usually want to increase their store of vocabulary, regarding it as a measure of their language improvement (Jordan, 1997: 149). The learners tend to view vocabulary mastery as meaningful development in their learning. It indicates that vocabulary knowledge is very important for them to evaluate their progress in learning second language. Thus, it is necessary for them to know what skills involved in knowing a word. Wallace (1982) as cited by Jordan (1997: 150) primary source describes word knowledge as the ability to: (a) recognize it in its
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spoken or written form, (b) recall it at will, (c) relate it to an appropriate object or concept, (d) use it in the appropriate grammatical form, (e) pronounce it in a recognizable way, (f) spell it correctly, (g) use it with the words it correctly goes with (collocation), (h) use it at the appropriate level of formality and (i) be aware of its connotations and associations. The description also covers the knowledge of form, meaning and use of words.
Paribakht and Wesche (1997: 180) describe five stages of vocabulary knowledge as reflected in their Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS). The VKS is originally used to elicit self-perceived and demonstrated knowledge of specific word in written text (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997: 179). The five stages in the VKS illustrate the steps of learners‟ vocabulary development. The first two stages rely on honest reporting by the learners of test takers (Read, 2000: 132). Stage I of vocabulary development indicates that the word is totally unknown. At this stage the learners recognize neither the word nor the meaning. At Stage II of vocabulary development, however, the word is identified but the meaning is not recognized. This stage is a little higher than Stage I although the learners still do not know the meaning of the word. The next two stages, Stage III and Stage IV, indicate that the learners know both the word and its meaning. The difference between the two stages is on the degree of learners‟ conviction about the meaning of the word. Learners‟ confidence of the word meaning at Stage IV is higher than that of at Stage III, in that stage the learners confidently mention the meaning of the word. Stage V is different from the previous four stages. The difference can be seen in that previous four categories fall into receptive knowledge, while Stage V has
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moved to productive knowledge of vocabulary. At this stage the learners are able to use the word in a sentence. The five stages or categories are shown in Table 2.1 below:
Table 2.1 VKS elicitation scale – self report categories Source: Paribakht and Wesche (1997: 180)
c. Categories of Word Knowledge
Nation (1990) points out the different categories of word knowledge. He identifies four categories of word knowledge as shown in Table 2.1. According to Nation, knowing a word means; (1) knowing its form, (2) knowing its position, (3) knowing its function, and (4) knowing its meaning. Firstly, knowledge of word includes the knowledge of word form. This category covers both the spoken and written form of the word. It comprises three aspects, namely, knowledge of the spoken form, knowledge of the written form and knowledge of word parts. Knowing the spoken form of the word includes being able to recognize the word when it is heard and being able to produce the spoken form in order to express a meaning (Nation, 2001: 40). When the learners know the spoken form of a word,
Self-report categories
I I don‟t remember having seen this word before.
II I have seen this word before, but I don‟t know what it means. III I have seen this word before, and I think it means ---
(synonym or translation)
IV I know this word. It means ---. (synonym or translation)
V I can use this word in a sentence: ---. (Write a sentence)
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it means that they are able not only to catch the spoken word but also to pronounce the word, including the particularly-stressed syllables in the word.
Knowing the written form of the word is mainly related to the spelling of the word. One aspect of gaining familiarity with the written form of words is spelling (Nation, 2001: 44). It means that knowledge of word spelling is the centre of knowing the written form of the word. Furthermore, Nation argues that the ability to spell is most strongly influenced by the way learners represent the phonological structure of the language. It implies that the knowledge of sound system of the language underlies learners‟ capability to represent the spoken form of words into the written form. He also insists that the spoken form of words can be represented in learners‟ memory in different ways: as whole words, as onsets (the initial letter or letters) and rhymes (the final part of syllable), as letter names, and as phonemes.
The last aspect of knowing word form is the knowledge of word parts. It is closely related to morphology, the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Knowledge of a language implies knowledge of its morphology (Fromkin, David Blair & Peter Collins, 2000: 66). It involves the understanding of affixes and stems in making up the words. This may help the learners learn both the meaning and the form of the words because of the fact that; the affixes often have their own meaning. For example, the prefixes il-, im-, ir-, dis-, and un- carry negative meaning of the word. The specific meaning they carry
may facilitate language learners to store the meaning in mind. And, some other affixes change the parts of speech. The prefixes em- / en-, for instance, and the
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suffixes –en, -ize, -ate, and –ify change an adjective into a verb. In addition, there are also some affixes forming noun, such as; -ion, -ment, -ness, -dom, -ity, -er/-or, -ant, -ance and –ence, some others forming adjectives and also adverbs. This process is covered in morphology or the study of word formation (Gass & Selinker, 2001: 9). In brief, identifying various affixes forming different parts of speech may help learners remember the words.
Secondly, knowledge of word involves knowing its position. This category comprises the understanding of grammatical patterns and collocations. Knowing grammatical patterns of a word is related to the use of the word in a sentence. Hence, it has close relationship with grammatical behavior of the word. For instance, in what sentence patterns the word may occur and can be used whether as subject, verb, object, adverb, complement, or other functions the word may have. Thus, the knowledge of parts of speech of a word and its grammatical patterns is needed. Grammatical learning burden of a word depends on the parallel in grammatical behavior between words of related meaning (Nation, 2001: 56). This implies that the grammatical similarity of the words having related meanings will reduce the learning burden of the words. Therefore, knowing a word involves knowing its grammatical behavior. Furthermore, knowing a word also implies knowing the words which commonly collocates with. Knowing its collocations means knowing what words it typically occurs with. This feature includes the knowledge of the words or types of words most likely appear before or after the word, and the words or types of words must be used with the word. Besides, the knowledge of collocation is important in vocabulary knowledge because it covers
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the stored sequences of words which serve as the bases of learning, knowledge and use (Nation, 2001: 321). This indicates the apparent position of collocation in vocabulary knowledge.
Thirdly, knowing a word includes the knowledge of its functions. This category comprises the knowledge of its frequency and appropriateness. Knowing its frequency means recognizing whether the word frequently or rarely occurs. For example, the word student is more frequently used than the word pupil or disciple. And, knowing its appropriateness signifies the understanding whether the word is suitable for the context or in which it occurs or not. For instance, the word reserve
or book is more appropriate than the word order when it is used in the context of hotel room reservation. It is clear that this lexical knowledge category is strongly related to the context in which a word is used. Constraints or limitations of word use derive from the way of translating L2 into L1 or from the context in which the word is used (Nation, 2001: 57). This comprises the usage labels shown in dictionaries and the distinctive frequency of a word. Moreover, it is said to be different across cultures. It is understandable, therefore, that it is most likely influenced by the context in which the word is used. Undoubtedly, different countries may provide different contexts of using the word because of their different cultural settings. It can be said that certain words or terms commonly used in a country, especially the terms referring to certain cultures, may not be frequently used in different countries. The term bull-fighting, for example, will be familiar and frequently used in Spain but it will not in other countries which do not have the similar culture. This happens because bull-fighting is one of the
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cultural backgrounds in Spain. The use of the term is limited to particular cultural settings. In brief, knowledge of word use entails the understanding of usage of the word.
Table 2.2 Knowing a word Source: Nation (1990: 31) Form Spoken form Written form Position Grammatical patterns Collocations Function Frequency Appropriateness Meaning Concept Associations
R What does the word sound like? P How is the word pronounced? R What does the word look like? P How is the word written and spelled? R In what patterns does the word occur? P In what pattern must we use the word?
R What words or types of words can be expected before or after the word?
P What words or types of words must we use with this word?
R How common is the word?
P How often the word should be used? R Where would we expect to meet this word? P Where can this word be used?
R What does the word mean?
P What word should be used to express this meaning? R What other words does this word make us think of? P What other words could we use instead of this one?
The last, knowing a word involves knowing its meaning. Learners usually think that knowing a word means knowing the spoken or written form of the word and its meaning (Nation, 2001: 47). It sounds reasonable because learners normally deal with the form and meaning when they learn new words. But there is still one aspect that may help learners reduce the learning burden of words. They need also to be able to connect the two aspects; knowing the form and meaning. Since they establish the learners‟ readiness in retrieving the meaning when seeing or hearing the word form or getting back the word form when wishing to express
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the meaning (Nation, 2001: 48). It seems that knowing the meaning of the word cannot be separated from the knowledge of its form. Therefore, the relationship between meaning and form constitutes a significant concept of knowing a word. Knowing a language means knowing how to relate sounds and meaning (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2004: 4). It can be concluded, then, that form-meaning connection finally may lead the learners to be able to understand and produce the word.
As a matter of fact, many words which have a lot of different meanings exist in a dictionary. Some of the meanings are related to each other, but some others are not. In order to learn such words, there must be a clear guidance to determine whether the word having different meanings must be considered as the same or as distinct words. In this case, Nation‟s idea can be used to overcome the problem. He states that the words having the same form, including identical written forms and spoken forms, but carrying different meanings should be regarded as different words (Nation, 2001: 49). Treating such words as different words helps the learners differentiate their meanings particularly when they are in use. The appropriate meaning of the word can be identified by looking at the context in which it occurs. It is called contextual variation in meaning or contextual variability (Nagy, 1997: 65). Hence, knowing a word also involves knowing the different meanings carried by a word.
According to Nagy, there are two kinds of contextual variation in meaning: (1) sense selection. It is a process in which a word is regarded as having two or more senses, and they must be selected contextually. In this case, language
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users hold a permanent internal representation of each related meaning, and when the word form is found they have to choose the suitable sense from those stored in their brain (Nation, 2001: 50), and (2) reference specification. In this variation the interpretation of a word in particular context is more specific than the meaning stored in human memory. In this case, language users have a fundamental concept of a word which is suitable with a set of meanings of the word in use, and language learners have to determine what real items the word refers to (Nation, 2001: 50). It is in line with what Carter (1998: 15) says that lexical words have a referent and it is almost impossible to communicate in a language without reference. Seeing the importance of reference in communication, it is necessary to identify what is meant by referent. A referent is the object, entity, state of affairs, etc. in the external world to which a lexical item refers (Carter, 1998: 15). For this reason, it is acceptable that knowing the meaning of a word also entails the knowledge of concept – what the word means, and referents – what the word refers to. However, the researcher also has her own definition aimed in this research. In this research, a word is defined as the smallest unit of language, it has own meaning and it can stand by itself.
Dealing with students who learn vocabulary, Bogaards (2000) argues that L2 learners may be assumed to learn not only word but also lexical units. In this case, he identifies six aspects of lexical knowledge, namely; form, meaning, morphology, syntax, collocation, and discourse. The first five elements are the similar aspects mentioned by other experts. The sixth aspect – discourse, however, is a deeper knowledge of vocabulary. It deals with knowledge of styles, register,
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and appropriateness of particular senses of a same word which is not easy for L2 learners to acquire (Bogaards, 2000: 493). In other words, the last aspect– discourse- is strongly related to the context of language use. It means that there is certain role played by vocabulary in a discourse. In this case, Nation (2001: 205) identifies two aspects related to vocabulary use in a text, namely: vocabulary use signals and contributes to the uniqueness of the text. What makes the text different from other texts, and vocabulary use carries general discourse messages shared with other similar texts. This shows the importance of vocabulary use in carrying the communicative purposes of a text.
Knowledge of vocabulary can be viewed from different perspectives. Among the various views, the notion of „breadth and depth of knowledge‟ and „receptive and productive knowledge‟ is a comprehensive discussion of vocabulary knowledge. In order to get clearer description of vocabulary knowledge, the following subsections present the discussion of various ideas given by different experts.
d. Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge
The term „breadth of vocabulary knowledge‟ usually refers to vocabulary size of the learners. Vocabulary size refers to the number of words that a person knows (Read, 2000: 31). Learners‟ vocabulary size is most likely related to their ability in understanding both written and spoken texts. This implies that the greater vocabulary size the learners have, the more easily they understand the texts they read or listen. This also means that vocabulary knowledge mainly deals with the range of different words and proper understanding of the words.
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Nonetheless, it should not be supposed that if a learner has adequate vocabulary then all aspects in language learning become easy and it should not also be thought that significant vocabulary knowledge is always a prerequisite to language skill performance (Nation & Waring, 1997 in Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997: 6). To this extent, knowledge of words is operationalized as the ability to translate L2 vocabulary into L1, to define the word correctly, or to say the word differently and therefore, vocabulary knowledge is defined as precise comprehension (Henriksen, 1999: 305). This stage of vocabulary knowledge falls into the „partial-precise knowledge‟ of vocabulary.
Various studies on vocabulary size, lexical growth, and the number of words gained overtime have been conducted by different researchers. The focus of such studies is mainly on measuring the number of vocabulary, such as; counting the number of words recognized by native speakers (D‟Anna, Zechmeister & Hall, 1991; Goulden, Nation & Read, 1999), the amount of words required by native speakers (Hazenberg & Hulsjin, 1996; Laufer, 1992), the number of words gained from incidental exposure while reading (Huckin, Haynes & Coady, 1993; Nagy, Herman & Anderson, 1985), and the amount of words learned by applying different exercises, techniques and strategies (Avila & Sadoski, 1996; Cohen & Aphek, 1980). Such research, however, does not lead to sufficient understanding of vocabulary acquisition and does not explain how individual words are acquired (Schmitt, 1998: 282). This condition underlies the emerge depth of knowledge perspective which likely clarifies the issue.
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The result of a study conducted by Goulden, Nation, and Read (1990) show that educated English native speakers know around 2,000 word families. The native speakers add 1,000 word families to their vocabulary per year. However, it is possible for learners of English as a second language (non-native speakers). According to Schmitt (2000), the first 2,000 most frequent types of English is referred as the level for the basic initial goal of second language learners. However, only the first 1,000 most frequent types needs to be recognized by elementary level students and 2,000 most frequent types needs to be recognized by intermediate level students (Sánchez & Criado, 2009).
Depth of knowledge, on the other hand, emphasizes more on the quality of the learners‟ vocabulary knowledge covering the full understanding or rich meaning representation of a word (Henriksen, 1999: 305). The full understanding or rich meaning of a word can be gained by looking at its relations or associations with other words and its contexts. A depth knowledge continuum includes knowledge of the word‟s syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations with other words (Laufer & Paribakht, 1998: 367). The focus of studies on depth of knowledge is different from that of breadth knowledge. It focuses on individual words rather than on the overall growth of vocabulary (Schmitt, 1998: 282). It means that the aspect of depth of knowledge stresses more on the learners‟ knowledge of individual words including its referential meanings and its relations to other words. In other words, it most likely deals with the range of meanings carried by individual words. It also describes how well the learners understand the appropriate meaning of a word when it is used in different contexts.
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Understanding the context in which a word occurs in particularly needed by advanced learners. It is important for advance learners to acquire more senses of polysemous words and learn more about possible collocates, special uses, and so on (Bogaards, 2000: 495). This indicates that they most likely deal with depth of knowledge vocabulary. By taking into account the context in which a word occurs, the proper meaning can eventually be found and understood. For that reason, context constitutes an aspect that is apparently inseparable from depth of knowledge of vocabulary.
The proponents of depth of vocabulary knowledge (Paribakht & Wesche, 1993, 1997; Read, 1993; Schmitt, 1998; Viberg, 1993; Wesche & Paribakht, 1996) state that most of the existing vocabulary tests or the traditional vocabulary tests only measure partial knowledge, particularly recognition. Therefore, they develop tests to measure wider and deeper aspects of lexical knowledge. Using such tests, they assess the aspects such as; basic understanding, full understanding, correct use, sensitivity to collocation and word association. Nevertheless, different test models should be accommodated in order to cover various features of knowledge being tested. Henriksen (1999: 306) argues the researchers must use the combination of tests formats tapping distinct aspects of knowledge to describe the learner‟s lexical competence related to the aspects of quality or depth of vocabulary knowledge. In their research, Laufer and Paribakht (1998) classify word knowledge into three types, namely, passive, controlled active and free active knowledge. Passive vocabulary knowledge is defined as understanding its most frequent meaning. Controlled active knowledge is
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described as a cue recall of the word. And free active knowledge is referred to spontaneous use of a word in context. The three aspects show that what they investigate is fairly deeper than merely word recognition which is the concern of breadth of vocabulary knowledge.
In his research which tracks the acquisition of 11 words over a year course for three adult learners having advance English proficiency, Schmitt (1998) measures four elements of lexical knowledge: spelling, associations, grammatical information, and meaning. The study aims at explaining the acquisition of individual words. According to Schmitt, an acquisition study focusing on individual words or depth of vocabulary knowledge needs to include some aspects; firstly, the study must map the vocabulary development within individual person. Secondly, it should be longitudinal in nature. Thirdly, measurement procedures which are appropriate to measure the degree of lexical knowledge are needed. And, complete lexical mastery needs more than knowledge of word form and meaning. Furthermore, he argues that the ability to measure the degree of depth of knowledge for each word is needed in investigating the incremental acquisition of individual words. Involving the four aspects in the study will likely lead to a better explanation of words are acquired.
e. Receptive and Productive of Vocabulary Knowledge
Knowledge of a language makes it possible to understand and produce new sentences (Fromkin, Blair & Collins, 2000: 7). This implies the notion of receptive and productive use of language. Hence, the knowledge of vocabulary is essentially needed to support the language use. This signifies the emergence of the
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term receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary. This term is widely used although in terms of lexicon it is almost impossible to find a clear and adequate definition of what is meant by reception and production (Melka, 1997: 84). What is clear about receptive-productive continuum is that it mainly deals with how well the learner can access and use a word (Laufer & Paribakht, 1998: 367). Melka argues that knowing a word is closely related to the concept of word familiarity or degrees of knowledge. The concept labels productive knowledge as
higher degrees of knowledge. It includes the knowing of various meanings of a polysemous word and the knowing of collocations or idioms. The knowledge of phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis and appropriateness is regarded as very high degrees of familiarity and therefore the production process needs a more complete set of information (Melka, 1997: 86-87). Nevertheless, Melka does not describe to what extent the degrees of familiarity is called receptive knowledge. There are various stages of recognition and the boundary of word recognition is at the stage when the word is stored incompletely or when word production is still impossible (Melka, 1997: 88). This shows that there is still not any clear definition of what is meant by reception and production. Nevertheless, vocabulary knowledge can be best represented as a continuum with the initial stage being recognition and the final being production (Gass & Selinker, 2001: 375). It means that reception or recognition cannot be separated from production but it must be viewed as an interrelated process.
The dichotomy between reception and production looks convenient for vocabulary teaching especially for some practical and pedagogical purposes but
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the two notions should be avoided and even abandoned because of their fuzziness (Melka, 1997: 99). This is overtly contradictory to the fact that empirically the term is commonly used to refer to the passive and active use of language. As a matter of fact, vocabulary, as the centre of the language, always plays its role in both passive and active use of language. Besides, most models of lexical knowledge distinguish between passive/receptive and active/productive vocabulary (Laufer & Paribakht, 1998: 368). The passive use of language is mostly related to two skills, namely, listening and reading. This can be seen in that the aim of listening activity is to understand the spoken language and that of reading is to comprehend the written text. The process of understanding occurs in mind. The language users most likely use their knowledge of vocabulary to comprehend the meaning of the spoken/written texts. Researchers agree that word comprehension does not automatically determine the accuracy of word use and that passive/receptive knowledge generally precedes active/productive knowledge (Laufer & Paribakht, 1998: 369). At passive/receptive level, therefore, the language users mostly do not produce any spoken/written language. That is why it is called the passive use of language.
On the other hand, active use of language is inseparable from the other two language skills – speaking and writing. In speaking, the speaker actively conveys messages to the listeners. In this case, spoken language is produced. In addition, writing activity aims at communicating the researcher‟s ideas to the reader. Therefore, written language is produced as a mean of conveying the ideas. It
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seems clearer now that in listening/reading the listener/reader uses the language passively, whereas in speaking and writing the language is used actively.
The receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary is discussed comprehensively by Nation (1990: 31-33). He argues that the receptive dimension of vocabulary knowledge entails (1) being able to recognize it when it is heard or when it is seen, (2) having an expectation of what grammatical pattern the word will occur in, (3) having some expectation of the words which will collocate with it, (4) knowing its frequency and appropriateness, (5) being able to recall its meaning, (6) being able to make different associations with other related words. Likewise, productive knowledge also covers some aspects of vocabulary knowledge which expand the receptive knowledge. Productive knowledge of vocabulary involves; (a) knowing how to pronounce the word, (b) how to write and spell it, (c) how to use it in correct grammatical patterns along with the words usually collocate with, (d) how to avoid using low frequency word too often and use it in suitable situations, (e) how to use the word to stand for the meaning it represents, and (f) how to be able to think of suitable replacement of the word (if there are any). Those aspects including the scope of receptive and productive knowledge are classified into five categories of knowing a word; knowing its form, knowing its position, knowing its function, and knowing its meaning (see Table 2.1).
2. Vocabulary Coverage
Since this research is trying to find the vocabulary coverage in textbook. It takes the important role to explain more about types, tokens and word families.
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a. Types and Tokens
According to Nation and Meara (2002), a token or running word is main term if we are going to count how long a textbook is. Nation and Meara (2002) also define token as all of the words that occur in the textbook. For example, the word school should be counted every time it occurs. It is different with types. If we are going to count types, we do not need to count all of the words. The same words are only counted once even it occurs more than one. Nation (1983: 10) puts the example of tokens and types in the sentence: The red house belongs to the girl with red shirt. This sentence contains ten tokens and eight types.
b. Word Family
The term of word family is a main point in deciding the vocabulary load of texts (Bauer & Nation, 1993). Discussing word family, we also have to know about lemmas. Nation and Meara (2002) define a lemma as a set of related words which have the stem form and inflected forms. They also come from the same part of speech. For example, write, wrote, written are in the same lemma. Since they have the same stem and they are verb. Furthermore, affixes and suffixes whose the same stems are also included in word family. Words under the same word family do not have to be in the same part of speech.
Nation and Meara (2002) clarify that in some cases, there are some groups of words that are usually used together, such as have a nice day and nice to meet you. Those words are called multi word units (MWU). When we meet those kinds of words, they are used and analyzed in units. The criterion of MWU is that there is no word which can be replaced by other words. In this research, however,
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the researcher will ignore MWU and consider MWU as separate words. Since in this research, MWU is counted as separate words.
3. Textbooks
In this section, the researcher would like to talk about the definition of textbooks, which covers some definitions of textbooks from different experts. After that the researcher would like to talk about textbooks in school based curriculum. Next, the researcher will talk about curriculum of Junior High School, English textbook for Junior High School, advantages and disadvantages of textbooks, and the last is about the criteria of good textbooks.
a. Definition of Textbooks
In education, textbooks have taken very important role in education. It is because textbooks and education cannot be separated. According to Brewster et al.; 2001, Brown, 2001; Byrd, 2001; and Graves, 2000, textbooks still contribute a lot to the educational system. Textbooks are ubiquitous of every educational system. Brewster et al (2001) state that textbooks are learning aids. Graves (2000: 174) is in line with Brewster et al. Graves mentions that textbooks are teaching tools. As aids or tools, textbooks help teachers and learners do the process of study. National Educational Department of Indonesia (2005: 5) states that a textbook is a learning media which has important role in the classroom. As a teaching media, textbooks present the curriculum material in an instructional system. Richards (2001: 251) says that textbooks serve as the basis for much of the language input learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. They provide goals, process and the most obvious and common
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material of an instruction and educational planning. Byrd (2001: 415) says that the most obvious and the most common form of material support for language instruction comes through textbooks. It is unlikely that textbooks shape much of what happens in the classroom.
Textbook is like a motorcycle. A motorcycle cannot operate by itself without a rider. As well as a textbook, a textbook needs a teacher who can use it maximally to give maximum benefits. A teacher, as a rider, needs to know what kinds of conditions he has to go. Thus, he needs to know the administrators‟ needs especially on curriculum which leads to the process to a certain goal. Masuhara (1998: 247-249) explains that good textbooks meet teachers, learners and administrators‟ needs and wants.
From all above definitions of textbooks, the researcher tends to say that a textbook is not only a learning aid or a teaching tool. However, a textbook is the basic thing of an educational system which provides goals, process and the most obvious and common material of an instruction. With various activities and tasks, textbooks will help teachers and students achieve the goals of the instruction.
The researcher has told about the definition textbooks from some experts. All of them mix the understanding of textbook and course book. However, Tomlinson (1998) differentiates textbook and course book. He says that a course book is a textbook which provides core material for course. It aims to provide as much as possible in one book and it is designed so that it could serve as the only book which the learners necessarily use during a course, such as a book usually includes work on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, function and the skill of
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321
PARTICIPATING 1972 1 0.00 98.39 PAT 1973 1 0.00 98.40 PATIENT 1974 1 0.00 98.40 PAYS 1975 1 0.00 98.40 PEAK 1976 1 0.00 98.41 PEARL-DIVERS 1977 1 0.00 98.41 PERFORM 1978 1 0.00 98.42 PERFORMED 1979 1 0.00 98.42 PETS 1980 1 0.00 98.43 PHOTOGRAPH 1981 1 0.00 98.43 PHOTOGRAPHER 1982 1 0.00 98.43 PHOTOGRAPHS 1983 1 0.00 98.44 PHOTOS 1984 1 0.00 98.44 PICNIC 1985 1 0.00 98.45 PIES 1986 1 0.00 98.45 PINCH 1987 1 0.00 98.46 PIPE 1988 1 0.00 98.46 PLACED 1989 1 0.00 98.46 PLAEP 1990 1 0.00 98.47 PLAIN 1991 1 0.00 98.47 PLAN 1992 1 0.00 98.48 PLANS 1993 1 0.00 98.48 PLANT 1994 1 0.00 98.49 PLANTING 1995 1 0.00 98.49 PLASTIC 1996 1 0.00 98.49 PLAYER 1997 1 0.00 98.50 PLAYMATES 1998 1 0.00 98.50 PLAYS 1999 1 0.00 98.51 PLENTY 2000 1 0.00 98.51 POCKET 2001 1 0.00 98.52 POETRY 2002 1 0.00 98.52 POINT 2003 1 0.00 98.52 POLAR 2004 1 0.00 98.53 POPULAR 2005 1 0.00 98.53 POSITION 2006 1 0.00 98.54
POSITIVELY 2007 1 0.00 98.54 POT 2008 1 0.00 98.55 POTTING 2009 1 0.00 98.55 POWDER 2010 1 0.00 98.55 POWER 2011 1 0.00 98.56 POWERTOOLS 2012 1 0.00 98.56 PRAWN 2013 1 0.00 98.57 PRAYER 2014 1 0.00 98.57 PREFER 2015 1 0.00 98.58 PREPARATIONS 2016 1 0.00 98.58 PREPOSITIONAL 2017 1 0.00 98.59 PRESIDENT 2018 1 0.00 98.59 PRESSED 2019 1 0.00 98.59 PRETTY 2020 1 0.00 98.60 PRIMARY 2021 1 0.00 98.60 PRINCIPAL 2022 1 0.00 98.61 PRINTABLE 2023 1 0.00 98.61 PROBLEMS 2024 1 0.00 98.62 PRODUCE 2025 1 0.00 98.62 PRODUCED 2026 1 0.00 98.62 PRODUCT 2027 1 0.00 98.63 PROGRAM 2028 1 0.00 98.63 PROGRAMMES 2029 1 0.00 98.64 PROHIBITED 2030 1 0.00 98.64 PROHIBITS 2031 1 0.00 98.65 PROJECT 2032 1 0.00 98.65 PROPER 2033 1 0.00 98.65 PROPERLY 2034 1 0.00 98.66 PROTEIN 2035 1 0.00 98.66 PROVIDE 2036 1 0.00 98.67 PROVIDED 2037 1 0.00 98.67 PROVIDES 2038 1 0.00 98.68 PROVINCE 2039 1 0.00 98.68 PROVINCES 2040 1 0.00 98.68 PULL 2041 1 0.00 98.69
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322
PURPLE 2042 1 0.00 98.69 PUTS 2043 1 0.00 98.70 PYJAMAS 2044 1 0.00 98.70 QUALITY 2045 1 0.00 98.71 QUICKLY 2046 1 0.00 98.71 RACKS 2047 1 0.00 98.71 RAIN 2048 1 0.00 98.72 RAINING 2049 1 0.00 98.72 RANGE 2050 1 0.00 98.73 RARE 2051 1 0.00 98.73 RATE 2052 1 0.00 98.74 REACH 2053 1 0.00 98.74 REAM 2054 1 0.00 98.74 REASONS 2055 1 0.00 98.75 RECEIVING 2056 1 0.00 98.75 RECENTLY 2057 1 0.00 98.76 RECEPTIONIST 2058 1 0.00 98.76 RECEPTIONISTS 2059 1 0.00 98.77 RECIPES 2060 1 0.00 98.77 RECOGNISE 2061 1 0.00 98.77 RECOMMENDED 2062 1 0.00 98.78 RECORDS 2063 1 0.00 98.78 RECOUNT 2064 1 0.00 98.79 REFER 2065 1 0.00 98.79 REFERS 2066 1 0.00 98.80 REFLECT 2067 1 0.00 98.80 REGARDS 2068 1 0.00 98.81 REGIONS 2069 1 0.00 98.81 REGISTER 2070 1 0.00 98.81 RELATED 2071 1 0.00 98.82 RELAX 2072 1 0.00 98.82 RELAXED 2073 1 0.00 98.83 REPAIRED 2074 1 0.00 98.83 REQUESTED 2075 1 0.00 98.84 REQUESTING 2076 1 0.00 98.84
RESPECTS 2077 1 0.00 98.84 RESPONDING 2078 1 0.00 98.85 RESPONSIBLE 2079 1 0.00 98.85 RESULT 2080 1 0.00 98.86 RETELL 2081 1 0.00 98.86 RIDES 2082 1 0.00 98.87 ROBOT 2083 1 0.00 98.87 ROCKY 2084 1 0.00 98.87 ROUND 2085 1 0.00 98.88 RUNNING 2086 1 0.00 98.88 RUPIAH 2087 1 0.00 98.89 SAILORS 2088 1 0.00 98.89 SAME 2089 1 0.00 98.90 SANDALS 2090 1 0.00 98.90 SANDWICHES 2091 1 0.00 98.90 SCATTER 2092 1 0.00 98.91 SCHOOLYARD 2093 1 0.00 98.91 SCIENTISTS 2094 1 0.00 98.92 SCORE 2095 1 0.00 98.92 SCORED 2096 1 0.00 98.93 SCRAPBOOKS 2097 1 0.00 98.93 SEEM 2098 1 0.00 98.93 SEEN 2099 1 0.00 98.94 SELL 2100 1 0.00 98.94 SELLING 2101 1 0.00 98.95 SENIOR 2102 1 0.00 98.95 SERIOUS 2103 1 0.00 98.96 SERIOUSLY 2104 1 0.00 98.96 SERVICE 2105 1 0.00 98.96 SERVING 2106 1 0.00 98.97 SETTEE 2107 1 0.00 98.97 SEVEN 2108 1 0.00 98.98 SEX 2109 1 0.00 98.98 SHALLOTS 2110 1 0.00 98.99 SHAPES 2111 1 0.00 98.99
(3)
323
SHARE 2112 1 0.00 98.99 SHARP 2113 1 0.00 99.00 SHED 2114 1 0.00 99.00 SHEET 2115 1 0.00 99.01 SHEETS 2116 1 0.00 99.01 SHELTER 2117 1 0.00 99.02 SHINES 2118 1 0.00 99.02 SHINING 2119 1 0.00 99.03 SHIRTS 2120 1 0.00 99.03 SHIVER 2121 1 0.00 99.03 SHOOK 2122 1 0.00 99.04 SHOOT 2123 1 0.00 99.04 SHOPKEEPER 2124 1 0.00 99.05 SHOPS 2125 1 0.00 99.05 SHOWN 2126 1 0.00 99.06 SHOWS 2127 1 0.00 99.06 SHRIMPS 2128 1 0.00 99.06 SHRINKS 2129 1 0.00 99.07 SICKLE 2130 1 0.00 99.07 SIDES 2131 1 0.00 99.08 SILENTLY 2132 1 0.00 99.08 SINGING 2133 1 0.00 99.09 SINGS 2134 1 0.00 99.09 SINK 2135 1 0.00 99.09 SIRLOIN 2136 1 0.00 99.10 SITE 2137 1 0.00 99.10 SITUATED 2138 1 0.00 99.11 SIZE 2139 1 0.00 99.11 SKATEBOARDING 2140 1 0.00 99.12 SKIN 2141 1 0.00 99.12 SKY 2142 1 0.00 99.12 SLEEK 2143 1 0.00 99.13 SLEEVED 2144 1 0.00 99.13 SLICE 2145 1 0.00 99.14 SLIM 2146 1 0.00 99.14
SLIPPERY 2147 1 0.00 99.15 SLOW 2148 1 0.00 99.15 SMELLS 2149 1 0.00 99.15 SMILING 2150 1 0.00 99.16 SMOKES 2151 1 0.00 99.16 SMOKING 2152 1 0.00 99.17 SMOOTH 2153 1 0.00 99.17 SNAKES 2154 1 0.00 99.18 SNORING 2155 1 0.00 99.18 SOAKED 2156 1 0.00 99.18 SOCCER 2157 1 0.00 99.19 SOFT 2158 1 0.00 99.19 SOLDIER 2159 1 0.00 99.20 SOLID 2160 1 0.00 99.20 SOMEDAY 2161 1 0.00 99.21 SON-IN-LAW 2162 1 0.00 99.21 SONGS 2163 1 0.00 99.21 SOY 2164 1 0.00 99.22 SPACES 2165 1 0.00 99.22 SPEAKER 2166 1 0.00 99.23 SPECIAL 2167 1 0.00 99.23 SPECIALITY 2168 1 0.00 99.24 SPECIFICALLY 2169 1 0.00 99.24 SPEED 2170 1 0.00 99.25 SPENT 2171 1 0.00 99.25 SPOON 2172 1 0.00 99.25 SPOONS 2173 1 0.00 99.26 SPRAY 2174 1 0.00 99.26 SPREAD 2175 1 0.00 99.27 SPRINGY 2176 1 0.00 99.27 STAFF 2177 1 0.00 99.28 STALKS 2178 1 0.00 99.28 STAMINA 2179 1 0.00 99.28 STANDING 2180 1 0.00 99.29 STARVE 2181 1 0.00 99.29
(4)
324
STATE 2182 1 0.00 99.30 STATIONERY 2183 1 0.00 99.30 STEEL 2184 1 0.00 99.31 STEREOS 2185 1 0.00 99.31 STEWARDESS 2186 1 0.00 99.31 STICKERS 2187 1 0.00 99.32 STOCK 2188 1 0.00 99.32 STOOL 2189 1 0.00 99.33 STOPPED 2190 1 0.00 99.33 STOREWIDE 2191 1 0.00 99.34 STORIES 2192 1 0.00 99.34 STORING 2193 1 0.00 99.34 STORYBOOKS 2194 1 0.00 99.35 STOVES 2195 1 0.00 99.35 STREET 2196 1 0.00 99.36 STRONGER 2197 1 0.00 99.36 STRONGLY 2198 1 0.00 99.37 STURDY 2199 1 0.00 99.37 STYLE 2200 1 0.00 99.37 SUBUNIT 2201 1 0.00 99.38 SUGGEST 2202 1 0.00 99.38 SUGGESTION 2203 1 0.00 99.39 SUIT 2204 1 0.00 99.39 SUNBATHING 2205 1 0.00 99.40 SUNDAYS 2206 1 0.00 99.40 SUNGLASSES 2207 1 0.00 99.40 SUNLIGHT 2208 1 0.00 99.41 SUNNY 2209 1 0.00 99.41 SUPERPORRIDGE 2210 1 0.00 99.42 SURFBOARD 2211 1 0.00 99.42 SURPRISE 2212 1 0.00 99.43 SURPRISING 2213 1 0.00 99.43 SWAP 2214 1 0.00 99.43 SWEATER 2215 1 0.00 99.44 SWEEPING 2216 1 0.00 99.44
SWEET 2217 1 0.00 99.45 SWIM 2218 1 0.00 99.45 SWIMSUIT 2219 1 0.00 99.46 SYMBOLS 2220 1 0.00 99.46 SYMPATHY 2221 1 0.00 99.47 TAIL 2222 1 0.00 99.47 TATION 2223 1 0.00 99.47 TAXI 2224 1 0.00 99.48 TAXIS 2225 1 0.00 99.48 TEACHES 2226 1 0.00 99.49 TEAM 2227 1 0.00 99.49 TEASPOONFUL 2228 1 0.00 99.50 TEENAGER 2229 1 0.00 99.50 TELECOMMUNICATION 2230 1 0.00 99.50 TEMPLE 2231 1 0.00 99.51 TENGGER 2232 1 0.00 99.51 TERASI 2233 1 0.00 99.52 TERM 2234 1 0.00 99.52 THALITA 2235 1 0.00 99.53 THEME 2236 1 0.00 99.53 THICKENS 2237 1 0.00 99.53 THICKER 2238 1 0.00 99.54 THIRTEEN 2239 1 0.00 99.54 THOUGHT 2240 1 0.00 99.55 THROAT 2241 1 0.00 99.55 TIDE 2242 1 0.00 99.56 TIDY 2243 1 0.00 99.56 TIMETABLE 2244 1 0.00 99.56 TIN 2245 1 0.00 99.57 TINY 2246 1 0.00 99.57 TIRED 2247 1 0.00 99.58 TITLE 2248 1 0.00 99.58 TOE 2249 1 0.00 99.59 TONGUE 2250 1 0.00 99.59 TONIGHT 2251 1 0.00 99.59
(5)
325
TOOTH 2252 1 0.00 99.60 TOP 2253 1 0.00 99.60 TOPIC 2254 1 0.00 99.61 TOUCH 2255 1 0.00 99.61 TRACE 2256 1 0.00 99.62 TRACK 2257 1 0.00 99.62 TRADITONAL 2258 1 0.00 99.62 TRAINER 2259 1 0.00 99.63 TRANSMISSION 2260 1 0.00 99.63 TREES 2261 1 0.00 99.64 TRIBES 2262 1 0.00 99.64 TRICK 2263 1 0.00 99.65 TRIES 2264 1 0.00 99.65 TRIP 2265 1 0.00 99.65 TRUCKS 2266 1 0.00 99.66 TRUTH 2267 1 0.00 99.66 TURNS 2268 1 0.00 99.67 TVS 2269 1 0.00 99.67 TWINKLE 2270 1 0.00 99.68 TWO-STOREY 2271 1 0.00 99.68 TYPEWRITER 2272 1 0.00 99.69 TYPICALLY 2273 1 0.00 99.69 TYPING 2274 1 0.00 99.69 UGLY 2275 1 0.00 99.70 UH-HU 2276 1 0.00 99.70 UMBER 2277 1 0.00 99.71 UNBELIEVABLE 2278 1 0.00 99.71 UNDERLINED 2279 1 0.00 99.72 UNGRATEFUL 2280 1 0.00 99.72 UNIQUENESS 2281 1 0.00 99.72 UNIT 2282 1 0.00 99.73 UNIVERSITY 2283 1 0.00 99.73 UNUSUAL 2284 1 0.00 99.74 UPPER 2285 1 0.00 99.74 UPS 2286 1 0.00 99.75
UPSET 2287 1 0.00 99.75 URUGUAY 2288 1 0.00 99.75 VARIETY 2289 1 0.00 99.76 VESSEL 2290 1 0.00 99.76 VIEW 2291 1 0.00 99.77 VIEWERS 2292 1 0.00 99.77 VIRUSES 2293 1 0.00 99.78 VISION 2294 1 0.00 99.78 VISITS 2295 1 0.00 99.78 VITAMINS 2296 1 0.00 99.79 VOLLEYBALL 2297 1 0.00 99.79 VOLUME 2298 1 0.00 99.80 VOWELS 2299 1 0.00 99.80 WAIST 2300 1 0.00 99.81 WAITS 2301 1 0.00 99.81 WALK 2302 1 0.00 99.81 WALLET 2303 1 0.00 99.82 WALLS 2304 1 0.00 99.82 WARDROBE 2305 1 0.00 99.83 WAREHOUSE 2306 1 0.00 99.83 WARMTH 2307 1 0.00 99.84 WARN 2308 1 0.00 99.84 WARNING 2309 1 0.00 99.84 WASHES 2310 1 0.00 99.85 WASHING 2311 1 0.00 99.85 WAVES 2312 1 0.00 99.86 WAVING 2313 1 0.00 99.86 WAVY 2314 1 0.00 99.87 WEATHER 2315 1 0.00 99.87 WEEKLY 2316 1 0.00 99.87 WEIGH 2317 1 0.00 99.88 WENT 2318 1 0.00 99.88 WEST 2319 1 0.00 99.89 WESTLIFE 2320 1 0.00 99.89 WHEEL 2321 1 0.00 99.90
(6)
326
WHEELBARROW 2322 1 0.00 99.90 WHEELS 2323 1 0.00 99.91 WHOLE 2324 1 0.00 99.91 WHOSE 2325 1 0.00 99.91 WIDELY 2326 1 0.00 99.92 WILDLIFE 2327 1 0.00 99.92 WIND 2328 1 0.00 99.93 WINGS 2329 1 0.00 99.93 WISELY 2330 1 0.00 99.94 WISH 2331 1 0.00 99.94 WITHOUT 2332 1 0.00 99.94 WONDERFUL 2333 1 0.00 99.95 WONDERS 2334 1 0.00 99.95 WORKDAY 2335 1 0.00 99.96 WORKER 2336 1 0.00 99.96 WORKOUT 2337 1 0.00 99.97 WORKPLACE 2338 1 0.00 99.97 WORRY 2339 1 0.00 99.97 WOW 2340 1 0.00 99.98 WRONG 2341 1 0.00 99.98 YEAH 2342 1 0.00 99.99 YELLOWISH 2343 1 0.00 99.99 YOURS 2344 1 0.00 100.00 ZOO 2345 1 0.00 100.00