LISTENING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS BASED ON TASK-BASED LEARNING FOR THE NINTH GRADE STUDENTS OF SMP NEGERI 11 YOGYAKARTA

  

LISTENING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

BASED ON TASK-BASED LEARNING FOR THE NINTH

GRADE STUDENTS OF SMP NEGERI 11 YOGYAKARTA

A THESIS

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree In English Language Education

  By Eti Astuti

  Student Number: 031214056

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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  I dedicate this thesis to Jesus Christ, My lovely Dad and Mom, and My Family It’s easy to be pleasant when life flows by like a song.

  But the man worth while is the one, who can smile, When everything goes dead wrong, For the test of the heart is trouble.

  And it always comes with years. And the smile that worth the praises of earth, Is the smile that shines through the tears .

  Irish

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ABSTRACT

  Astuti, Eti. 2009. Listening Instructional Materials Based on Task-Based

Learning for the Ninth Grade Students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.

Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

  This research was conducted to design a set of listening instructional materials based on task-based learning for the ninth grade students of SMP N 11 Yogyakarta. There were two questions formulated in the problem formulation. They were 1) How is a set of listening instructional materials based on task based learning for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta designed? and 2) What does the designed materials look like?

  To answer the first question, the writer adapted Kemp’s instructional design model that consisted of eight steps. The steps were: (1) Determining the goals, the topics, and the general purposes, (2) Observing learners’ characteristics, (3) Determining the learning objectives, (4) Listing the subject content, (5) Developing pre-assessments, (6) Selecting teaching/learning activities and instructional resources, 7) Preparing support services, (8) Conducting the evaluation. As for the methodology, the writer applied five steps of Research & Development theory. They were: (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Main Product Revision. To gather the data the writer used questionnaire, interview and observation.

  Having designed the materials, the writer distributed the second questionnaire to an English teacher of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta and two lecturers of the English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University to obtain the feedback of the designed materials. The writer used the Central Tendency measurement to analyze that data. From the data analyzed, the result of the Mean was 4.3. The result showed that the score of the Mean was more than 4. Therefore, it could be concluded that most of the respondents agreed that the designed materials were acceptable and appropriate to be implemented.

  To answer the second question, the writer presented the final version of the designed materials after making some revisions and improvements based on the results of the designed materials evaluation. The materials consisted of eight units. They were Meeting People, How Do You Make It?, All in a Day, Unforgettable

  

Experience, The Magic Story, Holidays and Festivals, Can You Cook?, and Travel

to an Island . Each unit consisted of six main parts, which were Let’s Start, Let’s

Listen, Let’s Discuss It, Let’s Do It, Let’s Practice, and Let’s Reflect.

  Finally, the writer expects that the designed materials will help junior high school students to learn listening effectively in the interesting way. The writer also expects that the designed materials will be useful for the English teachers and the future researchers.

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  ABSTRAK

  Astuti, Eti. 2009. Listening Instructional Materials Based on Task-Based Learning for the Ninth Grade Students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Penelitian ini dilaksanakan untuk merancang seperangkat materi menyimak dalam bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi kelas 9 SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta berdasarkan metode tugas. Terdapat dua pertanyaan rumusan masalah yaitu 1) Bagaimana seperangkat materi menyimak dalam bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi kelas 9 SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta berdasarkan metode tugas dirancang? dan 2) Bagaimanakah bentuk seperangkat materi menyimak dalam bahasa Inggris untuk siswa-siswi kelas 9 SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta berdasarkan metode tugas tersebut?

  Untuk menjawab pertanyaan rumusan masalah diatas, peneliti menerapkan 5 langkah Research and Development (R & D) yaitu: (1) Pengumpulan penelitian dan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal dari produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, dan (5) Perbaikan produk utama. Untuk mengumpulkan data, peneliti menggunakan kuesioner, wawancara dan observasi.   Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, peneliti menggunakan langkah- langkah sebuah model perancangan pembelajaran dari Kemp. Langkah-langkah tersebut yaitu: (1) Menentukan tujuan umun pembelajaran, (2) Mengamati pelajar dan keadaan, (3) Menentukan objek pembelajaran, (4) Mendata materi pembelajaran, (5) Mengembangkan evaluasi awal, (6) Menyeleksi aktivitas belajar dan mengajar, 7) Menyiapkan sarana pendukung, (8) Melakukan evaluasi.

  Setelah materi dirancang kemudian peneliti menyebarkan kuesioner yang kedua kepada guru bahasa Inggris SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta dan dua dosen Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk mendapatkan masukan dan evaluasi mengenai materi tersebut. Untuk menganalisa data yang didapat, peneliti menggunakan rumus Central Tendency.

  Dari analisis data diatas, peneliti menemukan bahwa nilai rata-rata adalah 4,3. Hasil evaluasi tersebut menunjukkan bahwa nilai nilai rata-rata berada di atas

  4. Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa sebagian besar responden setuju bahwa materi pembelajaran ini sudah sesuai dan dapat diterapkan.

  Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, peneliti menyajikan versi akhir dari materi yang telah dirancang setelah melalui beberapa perbaikan berdasarkan hasil evaluasi diatas. Materi tersebut terdiri dari 8 unit. Kedelapan unit tersebut adalah

  Meeting People, How Do You Make It?, All in a Day, Unforgettable Experience,

The Magic Story, Holidays and Festivals, Can You Cook?, and Travel to an

Island . Masing-masing unit terdiri dari 6 bagian besar yaitu Let’s Start, Let’s

Listen, Let’s Discuss It, Let’s Do It, Let’s Practice, and Let’s Reflect.

  Peneliti berharap bahwa materi yang telah dirancang dapat berguna bagi

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  First of all, I would like to give my greatest gratitude to my Lord Jesus

  

Christ Almighty, for His endless love, blessings, mercy and guidance in every

  breath that I take. I thank Him for all the amazing things in my life and for being beside me everytime and everywhere, especially until I finished my thesis.

  I also want to address my sincere gratitude to my major sponsor Christina

  

Kristiyani, S.Pd, M.Pd. and Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd. M.Pd, my co-sponsor, for

their guidance, suggestions, criticism and patience during my thesis writing.

  I am deeply thankful to Drs. Y.B. Gunawan, M.A., and Drs. Concilianus

  

Laos Mbato, M.A., for their willingness to evaluate my designed materials. I also

  thank all PBI lecturers, for the teaching, guidance and support during my study time, and PBI secretariat staffs. I would like to give my special gratitude to the Headmaster of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta, Drs. Sardiyanto, for allowing me to conduct the research in the school and to Ken Marlupi. S.Pd., the English teacher in SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta, for the assistance, guidance and the kindness during my research.

  I would like to address my deepest gratitude to my beloved parents Bapak

  

Yusuf and Ibu Surti for their endless love, prayers, patience, and financial

support that they give me. I wish I can pay the happiness they have given me.

  Besides, I sincerely thank my grandmothers, Simbok Karto and Simbok Mardi, my brother, Andrea Astoto, my sister in-law, Triana Wulandari, my nephew,

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  finishing my study. I would like to say I am deeply sorry to my family for waiting such a long time.

  Next, I also want to give my gratitude to my family in Top Training Center, Ms. Endang, Mr.Ajid, Ms. Shinta, Mr. Paryono, Ms. Ita, Mr. Dhani,

  

Ms. Utik, Ms. Whini, Ms. Suci, Ms. Ayik, Ms. Dhini, Ms. Anggi, Mbak Rina,

Mbak Rini, Mbak Ning, Mbak Cici, and Mas Sukri, for having a great time and

  valuable experiences. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my best friends, Ratna, Hepi, Ema, Hening, and Yuli for their help, support and prayer. I really appreciate the beautiful moments that we have spent together. I also give my gratitude to all my friends in the English Language Education Study Program, especially to Melanie, Dian, Prima, Linda and Nina for their help and support.

  At last, I thank those people whose names I cannot mention that have assisted and supported me to finish my thesis. God bless them.

  Eti Astuti

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

  Page TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................. i APPROVAL PAGES .................................................................................. ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ........................................... iv PAGE OF PUBLICITY .............................................................................. v DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................. vi ABSTRACT ............................................................................................... vii

  

ABSTRAK ................................................................................................... viii

  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................ xi LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................... xiii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................... xiv APPENDICES ............................................................................................ xv

  CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 1 A. Background of the Study ........................................................................ 1 B. Problem Formulation ............................................................................ 4 C. Limitation of the Study ........................................................................ 4 D. Objectives of the Study ......................................................................... 5 E. Benefits of the Study .............................................................................. 5 F. Definition of Terms ................................................................................ 6 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................... 9 A. Theoretical Description ......................................................................... 9

  1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model ............................................... 9

  2. School-Based Curriculum .............................................................. 12

  3. The Nature of Listening .................................................................. 13

  4. The Understanding of Task-Based Learning ................................. 17

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  B. Theoretical Framework ......................................................................... 22

  CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ............................................................ 24 A. Research Method .................................................................................... 24 B. Research Participants ............................................................................ 26 C. Research Instruments ............................................................................ 28

  1. The Questionnaire ............................................................................ 28

  2. Interview Guide ................................................................................ 29

  D. Data Gathering Techniques ................................................................... 29

  E. Data Analysis Techniques ..................................................................... 30

  F. Research Procedures ............................................................................. 32

  CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................ 34 A. The Steps in Designing the Materials ................................................... 34

  1. Research and Information Collecting ................................................ 34

  2. Planning ............................................................................................... 39

  3. Development of Preliminary Form of Product ................................. 42

  4. Preliminary Field Testing .................................................................. 43

  5. Main Product Revision ...................................................................... 46

  B. The Presentation of the Designed Materials ......................................... 46

  CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS .......................... 50 A. Conclusions ........................................................................................... 50 B. Suggestions ........................................................................................... 52 REFERENCES ............................................................................................ 53

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LIST OF TABLES

  Page

Table 3.1 The Format of the Presentation of Students’ Opinions about

  Listening Class ............................................................................. 31

Table 4.1 The Results of Interviewing the Teacher .................................... 34Table 4.2 The Results of Closed-Ended Questionnaire for the Students ..... 35Table 4.3 The Results of Open-Ended Questionnaire for the Students ....... 36Table 4.4 The Competence Standard and the Basic Competence of School-

  Based Curriculum ........................................................................ 39

Table 4.5 The Indicators ............................................................................. 40Table 4.6 The Results of Preliminary Field Testing Questionnaire ............ 43Table 4.7 The Topics, the Titles, the Sections, and the Subsections of the

  Designed Materials ...................................................................... 46

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LIST OF FIGURES

  Page

Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Model ........................................................................... 12

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APPENDICES

  Page Appendix A: Letter of Permission .............................................................. 54 Appendix B: Questionnaire for Research and Information Collecting for

  Students ................................................................................. 55 Appendix C: Interview Guide ...................................................................... 59 Appendix D: Questionnaire for the Design Evaluation .............................. 60 Appendix E: Gambaran Umum Materi ....................................................... 63 Appendix F: Syllabus ................................................................................... 65 Appendix G: Teacher’s Manual .................................................................. 77 Appendix H: Presentation of the Designed Materials ................................. 79

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In this study, the researcher discusses six main parts of this chapter. They

  are: 1) background of the study, 2) limitation of the study, 3) problem formulation, 4) objectives of the study, 5) benefits of the study, and 6) definition of terms.

A. Background of the Study

  Language has a central role in human’s development. Language helps people to develop their intellectual ability, social ability, and also their emotional ability. Through a language, people can express their opinions, feelings, imagination and creativity in their mind.

  English is an international language. It is spoken by many people all over the world where people use it to communicate to other people. English is also the key which opens door to scientific and technological knowledge. Much knowledge, science, technology, and other crucial things are presented in English language. From the fact above, it is obvious that everybody needs to learn English to encounter the globalization era. Therefore, students in Indonesia today are required to master English to enter the globalization era.

  Learning English means learning all of its elements (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary) and its four English skills (speaking, reading, writing

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  2 skill like reading. For many years, this skill did not receive priority in language teaching. The language teaching is mostly focused on the productive skills (speaking and writing). However, Richards and Renandya (2002: 239), as cited by Rost (1994: 141-142) stated that listening is crucial in the language classroom which provides input for the learners and it is fundamental to speaking.

  Furthermore, listening is considered as the hardest skill to most students (Riddel, 2001: 108). Students must concentrate carefully and must be able to catch information they listen to.

  Gramb and Carr (1991: 247), as cited by Strother (1991: 241), added that “listening develops more reliably if it is taught directly.” It means that teachers must consider the important areas for the development of listening skill, including classroom atmosphere and techniques used in teaching listening. Therefore, task- based learning is applied in this study as the basic theory to develop the materials in the communicative learning process. It provides students with a natural context for language used (Larsen-Freeman, 2000: 144). Besides, task-based learning gives students many opportunities to interact through the tasks. By giving many kinds of tasks, it is hoped that students will have opportunities to practice listening as a receptive skill. Furthermore, giving tasks will strengthen students’ immediate recall in order to increase their memory. Task-based learning also focuses on the classroom processes (Richard, 2005: 33), where students practice themselves and teacher provides feedback. Nunan (1989: 10) added that task-based learning is one kind of learning through which learners are given many tasks in the target

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  3 the target language. Those are the main reasons why the writer is interested in conducting a study, which has a purpose to produce a set of listening instructional materials based on the task-based learning for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.

  The reasons the writer chooses the ninth grade students of junior high school of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta are that the students have learned English for more than three years and are expected to possess the basic theory on English. In addition, to graduate from the junior high school, the students have to pass the English test, which one of them is listening test. Whereas, based on the interview with the English teacher, the students find difficulties in listening because of the lack of vocabulary and grammar mastery. Therefore, the preparation in dealing with listening test in order to graduate from junior high school is needed.

  Furthermore, listening instructional materials for teaching in SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta are not available. Hence, the purposes of designing the materials are to provide listening materials, to improve students’ ability in listening skill and to encourage them to communicate in the target language.

  According to the previous explanation, it is expected that the materials can help the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta to improve their English listening skill to communicate in the target language and to practice and to prepare the students to face the National School Examination. Besides, it is also important for them to prepare themselves for the next level, that is, senior high school.

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B. Problem Formulation The problems of this study are formulated as follows.

  1. How is a set of listening instructional materials based on task-based principles for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta designed?

  2. What does the designed materials look like? C.

   Limitation of the Study

  In order to limit the scope of the study, the writer divides the study into three parts. First, the writer focuses the materials more on listening skills.

  Although listening skill is included as receptive skill, listening skill is hard to master for most students. Second, the writer uses the task-based learning as the theory in developing the materials. Task-based learning provides many tasks for students to practice in the target language. Task-based learning gives many opportunities for learners to interact through the tasks. Third, the writer focuses on the materials for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. There were two considerations in choosing the students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. First, it deals with the students’ needs, characteristics and abilities. Second, it deals with the demand of school-based curriculum on listening skill. Therefore, the writer limits the study on the design of listening instructional materials based on task-based learning for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.

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  D. Objectives of the Study

  The objectives of this study are to answer the questions formulated in problem formulation. Those objectives are:

  1. To discover how a set of listening instructional materials based on task-based learning for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta is designed.

  2. To present the design of a set of listening instructional materials based on task-based learning for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.

  E. Benefits of the Study

  This study is expected to give benefits for:

  1. Teachers Since this study is about listening instructional materials using task-based learning for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta, it can be very useful instructional materials to teach listening intended for junior high school students.

  2. Students This can be a good listening instructional materials design for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. These instructional materials can be used to practice and develop their listening skill and also to prepare for the

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  6 perceived listening as the difficult and hardest skill to master will enjoy their listening exercises and tasks.

  3. Other Researchers It is hoped that this study will be beneficial for other researchers who would conduct similar study. This study can be very helpful for those who will design similar materials on listening instructional materials for junior high school.

F. Definition of Terms

  It is essential to clarify some terms used in this study in order to avoid confusion, misinterpretation and misunderstanding. Therefore, the writer provides the definition of terms as follows:

  1. Design Design is “a developed plan to guide educational activities in a situation”

  (Houle, 1978: 230). Hutchinson and Water (1994: 106) stated that “designing is as creating a new set of materials that fit the learning objectives and specific subject area of particular learners.” In this study, the design is made to supply listening materials for the ninth grade students of junior high school of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.

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  2. Instructional Materials Instructional materials mean the material that is used to teach as well as the existing teaching material. According to Banathy (1976: 76), instruction is

  “any interaction between the learner and his environment through which the learner is making progress toward the attainment of specific and purpose knowledge, skills, and attitude.” In this study, the instructional listening materials contain listening exercises that are meant to teach listening for the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.

  3. Listening Materials Listening materials mean a set of materials used to practice and to train students’ ability in listening skill. In this study, the listening tasks will be in the form of picture based listening, listening to monologue, listening to dialogue, and other tasks which have any relation to topics and the students’ needs.

  4. Task- Based Learning Task-based approach is communicative learning process which provides learners with a natural context for language used. Task-based learning gives many opportunities for learners to interact through the tasks. As cited by Candlin and Murphy (1987: 1), the central purpose of task-based approach is that it concerns the language learning, and tasks present students a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that they hold and new knowledge. In this study, task-based

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  8 learning is learning that uses many tasks which consist of students’ real life needs and activities as learning experiences.

  5. SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta Junior High School is an intermediate school between Elementary School and Senior High School. It is a unit form of basic education, which runs three- year-education program. The students who have graduated from elementary school have a right to join this basic education. In this study, the material design is made for the highest level of Junior High School, that is, the ninth grade students of SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. SMP Negeri 11 Yogyakarta is located at Jl. Hos Cokroaminoto 127 Yogyakarta. It has four classes for each level. There are forty students in each class.

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this chapter, the researcher discusses some theories that underlie the

  topic of the research. This part is divided into two. First, it deals with the theoretical description. Second, it deals with the theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

  This part is concerned with a discussion on the instructional design model applied in this study and some theories related to this study. The instructional design models applied in this study is Kemp’s model and the theories reviewed in this part are School-Based Curriculum, listening skill which consists of what listening is, the principles of teaching listening, methodological models of teaching listening and task-based learning which consists of the definition of task, types of task, and task-based learning framework.

1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

  It is important for a designer to know the models of instructional design as the guideline for designing materials. Besides, the models also tell a designer the steps or stages in designing instructional materials. In this study, the researcher uses the instructional design model of Kemp as one of the basic theories and principles in designing the materials.

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  10 In this book, Kemp (1977: 8) stated that the instructional design model is designed to supply answers to three questions, which are considered as the essential elements of instructional technology as follows.

  a. What must be learned? (objectives)

  b. What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? (activities and resources) c. How will we know when the required learning has taken place?

  (evaluation) Kemp’s Instructional Design Model has eight stages. They are:

  1) Determining the goals, the topics and the general purposes To design materials, a designer should determine the goals, the topics, and the general purposes of the objectives. Kemp stated that there are three sources for the goals. They are society, learners, and subject areas. Then, after determining the goals, a designer should select the topics. The topics should be started from the simple ones to the complex ones. The topics should represent the goals and the general purposes of the objectives.

  2) Observing learners’ characteristics A designer should know about the learners’ characteristics, needs, capabilities, and interests for whom the materials are designed.

  3) Determining the learning objectives Since it concerns with the learning, a designer should mention the objectives of each topic clearly.

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  11 4) Listing the subject content

  The subject content comprises the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudinal factors of any topic. These should be arranged in good order so that it can support the learning. In this study, the writer not only takes the materials from the materials sources but also adds some tasks which are suitable for students. 5) Developing the pre-assessments

  Pre-assessment should be conducted to know the capabilities that the learners have achieved. There are two kinds of pre-assessment. They are prerequisite testing and pretesting. Prerequisite testing is conducted to know the learners’ background knowledge of the topics. Then, pretesting is conducted to determine which of the objectives students have achieved. 6) Selecting the teaching/learning activities and instructional resources.

  The appropriate teaching and learning activities should be selected by a designer. They should interest and suit learners to develop their language skills. 7) Preparing support services

  Support services should also be considered in designing materials. Support services consider about the planned program with other aspects of the institution, such as funds, facilities, equipments, and personnel. 8) Conducting the evaluation

  According to Kemp’s instructional design, conducting the evaluation is the

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  12 topics, the goals, the objectives are appropriate. The evaluation checked all the steps which were conducted by designer to know whether the whole materials are well developed.

  The relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps based on Kemp’s Model is described in Figure 2.1.

  Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Learner

  Evaluation Characteristics Support

  Learning Services Revise Objectives Learning

  

Subject

Activities, Content Resources

  Pre- Assessment

Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)

2. School-Based Curriculum

  Richard (2002: 70) states that “curriculum is the specification of content and ordering of what is to be taught or in the wider sense it refers to all aspects of the planning, implementation and evaluation of an educational program.” In the curriculum teachers have had their entire plans what they are going to teach and

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  13 The curriculum applied in this study is school-based curriculum in which it views that language is a means of communication (Depdiknas, 2006:402). The school-based curriculum prepares the students to communicate in the target language to participate in the society who uses the target language.

  There are some terms which are often used in the school-based curriculum as described in the following part.

  a. Standard competence It is an ability which is mastered and implemented by the students in a subject after the learning process is carried out. Standard competence is the spelling out from the function and objectives of the national education.

  b. Basic Competence It is the minimum ability mastered by the students. Basic competence is spelled out directly from the standard competence. The mastery of the standard competence is achieved through the mastery of the basic competence.

  c. Achievement indicator It is spelled out directly from the basic competence. Achievement indicator is characteristic, feature, performance, or response shied by the students in relation to the basic competence.

3. The Nature of Listening

  Listening is a skill which is taught and learnt spontaneously in a first language situation. Listening must be developed because listening is an essential

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  14 listening, someone can communicate with other people using the target language without any distraction.

  There are two models of listening: bottom-up and top-down. Bottom-up processing is using incoming data as a source of information about the meaning of the message. The process of decoding the sounds is in a linear fashion. It begins with the analyzing of successive levels of organization sounds, words, clause, and sentences until the intended meaning is conveyed. According to Anderson and Lynch (1988), as cited by Richard and Renandya (2002: 239), the listener takes and stores message sequently as the same way as the recorder does, i.e. one sound, one word, one phrase, and one utterance at a time. Thus, bottom-up processing should be developed by teachers to practice learners’ listening ability in the form of exercises. Whereas, in top-down processing listeners use the background knowledge they have to process the input. Top-down processing requires the learners to be active in constructing meaning based on expectation, inferences, intentions and other relevant prior knowledge. In applying this prior knowledge to particular situation, comprehension proceeds from the top-down. The actual discourse that is heard is used to confirm expectations and to fill out the specific details.

  Other knowledge that should be known by the teacher in giving listening exercises is:

a. Principles for Teaching Listening

  Morley (1971), as cited by Kristiningrum (2000: 13), provides a general

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  15 set of principles for teaching listening comprehension as described in the following part.

  1) Listening comprehension lesson must have carefully stated goals which should meet the overall curriculum, and both teacher and students should understand them. 2) Listening comprehension tasks must be set with step by step planning which goes from simple to complex in accordance with students’ language proficiency. 3) Listening comprehension lesson should stimulate active overt students’ participation. Written response to listening comprehension material is the most overt type. 4) A communicative urgency for remembering should be viewed as the important aspect in listening comprehension lesson because it develops concentration. This is done by giving the students the writing assignment before they listen to the material.

  5) Listening comprehension lesson should emphasize the present knowledge.

  One of the purposes of listening is to strengthen the students’ immediate recall in order to increase their memory spans. Listening is receiving; receiving needs thinking and thinking needs memory. 6) Listening comprehension lesson should “teach” not “test.” Checking the students’ answer should be viewed only as feedback to let the students know how they did and how they made progress.

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b. Methodological Models for Teaching Listening

  Hammer (1991), as cited by Kristiningrum (2000: 14), suggested five basic stages of the methodological model for teaching receptive skill. The stages are explained as follows. 1) Lead in

  In this stage, the students and teacher familiarize themselves with the topic of the listening exercises. The reason for doing this is to create expectation and to stimulate the students’ interest in the subject matter. 2) Teacher directs comprehension tasks

  In this stage, the teacher makes sure what the students should do whether they should fill in the blank, give some signs or other things on what they heard. Here the teacher explains and directs the purpose of listening. 3) Students listen for task

  In this stage, the students listen to the utterances and do the task that the teacher has constructed.

  4) Teacher directs feedback In this stage, the teacher helps the students to see whether they can perform the task successfully and how well they did the task.

  5) Teacher directs related task In this stage, the teacher organizes some kinds of follow-up tasks related to the lesson.

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4. The Understanding of Task-Based Learning

  In designing the materials the writer uses task-based learning as the underlying theory to provide students with various exercises to practice their listening skill required. The discussion of task-based learning covers the discussion on the definition of tasks, types of tasks, and task-based learning framework.

  a. Definition of Task

  According to Willis (2003: 23), tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for communication purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome. Prabhu, as cited by Richard and Rodger (2001: 233) added that “a task is an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some processes of thought and teachers hold the control and the regulation of the process.” From the definitions, the writer concludes that a task is a piece of classroom activities which involves learners to comprehend, manipulate, produce and interact to achieve the goal to communicate in the target language.

  b. Types of Task Willis (2003: 26-27) divides six types of tasks as follows.

  1) Listing There are some processes involved in these tasks. The processes are described on the following page.

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  18 a) Brainstorming

  In this process, learners draw on their own knowledge and experience either in class or in pairs/groups.

  b) Fact-finding In this task, learners, by referring to books or any other resources, find out things by asking each other or other people.

  2) Ordering and sorting There are four main processes in these tasks. First, it is sequencing items, actions or events in logical or chronological order. Second, it is ranking items according to personal values or specified criteria. Third, it is categorizing items in given group or grouping them under given headings. Fourth, it is classifying items in different ways, where the categories themselves are not given. 3) Comparing

  This task involves comparing information of similar nature but from different sources in order to identify common points and/or differences. The processes involved in this task are matching to identify specific points and relate them to each other, finding similarities in common, and finding differences.

  4) Problem solving This task makes demand upon people’s intellectual and reasoning power and they are engaging and often satisfying to solve. The outcome would be solutions to problem in which it can be evaluated.

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  19 5) Sharing personal experiences

  These tasks encourage learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. The resulting interaction is closer to casual social conversation in which it is not goal-oriented as in other tasks. It may be more difficult to conduct in the classroom.

  6) Creative tasks These are often called projects and involve pairs of learners in some kind of freer creative work. They also tend to have more stages than other tasks, and can involve combinations of task type such as listing, ordering and sorting, comparing, and problem solving.

  While Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) as cited in Richard and Rodgers (2001: 234) classify tasks as the following.

  a) Jigsaw tasks These tasks involve learners to combine different pieces of information to form whole or complete information.

  b) Information-gap tasks These tasks involve the exchange of information among participants in order to complete a task.

  c) Problem-solving tasks In this task, learners are given a problem and a set of information and they must arrive to the solution to the problem.

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  20 d) Decision-making tasks

  These tasks require learners to choose a number of possible outcomes of a problem through negotiation and discussion.

  e) Opinion exchange tasks Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. In this activity, they do not need to reach agreement.

c. Task-Based Learning Framework

  Willis (2003: 38) suggests the following components of Task-Based Learning framework which can be seen as follows.

  1) Pre- Task In this part, the teacher’s jobs are introducing the topic to the class, highlighting useful words and phrases, and helping students in understanding task instructions and prepare the students for the tasks. 2) Task Cycle

  The task cycle consists of three phases, namely:

  a) Task In this part, students do the tasks in pairs or groups and use the language they already have to express themselves and say whatever they want to say.

  Teachers’ jobs are walking around and monitoring the class activities from a distance. Teachers also help students to formulate what they want to say using the target language.

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  21 b) Planning

  In this part, students prepare to report briefly to the whole class (it can be orally or in written) how they did the task, what they decided or what they discovered. Teachers help students to polish and correct their language.

  c) Report In this part, teachers ask some pairs or group to present their report to the whole class and ask students to compare the result.

  3) Language Focus

  a) Analysis Teachers set some language-focused tasks, and students examine and discuss specific features of the text or transcript of the recording they heard.

  b) Practice In this part, teachers conduct practice activities as needed based on the language analysis.

d. Teaching Listening Using Task-Based Learning

  In teaching listening using task-based language learning, the teachers who act as the facilitator in class should design the listening materials which emphasize the action in activities and the topic should focus on the real life situation. In this case, the topic should focus on the students’ needs to be able to communicate using the target language in the real situation. The teacher should keep in mind the key conditions to learn, design activities, provide resources, and