A Critical Discourse Analysis of Female Sexuality Articles in Women Magazines
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Discourse Analysis is a method of analyzing discourse based
on a critical theory of language in terms of which language is seen as a social
practice.
2.1.1 Fairclough’s Theory
Fairclough says that Critical Discourse Analysis analyzes real and
often extended instances of social interaction which take a linguistic form, or a
particularly linguistic form (Fairclough, and Wodak,1997:258).
Fairclough (1997) considers Critical Discourse Analysis as socially
constitutive as well as socially shaped: (it) constitutes situations, objects of
knowledge, and the social identities of and the relationship between people and
groups of people. In this sense it is shaped by people and their interaction with
one another while it also shapes these interactions. To use a metaphor, we can
compare it to a river by pointing out that its course follows the shape and slope of
the landscape while simultaneously reshaping the landscape as it meanders
through it.
This notion of critical is shared by Fairclough (1992:9) when he says
Critical Discourse Analysis:
Is critical in the sense that it aims to show the non-obvious ways in which
language is involved in social relations of power and domination, and in
ideology. It is a resource which can be used in combination with others for
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researching change in contemporary social life including current social
scientific concerns such as globalization, social exclusion, shifts in
governance, and so forth.
Critical Discourse Analysis primarily addresses social problems by
analyzing linguistic and semantic aspects of social processes and problems. It is
by its nature interdisciplinary, combining diverse disciplinary perspectives in its
own analyses, and can be used to complement more standard forms of social and
cultural analysis (Fairclough, 2001: 229).
Critical Discourse Analysis (henceforth CDA) has offered researchers
ways of investigating language use within social contexts. By questioning the
taken-for-grantedness of language and enabling explorations of how texts
represent the world in particular ways according to particular interests, CDA
provides opportunities to consider the relationships between discourse and
society, between text and context, and between language and power (Fairclough,
2001b, Luke, 1995/1996, 2002). Nevertheless, according to Luke (2002 : 99),
CDA is still considered „a fringe dweller in mainstream analysis‟.
In providing this overview of the version of CDA that tends to be
associated with Fairclough, the researcher recognize to present a view based
mainly on the unfolding of the approach in three book publications (see
Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999; Fairclough, 1989, 2002). Initially, Fairclough
(1989, 1992a, 1995c) identified his approach to a study of language as „critical
language study‟ and reviewed a range of mainstream approaches, including
linguistics,
sociolinguistics,
pragmatics,
cognitive
psychology,
artificial
intelligence, conversation analysis and discourse analysis. Fairclough (1989,
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1995c) argued that, although all of these areas had something to offer language
study, they also presented limitations for a critical perspective. He criticised, for
example, the positivist aspects of sociolinguistics, the individualism promoted in
pragmatics, and a lack of consideration for context in conversation analysis.
In attempting to overcome these limitations, Fairclough (1989:10)
identified his approach, not as just another method of language study, but as „an
alternative orientation‟. What he called „a social theory of discourse‟ (Fairclough,
1992a:92) was an attempt to „bring together linguistically-oriented discourse
analysis and social and political thought relevant to discourse and language‟. Put
another way, in the stage of explanation, a critical discourse analyst accounts for
the influence of social contexts in shaping a particular type of ideology.
Grounding on the description and interpretation of the news texts, we will finally
explain how the social cultural roots of female sexuality in women‟s magazines
and the society affect the representation of women in modern society.
2.1.2 van Dijk’s Theory
According to van Dijk (1998a) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a
field that is concerned with studying and analyzing written and spoken texts to
reveal the discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality and bias. It
examines how these discursive sources are maintained and reproduced within
specific social, political and historical contexts. to the discourse of news in the
press, and applies his theory to authentic cases of news reports at both the national
and international level. What distinguishes van Dijk's (1988) framework for the
analyses of news discourse is his call for a thorough analysis not only of the
textual and structural level of media discourse but also for analysis and
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explanations at the production and "reception" or comprehension level (BoydBarrett, 1994). By structural analysis, van Dijk posited analysis of "structures at
various levels of description" which meant not only the grammatical,
phonological, morphological and semantic level but also "higher level properties"
such as coherence, overall themes and topics of news stories and the whole
schematic forms and rhetorical dimensions of texts.
This structural analysis, however, he claimed, will not suffice, for
Discourse is not simply an isolated textual or dialogic structure. Rather it is a
complex communicative event that also embodies a social context, featuring
participants (and their properties) as well as production and reception processes.
(van Dijk, 1988:2)
By "production processes" van Dijk means journalistic and
institutional practices of news making and the economic and social practices
which not only play important roles in the creation of media discourse but which
can be explicitly related to the structures of media discourse. Van Dijk's other
dimension of analysis, "reception processes", involves taking into consideration
the comprehension, "memorization and reproduction" of news information. What
van Dijk's analysis of media (1988, 1991, 1993) attempts to demonstrate is the
relationships between the three levels of news text production (structure,
production and comprehension processes) and their relationship with the wider
social context they are embedded within. In order to identify such relationships,
van Dijk's analysis takes place at two levels: microstructure and macrostructure.
At the microstructure level, analysis is focused on the semantic
relations between propositions, syntactic, lexical and other rhetorical elements that
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provide coherence in the text, and other rhetorical elements such quotations, direct
or indirect reporting that give factuality to the news reports. Central to van Dijk's
analysis of news reports, however, is the analysis of macrostructure since it
pertains to the thematic/topic structure of the news stories and their overall
schemata. Themes and topics are realized in the headlines and lead paragraphs.
According to van Dijk (1988), the headlines "define the overall
coherence or semantic unity of discourse, and also what information readers
memorize best from a news report". He claims that the headline and the lead
paragraph express the most important information of the cognitive model of
journalists, that is, how they see and define the news event. Unless readers have
different knowledge and beliefs, they will generally adopt these subjective media
definitions of what is important information about an event. (van Dijk, 1988:248).
2.1.3 Wodak’s Theory
The discourse historical approach, committed to CDA, adheres to the
socio-philosophical orientation of critical theory. As such, it follows a complex
concept of social critique which embraces at least three interconnected aspects,
two of which are primarily related to the dimension of cognition and one to the
dimension of action Wodak (2001) :
1. Text or discourse immanent critique' aims at discovering
inconsistencies, (self contradictions, paradoxes and dilemmas in
the text-internal or discourse-internal structures).
2. In contrast to the `immanent critique', the `socio-diagnostic
critique' is concerned with the demystifying exposure of the
manifest or latent possibly persuasive or `manipulative' character
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of discursive practices. With socio-diagnostic critique, the analyst
exceeds the purely textual or discourse internal sphere. She or he
makes use of her or his background and contextual knowledge and
embeds the communicative or interactional structures of a
discursive event in a wider frame of social and political relations,
processes and circumstances. At this point, we are obliged to apply
social theories to interpret the discursive events (see below, theory
of context).
3. Prognostic critique contributes to the transformation and
improvement of communication (for example, within public
institutions by elaborating proposals and guidelines for reducing
language barriers in hospitals, schools, courtrooms, public offices,
and media reporting institutions (see Wodak, 1996a) as well as
guidelines for avoiding sexist language use (Kargl et al., 1997)).
To summarize, and in contrast to some views on CDA, CDA is not
concerned with evaluating what is `right' or `wrong'. CDA in my view should try
to make choices at each point in the research itself, and should make these choices
transparent. It should also justify theoretically why certain interpretations of
discursive events seem more valid than others.
One methodical way for critical discourse analysts to minimize the
risk of being biased is to follow the principle of triangulation. Thus, one of the
most salient distinguishing features of the discourse historical approach is its
endeavor to work with different approaches, multi-methodically and on the basis
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of a variety of empirical data as well as background information (see for example
Wodak et al., 1998 and Wodak et al., 1999).
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 The Strengthens and The Weakness of Fairclough’s Theory
An analytical framework for CDA is represented schematically below.
It is modeled upon the critical theorist Roy Bhaskar's concept of `explanatory
critique' (Bhaskar, 1986; Chouliaraki and Fairclough, 1999):
1. Focus upon a social problem which has a semiotic aspect.
2. Identify obstacles to it being tackled, through analysis of
a. the network of practices it is located within
b. the relationship of semiosis to other elements within the particular
practice(s) concerned
c. the discourse (the semiosis itself )
1. structural analysis: the order of discourse
2. interactional analysis
3. interdiscursive analysis
4. linguistic and semiotic analysis.
3. Consider whether the social order (network of practices) in a sense „needs‟
the problem.
4. Identify possible ways past the obstacles.
5. Reflect critically on the analysis
A key feature of the framework is that it combines relational (2) and
dialectical (4) elements negative critique in the sense of diagnosis of the problem,
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positive critique in the sense of identification of hither to unrealized possibilities
in the way things are for tackling the problem.
It shows that this approach to CDA is problem-based. CDA is a form
of critical social science, which is envisaged as social science geared to
illuminating the problems which people are confronted with by particular forms of
social life, and to contributing resources which people may be able to draw upon
in tackling and overcoming these problems. Of course, this begs a question: a
problem for whom? Like critical social science generally, CDA has emancipatory
objectives, and is focused upon the problems confronting what we can loosely
refer to as the `losers' within particular forms of social life the poor, the socially
excluded, those subject to oppressive gender or race relations, and so forth. But
this does not provide a clearly defined and uncontroversial set of social problems.
What is problematic and calls for change is an inherently contested and
controversial matter, and CDA is inevitably caught up in social controversy and
debate in choosing to focus on certain features of social life as `problems'.
The critique approaches the diagnosis of the problem in a rather
indirect way, by asking what the obstacles are to it being tackled what is it about
the way in which social life is structured and organized that makes this a problem
which is resistant to easy resolution? The diagnosis considers the way social
practices are networked together, the way semiosis relates to other elements of
social practices, and features of discourse itself. Since the latter constitutes the
particular focus of discourse analysis.
2.2.2 Fairclough’s Framework for Analysis
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Discourses are forms of social practice. They are also obviously texts
(in the wider sense of the word). But Fairclough‟s framework adds a mediating‟
third dimension “which focuses on discourse as a specifically discursive practice”
(Fairclough, 1992: 71). Discursive practice is itself a form of social practice, and
focuses on the processes of text production, distribution and consumption. This is
represented diagrammatically as follows:
Figure 2.1 Fairclough‟s Three Dimensional Conception
This three dimensional conception of discourse attempt to bring
together three analytical traditions, each of which is indispensable for discourse
analysis. These are the tradition of close textual and linguistic analysis within
linguistics, the macrosociological tradition of analyzing social practice in relation
to social structures. The procedures which members use are themselves
heterogeneous and contradictory, and contested in struggles which partly have a
discursive nature. The part of the procedure which deals with the analysis of texts
can be called „description‟ and the parts which deal with analysis of discursive
practice and with analysis of the social practice of which the discourse is a part
can be called „interpretation‟, (Fairclough, 1992). From the three dimensional can
be discussed as follows:
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1. Discourse as text.
The division of analytical topics between text analysis and analysis of discursive
practice (and so between the analytical activities of description and interpretation)
is not a sharp one. Some of the categories in the framework for text analysis
appear to be oriented to language forms, while others appear to be oriented to
meanings. This distinction is a misleading one, however, because in analyzing
texts one is always simultaneously addressing questions of form and questions of
meaning. Text analysis can be organized under four main headings; vocabulary,
grammar, cohesion and text structure. These can be thought as ascending in scale:
vocabulary deals with individual words, grammar deals with words combined into
clauses and sentences, cohesion deals with how clauses and sentences are linked
together, and text structure deals with large scale organizational properties of
texts. In addition, a further three main headings which will be used in analysis of
discursive practice rather than text analysis, though they certainly involve formal
features of texts; the force of utterances, i.e. what sorts of speech acts (promises,
requests, threats, etc) they constitute; the coherence of texts; and the intertextuality
of texts. Together, these seven headings constitute a framework for analysis texts
which covers aspects of their production and interpretation as well as formal
properties of text. (Fairclough, 1992:75)
2. Discursive practice (production, distribution and consumption).
Discursive practice involves processes of text production, distribution, and
consumption, and the nature of these processes varies between different types of
discourse according to social factors. There are other ways in which the concept
of text producer is more complicated than it may seem. It is useful to deconstruct
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the producer into a set of positions, which may be occupied by the same person or
by different people. Texts are also consumed differently in different social
contexts. Consumption like production may be individual or collective. Some
texts have a simple distribution to the immediate context of situation in which it
occurs, whereas others have a complex distribution. (Fairclough, 1992:79)
3. Discourse as Social Practice (ideology and hegemony).
Discourse related into ideology and power, and place discourse within a view of
power as hegemony, and a view of the evolution of power relations as hegemonic
struggle. Fairclough maintains that ideology invests language in various ways,
various levels, and that we do not have to chose between different possible
„locations‟ of ideology, all of which seem partly justified and none of which seem
entirely satisfactory. Hegemony is about constructing alliances, and integrating
rather than simply dominating subordinate classes, through concessions or
through ideological means, to win their consents. (Fairclough, 1992:92)
2.3 Ideology according to Fairclough’s Theory
Ideology be regarded as essentially tied to power relation. Ideology
is most effective when its workings are least visible. If one becomes aware that a
particular aspect of common sense is sustaining power inequalities at one's own
expense, it ceases to be common sense, and may cease to have the capacity to
sustain power inequalities, i.e. to function ideologically. And invisibility is
achieved when ideologies are brought to discourse not as explicit elements of the
text, but as the background assumptions which on the one hand lead the text
producer to 'textualize' the world in a particular way, and on the other hand lead
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the interpreter to interpret the text in a particular way. Texts do not typically spout
ideology. They so position the interpreter through their cues that she brings
ideologies to the interpretation of texts - and reproduces them in the process.
There is a constant endeavour on the part of those who have power
to try to impose an ideological common sense which holds for everyone. But there
is always some degree of ideological diversity, and indeed conflict and struggle,
so that ideological uniformity is never completely achieved. That is why we are
sometimes able as interpreters to keep at arm's length assumptions which text
producers put across as, commonsensical. Everyone will be familiar with one
domain of ideological diversity: political ideologies. This is perhaps a good
starting point, because we can all find political texts whose Ideological common
sense is at odds with our own.
Ideology certainly does not give the impression of having a single
fixed meaning. Indeed, it is not unusual to find words like ideology described as
'meaningless' because they have so many meanings. But the situation is not quite
that desperate: ideology does have a number of meanings, but it is not endlessly
variable in meaning, and the meanings it has tend to cluster together into a small
number of main 'families'.
2.3.1 Liberalism
Liberalism is an ideology that developed by political thinkers in the 18 th
century. It developed in opposition to control government and society by
aristocracy and absolute monarchy. Its fundamental are; people are rational
individuals and able to make decisions for themselves in normal circumstances,
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people should have freedom to take their own decisions without control
government, as well as freedoms such as free speech, free to write or free to
decide whether to follow a religion people should be free to have property and use
it as they wish. The people can be free to use any kind of words in public, instead
of formal, colloquial or even slang and vulgarism.
Modern society is characterized by rather a high degree of integration of
social institutions into the business of maintaining class domination.
Correspondingly, one might expect a high degree of ideological integration
between institutional orders of discourse within the societal order of discourse.
There are for instance certain key discourse types which embody ideologies which
legitimize, more or less directly, existing societal relations, and which are so
salient in modern society that , they have 'colonized' many institutional orders of
discourse. They, include advertising discourse, and the discourses of interviewing
and counseling/therapy. (Fairclough, 1989:36)
The myth of free speech, that anyone is 'free' to say what they like, is an
amazingly powerful ,one, given the actuality of a plethora of constraints on access
to various sorts of speech, and writing. These are part and parcel of more general
constraints of social practice - on access to the more exclusive social institutions,
their practices, and especially the most powerful subject positions constituted" in
their practices. And in terms of discourse in particular, on access to the discourse
types, and discoursal positions of power. In a sense, these 'cultural goods' are
analogous to other socially valued 'goods' of a more tangible nature accumulated
wealth, good jobs, good housing, and so forth. (Fairclough, 1989:63)
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In this study, liberalism in texts indicated by the using of vulgar words
contained in female sexuality articles. There were vulgarism context, the using of
vulgar words, and freely told about sex activities.
2.3.2 Capitalism
Capitalism has undergone many changes since the nineteenth century.
Marx identified in his economic analyses a tendency towards monopoly, towards
the concentration of production in an ever-decreasing number of ever-larger units.
This tendency has become more pronounced with the passage of time, and the
scale of concentration is now international: a relatively small number of massive
multinational corporations now dominate production in the capitalist world.
At the same time, the capitalist economic domain has been progressively
enlarged to take in aspects of life which were previously seen as quite separate
from production. The commodity has expanded from being a tangible 'good' to
include all sorts of intangibles: educational courses, holidays, health insurance,
and funerals are now bought and sold on the open market in 'packages', rather like
soap powders. And an ever greater focus has been placed upon the consumption
of commodities, a tendency summed up in the term consumerism. As a result, the
economy and the commodity market massively impinge upon people's lives,
including, especially through the medium of television, their 'private' lives in the
home and the family. Another tendency which has been taking place in parallel
with this is increasing state and institutional control over people through various
forms of bureaucracy.
On the one hand, the state has become increasingly interventionary to
create the conditions for the smooth operation of the multinational corporations, in
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terms of currency controls, control of inflation, constraints on wages and on the
capacity of trade unions to take industrial action, and so forth. On the other hand,
the reverse side of the benefits which people have gained from the welfare state is
a sharp increase in the extent to which individual members of 'the public' are
subjected to bureaucratic scrutiny. (Fairclough, 1989:35)
The hidden power of media discourse and the capacity of the capitalist
class and other power-holders to exercise this power : depend on systematic
tendencies in news reporting and other : media activities, A single text on its own
is quite insignificant: the effects of media power are cumulative, working through
the repetition of particular ways of handling causality and agency, particular ways
of positioning the reader, and so forth. Thus through the way it positions readers,
for instance, media: discourse is able to exercise a pervasive and powerful
influence in social reproduction because of the very scale of the modem mass
media and the extremely high level of exposure of whole populations to a
relatively homogeneous output. :!;Jut caution is : necessary: people do negotiate
their relationship to ideal subjects. The power of the media does not mechanically
follow from their mere existence. (Fairclough, 1992:54)
In this study, capitalism indicates texts can interpret how media shows
power to persuade people in women magazines especially for women readers.
2.3.3 Consumerism
Consumerism is a property of modem capitalism which involves a shift in
ideological focus from economic production to economic consumption, and an
unprecedented level of impingement by the economy on people's lives. Let us
briefly trace the emergence of consumerism before looking at its contemporary
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impact. Consumerism grew out of sets of economic, technological and cultural
conditions which have mostly developed since the early decades of the twentieth
century; although we can identify consumerist tendencies in the earlier part of this
period, in the 1920s for instance, consumerism has grown in salience through the
period as these three types of conditions have developed. And, indeed, it has
helped to feed its own growth by contributing to these developments, particularly
in the cultural sphere. The economic conditions relate, firstly, to the stage of
development of capitalist commodity production. Consumerism is a product of
mature capitalism when productive capacity is such that an apparently endless
variety of commodities can be produced in apparently unlimited quantities.
(Fairclough, 1989:199)
In this study, consumerism in the texts in female sexuality articles showed
how articles can persuade the readers to buy some products, by selling promotions
and the content of articles used to economical strategies.
2.4 Fairclough’s Framework for Analysis
2.4.1 Analysis of Text
This framework allows for a selection of pertinent observations to be
made about the text, it is by no means claimed that this is an exhaustive analysis
of features relevant to CDA. These aspects deemed less relevant to the selected
text are barely touched upon.
2.4.1.1 Vocabulary
In this case, Fairclough‟s framework for CDA (1992) focuses on
vocabulary in three ways:
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1. Meanings of words, the emphasis is upon „key words‟ which are
general or more local cultural significance; upon words whose
meaning potential of a word – a panicular structuring of its meaning
– as a mode of hegemony and a focus of struggle.
2. Wording of meanings , the objective is to contrast the ways
meanings are worded with the ways they are worded in other (types
of) text, and to identify the interpretative perspective that underlies
this wording. (1992 : 237)
3. Metaphors, a word or phrase can be represented another meanings,
and regarded as representative or symbolic of something else,
especially something abstract.
2.4.1.2 Grammar
Fairclough (1992: 235) also lists three dimensions of grammar which
may be analyzed, along with the function of language to which they correspond:
a. Transitivity, the objective is to see whether particular process
types and participants are favored in the text, what choices are
made in voice (active or passive), and how significant is the
nominalization of processes. A major concern is agency, the
expression of causality, and the attribution of responsibility.
b. Theme, the objective is to see if there is a discernible pattern in the
text‟s thematic structure to the choices of themes for clauses.
c. Modality, the objective is to determine patterns in the text in the
degree of affinity expressed with propositions through modality. A
major concern is to assess the relative import of modality features
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for (a) social relations in the discourse, and (b) controlling
representations of reality.
2.4.1.3 Cohesion
Cohesion is looking at how clauses are linked together into sentences
and how sentences are in turn linked together to form larger units in texts. Linkage
is achieved in various ways; through using vocabulary from a common semantic
field, repeating words, using near – synonyms, and so on; through a variety of
referring and substituting devices (pronouns, definite article, demonstratives,
ellipsis of repeated words, and so forth); through using conjunctive words, such as
„therefore‟, and „however‟, „and‟ and „but‟.
2.4.1.4 Text Structure
Text structure also concerns the „architecture‟ of texts, and
specifically higher - level design features of different types of text : what elements
or episodes are combined in what ways and what order to constitute.
2.4.2 Analysis of Discursive Practice
Discursive Practice, include processes of text production, distribution,
and consumption, and the nature of these processes varies between different types
of discourse according to social factors. And the analysis of discursive practice
focused on force of utterances, coherence of texts and intertextuality of texts.
2.4.2.1 Force of Utterances
Utterances focused on the production or interpretation of a text is
usually represented as a multilevel process. Lower levels analyze a set on
sequence of sounds or marks on paper into sentences. Higher levels are concerned
with meaning, the ascription of meanings to sentences, to whole text, and to parts
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or „episodes‟ of a text which consist of sentences which can be interpreted as
coherently connected. Interpretation is also characterized by predictions about the
meaning of higher level units early in the process of interpreting them on the basis
of limited evidence, and these predicted meanings shape the way lower – level
units are interpreted.
2.4.2.2 Coherence of Texts
The concept of 'coherence' is at the centre of most accounts of
interpretation. As Fairclough has already indicated, coherence is not a property of
texts, but a property which interpreters impose upon texts, with different
interpreters (including the producer of the text) possibly generating different
coherent readings of the same text. Nor should coherence be understood in an
absolute, logical sense: a coherent text hangs together sufficiently well for present
purposes as far as the interpreter is concerned, which does not preclude
indeterminacies and ambivalence. (Fairclough, 1992:134)
A coherent text is a text whose constituent parts (episodes, sentences) are
meaningfully related so that the text as a whole 'makes sense', even though there
may be relatively few formal markers of those meaningful relationships - that is,
relatively little explicit 'cohesion'. The point is, however, that a text only makes
sense to someone who makes sense of it, someone who is able to infer those
meaningful relations in the absence of explicit markers.
But the particular way in which a coherent reading is generated for a
text depends again upon the nature of the interpretative principles that are being
drawn upon. Particular interpretative principles come to be associated in a
naturalized way with particular discourse types, and such linkages are worth
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investigating for light they shed on the important ideological functions of
coherence in interpreting subjects. That is, texts set up positions for interpreting
subjects that are 'capable' of making sense of them and 'capable' of making the
connections and inferences; in accordance with relevant interpretative principles,
necessary to generate coherent readings.
2.4.2.3 Intertextuality of Texts
The concept of intertextuality sees texts historically as transforming the
past - existing conventions and prior texts - into the present. This may happen in
relatively conventional and normative ways: discourse types tend to rum
particular ways of drawing upon conventions and texts into routines, and to
naturalize them. However, this may happen creatively, with new configurations of
elements of orders of discourse, and new modes of manifest intertextuality, It is
the inherent historicity of an intertextual view of texts, and the way it so readily
accommodates creative practice, that make it so suitable for present concerns
with discursive change, though it needs to be linked to a theory of social and
political change for investigation of discursive change within wider processes of
cultural and social change.
2.5 Semantics
Semantics, the study of word meaning and sentence meaning, abstracted
away from contexts of use, is a descriptive subject. It is an attempt to describe and
understand the nature of the knowledge about meaning in their language that
people have from knowing the language. It is not a prescriptive enterprise with an
interest in advising or pressuring speakers or writers into abandoning some
meanings and adopting others (though pedants can certainly benefit from studying
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the semantics of a language they want to lay down rules about, to become clear on
what aspects of conventional meaning they dislike and which they favour). A
related point is that one can know a language perfectly well without knowing its
history. While it is fascinating to find out about the historical currents and changes
that explain why there are similarities in the pronunciations or spellings of words
that share similarities in meaning.
Semantics is descriptive, and not centrally concerned with how words
came historically to have the meanings they do. Nor do semanticists aim to write
encyclopedic summaries of all human knowledge. An explicated utterance (based
on a declarative sentence) expresses a proposition, which can be true or false. The
central kind of inference in semantics is entailment. Entailments are propositions
guaranteed to be true when a given proposition is true, though we can, loosely,
think of entailing as a connection between sentences. The sense of a word
determines what it denotes (how it relates to the world outside of language) and
the entailment possibilities that the word gives to sentences. (Griffiths, 2006:22)
2.6 Women’s Magazines
There is plenty of research conducted on women‟s magazines and how
they portray women. Magazines from Cosmopolitan to Glamour have been
studied by numerous researchers and from many points of view. Caldas-Coulthard
(1996: 253) divides women‟s magazines into two different categories: the
traditional ones such as Woman‟s Own and the “newer glossy ones” such as
Cosmopolitan. Since the researcher target of interest is Cosmopolitan and
Glamour, the researcher here going to concentrate on the analysis made on these
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“newer” magazines. The researcher will discuss themes relevant to the researcher
own research, and present the researcher own view of some of the related studies.
2.7 Studies on Women’s Representation as Female Sexuality
There is plenty of research conducted on women‟s magazines and how
they portray women. Magazines from Cosmopolitan to Glamour have been
studied by numerous researchers and from many points of view. Caldas-Coulthard
(1996: 253) divides women‟s magazines into two different categories: the
traditional ones such as Woman‟s Own and the “newer glossy ones” such as
Cosmopolitan. Since the researcher target of interest is Cosmopolitan and
Glamour, the researcher here going to concentrate on the analysis made on these
“newer” magazines. The researcher will discuss themes relevant to the researcher
own research, and present the researcher own view of some of the related studies.
2.7.1 Contradiction
First of all, one discussion highly important to the present study is that
about contradiction and coherence in women‟s magazines. Gill (2007:191-204)
explains that there are continuous inconsistencies in women‟s magazines, ranging
from differing advice concerning how to stay fit to varying views on women‟s
sexual pleasure. Many different voices can be heard in the magazines
simultaneously, from a feminist one telling women to do as they feel comfortable
to a conservative one advising them to please their man as best they can. The
discussion, then, is over whether these inconsistencies truly mean that the
magazines are inherently contradictory in nature, or if the incongruities are merely
superficial and possibly a means of concealing and excusing an ideology which as
such would seem out-dated to the magazines‟ readers.
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This debate is relevant to the study since critical discourse analysis
pays particular attention to different voices in texts and attempts to give them a
plausible explanation. Then, be commenting directly on this discussion as the
researcher analyzes Cosmopolitan magazine and determine what, if any, distinct
ideology can be found behind its articles. Gill‟s study is especially useful for me
in this work since she gives a wide overlook onto the topic and presents a great
deal of important studies made in this field to support her arguments. Many
researchers have come to think that the apparent contradictions in women‟s
magazines are only an illusion. For instance, Machin and Thornborrow (2003)
conclude that there in fact is a very coherent ideology behind all the surface-level
discrepancies in Cosmopolitan. They examined Cosmopolitan magazines from 44
different countries in order to find similarities and differences in the ideologies
and representations in them. They found that despite the fact that Cosmopolitan
seems to emphasize women‟s independence, the magazine actually consistently
advocates a very different view of women.
In fact, the magazine expected women to be insecure and unhappy in
their bodies, and all the power women had was most often derived from their
sexuality. Although apparently having all the freedom modern women should
have, women were yet defined in relation to men and assessed by their
appearance. When women‟s work was discussed, it was done in terms of its social
aspects and not the work itself. In addition, pleasing men was often a priority for
women. This study, then, argues for the view that there actually is quite a
consistent ideology behind at least Cosmopolitan. The ideology Machin and
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Thornborrow (2003) found in Cosmopolitan magazine gives me a good point of
comparison as I discuss my own study results.
2.7.2 Feminism
The debate over contradiction and coherence also relates to a second
question relevant to me, that is whether or not women‟s magazines are feminist.
Gill (2007:198-204) writes that women‟s magazines have at least some feminist
ideas in them. For instance, women are naturally presumed to have the right to
work and compete with men in the workplace. She (2007) continues, however,
that an opposite view can also be argued for. Women‟s magazines place a strong
emphasis on women‟s appearance. In addition, no structural inequalities are
presented in the magazines; to any problems that women might have, individual
transformation is offered as the solution. It can be conclude that women‟s
magazines are often characterized by, among other things, a distinct emphasis on
women‟s appearance and the minimization of the importance of social problems
related to womanhood.
2.7.2.1 Femininity
From Schippers (2007), „femininity‟ may be understood as having
three components: it is a social location that individuals, regardless of gender, can
move through by performance; it is a set of practices pertaining to behaviours and
characteristics associated with what it means to be „feminine‟; and should these
set of practices be adopted by women or men, they would have cultural and social
results. It is, therefore, argued that femininity is a position that an individual
performs through, by the collective embodiment of behaviours and characteristics
associated with the concept of being feminine.
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2.7.2.2 Female Sexuality
Women who read sex-related magazine articles from popular women's
magazines like Cosmopolitan are less likely to view premarital sex as a risky
behaviour, a new study has revealed. Additionally, the women who are exposed to
these articles are more supportive of sexual behaviour that both empowers women
and prioritizes their own sexual pleasure. When exposed to explicit textual
messages about female sexual assertiveness in women's magazines, readers
regarded women's capacity to experience and act on feelings of sexual desire more
favorably.
In addition to finding that the group of women exposed to the sexrelated articles endorsed more risky sexual behaviour, the researchers found that
white women in particular viewed premarital sex as less risky and endorsed taking
on a more assertive sexual role than women of color, it suggest that the complex
and sometimes conflicting representations of female sexuality proliferating in the
mass media and popular culture could potentially have both empowering and
problematic effects on women's developing sexual identities.
2.7.3 Addressing Woman
A fourth discussion touching the topic concerns the way women are
addressed in women‟s magazines. Several researchers have concluded that women
are often addressed in a friendly tone in women‟s magazines. According to Gill
(2007:183), journalists in these magazines often attempt to form a personal
relationship with the readers. Magazines meant for younger women, on the other
hand, assume a big-sisterly tone (Talbot:1992), which could be considered a more
obvious version of the friendly tone of women‟s magazines. Whether sisterly or
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friendly, the editors tend to give their readers advice and guidance that normally
might be expected from people with whom the readers have an actual relationship.
Gill‟s and Talbot‟s observations give a point of comparison as the researcher
examine the tone of voice used the articles of interest to me. They also give the
clues at how to interpret the tone of voice used in them.
2.8 Cultural Diversity
Cultural Diversity has moreover become a major social concern,
linked to the growing diversity of social codes within and between societies.
Confronted by this diversity of practices and outlooks, States sometimes find
themselves at a loss to know how to respond, often as a matter of urgency, or how
to take account of cultural diversity in the common interest. To contribute to the
devising of specific responses, this report seeks to provide a framework for
renewed understanding of the challenges inherent in cultural diversity, by
identifying some of the theoretical and political difficulties that it inevitably
entails. A first difficulty has to do with the specifically cultural nature of this
form of diversity. Many societies have recourse to various proxies, particularly
ethnic or linguistic characterizations, to take account of their cultural
heterogeneity. The first challenge will therefore be to examine the different
policies pursued without losing sight of our topic, which is cultural diversity and
not the proxies to which it is sometimes reduced.
In Indonesia, these women‟s magazines are mostly read by high class
women, because these magazines priced are expensive and these magazines use
English language, so not everyone can understand what the articles in magazines
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about. Then, these women‟s magazines include female sexuality topics which is
the culture is totally different with Indonesian culture.
2.9 Conceptual Framework
Liberalism
Capitalism
Ideology
Consumerism
Vocabulary
Fairclough‟s
Framework
for Analysis
Grammar
Analysis of
Text
Cohesion
Text Structure
Force of
Utterances
Analysis of
Discursive
Practice
Coherence of
Texts
Intertextuality
of Text
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2.10 Previous Relevant Studies
They are some studies that have been done by other researchers
concerning critical discourse analysis. A thesis written by Norval (2011) entitled
“Research into Women‟s Magazine and The Social Construction of Womanhood”
from University of Leeds. In his study, he investigated the relationship between
women and magazines today, occupying the significant gap left in this area of
study in recent decades. Building on this foundation, this research also aims to
specifically examine the form and content of the „weekly glossy‟ hybrid genre
created by Grazia magazine. His study had been contributed in this research as a
perspective of womanhood in the correlation into social construction. Then, his
study also used women‟s magazine for the source of the data, there is Grazia
magazine, whereas in this research, women magazines also been used as a
material for the data research.
In addition to Rosul (2011) researched “A Critical Discourse Analysis
of Fairness – Product Advertisement for Woman and Men” from East West
University, this study mainly focused on how people seem to be influenced by the
advertisement of the fairness products (hereafter ads). This study had been
contributed in this research, whereas the discussion about Critical Discourse
Analysis that correlated into social affection for fairness - product advertisement
marketing. The theory of CDA that been used in this study, became as a
supporting data addition for this research analysis.
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Then, a thesis written by Mearns (2013) entitled
“Gender in
Commercial Radio In New Zealand : A Critical Discourse Analysis of the “Secret
Life of Girls” from Auckland University of Technology. This thesis is grounded
in the political economy of communication tradition and is also influence by
feminist theory. Her study had been contributed to this research, where the
relation of CDA and feminist theory had became an addition of information to
support the ideas of this research. In her study, CDA and feminist theory was
separated.
A
journal
written
by
Aoumeur
(2014)
entitled
“Gender
Representations in Three School Textbooks, A Feminist Critical Discourse
Analysis” from IMPACT: International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts
and Literature. This study is devoted to the analysis of male and female
representations in three school textbooks to which children from 6 to10 years old
are exposed to, in primary schools in Algeria. The methodology adopted is to
connect the linguistic features in the texts (the micro) to the social factors (the
macro). The Analysis reveals that despite the measures taken by the Algerian
government, in general and the Ministry of education, in particular to provide
high-quality education and promote gender equality, male and female
representations are still „problematic‟. In general gender is still represented in a
way that supports the status–quo. The school textbooks in Algeria contribute to
the socialization of children in a very traditional and stereotypical way. In his
study had been contributed to this research
which discussed about gender
representations from school book used a feminist critical discourse analysis
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theory. In his case, feminist theory and critical discourse analysis were combined.
This theory was affected to enrich the data information for this research.
Then the last is a journal written by Lehtonen (2007)
entitled
“Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis and Children‟s Fantasy Fiction – Modeling
a New Approach from University of Jyväskylä, Finland. In this study is to
examine gender in children‟s fantasy fiction. There are two major aspects in
claiming that a critical linguistic, feminist approach to children‟s fantasy might be
needed. This study had been contributed to this research, whereas the gender
problem had been discussed then used feminist critical discourse analysis as a
theory. Same as like previous study above, feminist theory and critical discourse
analysis were combined. This theory was helped to this research as a major
information for feminism views in the case of women magazines.
The previous relevant studies, however give some contributions to the
present study. They had been considered as the relevant references to explore the
study that had been carried out. Then, they had been supported this research to
vary the aspects or problems investigated in order to bring the new one although
all of them have the same issue to discuss.
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Discourse Analysis is a method of analyzing discourse based
on a critical theory of language in terms of which language is seen as a social
practice.
2.1.1 Fairclough’s Theory
Fairclough says that Critical Discourse Analysis analyzes real and
often extended instances of social interaction which take a linguistic form, or a
particularly linguistic form (Fairclough, and Wodak,1997:258).
Fairclough (1997) considers Critical Discourse Analysis as socially
constitutive as well as socially shaped: (it) constitutes situations, objects of
knowledge, and the social identities of and the relationship between people and
groups of people. In this sense it is shaped by people and their interaction with
one another while it also shapes these interactions. To use a metaphor, we can
compare it to a river by pointing out that its course follows the shape and slope of
the landscape while simultaneously reshaping the landscape as it meanders
through it.
This notion of critical is shared by Fairclough (1992:9) when he says
Critical Discourse Analysis:
Is critical in the sense that it aims to show the non-obvious ways in which
language is involved in social relations of power and domination, and in
ideology. It is a resource which can be used in combination with others for
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researching change in contemporary social life including current social
scientific concerns such as globalization, social exclusion, shifts in
governance, and so forth.
Critical Discourse Analysis primarily addresses social problems by
analyzing linguistic and semantic aspects of social processes and problems. It is
by its nature interdisciplinary, combining diverse disciplinary perspectives in its
own analyses, and can be used to complement more standard forms of social and
cultural analysis (Fairclough, 2001: 229).
Critical Discourse Analysis (henceforth CDA) has offered researchers
ways of investigating language use within social contexts. By questioning the
taken-for-grantedness of language and enabling explorations of how texts
represent the world in particular ways according to particular interests, CDA
provides opportunities to consider the relationships between discourse and
society, between text and context, and between language and power (Fairclough,
2001b, Luke, 1995/1996, 2002). Nevertheless, according to Luke (2002 : 99),
CDA is still considered „a fringe dweller in mainstream analysis‟.
In providing this overview of the version of CDA that tends to be
associated with Fairclough, the researcher recognize to present a view based
mainly on the unfolding of the approach in three book publications (see
Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999; Fairclough, 1989, 2002). Initially, Fairclough
(1989, 1992a, 1995c) identified his approach to a study of language as „critical
language study‟ and reviewed a range of mainstream approaches, including
linguistics,
sociolinguistics,
pragmatics,
cognitive
psychology,
artificial
intelligence, conversation analysis and discourse analysis. Fairclough (1989,
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1995c) argued that, although all of these areas had something to offer language
study, they also presented limitations for a critical perspective. He criticised, for
example, the positivist aspects of sociolinguistics, the individualism promoted in
pragmatics, and a lack of consideration for context in conversation analysis.
In attempting to overcome these limitations, Fairclough (1989:10)
identified his approach, not as just another method of language study, but as „an
alternative orientation‟. What he called „a social theory of discourse‟ (Fairclough,
1992a:92) was an attempt to „bring together linguistically-oriented discourse
analysis and social and political thought relevant to discourse and language‟. Put
another way, in the stage of explanation, a critical discourse analyst accounts for
the influence of social contexts in shaping a particular type of ideology.
Grounding on the description and interpretation of the news texts, we will finally
explain how the social cultural roots of female sexuality in women‟s magazines
and the society affect the representation of women in modern society.
2.1.2 van Dijk’s Theory
According to van Dijk (1998a) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a
field that is concerned with studying and analyzing written and spoken texts to
reveal the discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality and bias. It
examines how these discursive sources are maintained and reproduced within
specific social, political and historical contexts. to the discourse of news in the
press, and applies his theory to authentic cases of news reports at both the national
and international level. What distinguishes van Dijk's (1988) framework for the
analyses of news discourse is his call for a thorough analysis not only of the
textual and structural level of media discourse but also for analysis and
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explanations at the production and "reception" or comprehension level (BoydBarrett, 1994). By structural analysis, van Dijk posited analysis of "structures at
various levels of description" which meant not only the grammatical,
phonological, morphological and semantic level but also "higher level properties"
such as coherence, overall themes and topics of news stories and the whole
schematic forms and rhetorical dimensions of texts.
This structural analysis, however, he claimed, will not suffice, for
Discourse is not simply an isolated textual or dialogic structure. Rather it is a
complex communicative event that also embodies a social context, featuring
participants (and their properties) as well as production and reception processes.
(van Dijk, 1988:2)
By "production processes" van Dijk means journalistic and
institutional practices of news making and the economic and social practices
which not only play important roles in the creation of media discourse but which
can be explicitly related to the structures of media discourse. Van Dijk's other
dimension of analysis, "reception processes", involves taking into consideration
the comprehension, "memorization and reproduction" of news information. What
van Dijk's analysis of media (1988, 1991, 1993) attempts to demonstrate is the
relationships between the three levels of news text production (structure,
production and comprehension processes) and their relationship with the wider
social context they are embedded within. In order to identify such relationships,
van Dijk's analysis takes place at two levels: microstructure and macrostructure.
At the microstructure level, analysis is focused on the semantic
relations between propositions, syntactic, lexical and other rhetorical elements that
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provide coherence in the text, and other rhetorical elements such quotations, direct
or indirect reporting that give factuality to the news reports. Central to van Dijk's
analysis of news reports, however, is the analysis of macrostructure since it
pertains to the thematic/topic structure of the news stories and their overall
schemata. Themes and topics are realized in the headlines and lead paragraphs.
According to van Dijk (1988), the headlines "define the overall
coherence or semantic unity of discourse, and also what information readers
memorize best from a news report". He claims that the headline and the lead
paragraph express the most important information of the cognitive model of
journalists, that is, how they see and define the news event. Unless readers have
different knowledge and beliefs, they will generally adopt these subjective media
definitions of what is important information about an event. (van Dijk, 1988:248).
2.1.3 Wodak’s Theory
The discourse historical approach, committed to CDA, adheres to the
socio-philosophical orientation of critical theory. As such, it follows a complex
concept of social critique which embraces at least three interconnected aspects,
two of which are primarily related to the dimension of cognition and one to the
dimension of action Wodak (2001) :
1. Text or discourse immanent critique' aims at discovering
inconsistencies, (self contradictions, paradoxes and dilemmas in
the text-internal or discourse-internal structures).
2. In contrast to the `immanent critique', the `socio-diagnostic
critique' is concerned with the demystifying exposure of the
manifest or latent possibly persuasive or `manipulative' character
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of discursive practices. With socio-diagnostic critique, the analyst
exceeds the purely textual or discourse internal sphere. She or he
makes use of her or his background and contextual knowledge and
embeds the communicative or interactional structures of a
discursive event in a wider frame of social and political relations,
processes and circumstances. At this point, we are obliged to apply
social theories to interpret the discursive events (see below, theory
of context).
3. Prognostic critique contributes to the transformation and
improvement of communication (for example, within public
institutions by elaborating proposals and guidelines for reducing
language barriers in hospitals, schools, courtrooms, public offices,
and media reporting institutions (see Wodak, 1996a) as well as
guidelines for avoiding sexist language use (Kargl et al., 1997)).
To summarize, and in contrast to some views on CDA, CDA is not
concerned with evaluating what is `right' or `wrong'. CDA in my view should try
to make choices at each point in the research itself, and should make these choices
transparent. It should also justify theoretically why certain interpretations of
discursive events seem more valid than others.
One methodical way for critical discourse analysts to minimize the
risk of being biased is to follow the principle of triangulation. Thus, one of the
most salient distinguishing features of the discourse historical approach is its
endeavor to work with different approaches, multi-methodically and on the basis
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of a variety of empirical data as well as background information (see for example
Wodak et al., 1998 and Wodak et al., 1999).
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 The Strengthens and The Weakness of Fairclough’s Theory
An analytical framework for CDA is represented schematically below.
It is modeled upon the critical theorist Roy Bhaskar's concept of `explanatory
critique' (Bhaskar, 1986; Chouliaraki and Fairclough, 1999):
1. Focus upon a social problem which has a semiotic aspect.
2. Identify obstacles to it being tackled, through analysis of
a. the network of practices it is located within
b. the relationship of semiosis to other elements within the particular
practice(s) concerned
c. the discourse (the semiosis itself )
1. structural analysis: the order of discourse
2. interactional analysis
3. interdiscursive analysis
4. linguistic and semiotic analysis.
3. Consider whether the social order (network of practices) in a sense „needs‟
the problem.
4. Identify possible ways past the obstacles.
5. Reflect critically on the analysis
A key feature of the framework is that it combines relational (2) and
dialectical (4) elements negative critique in the sense of diagnosis of the problem,
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positive critique in the sense of identification of hither to unrealized possibilities
in the way things are for tackling the problem.
It shows that this approach to CDA is problem-based. CDA is a form
of critical social science, which is envisaged as social science geared to
illuminating the problems which people are confronted with by particular forms of
social life, and to contributing resources which people may be able to draw upon
in tackling and overcoming these problems. Of course, this begs a question: a
problem for whom? Like critical social science generally, CDA has emancipatory
objectives, and is focused upon the problems confronting what we can loosely
refer to as the `losers' within particular forms of social life the poor, the socially
excluded, those subject to oppressive gender or race relations, and so forth. But
this does not provide a clearly defined and uncontroversial set of social problems.
What is problematic and calls for change is an inherently contested and
controversial matter, and CDA is inevitably caught up in social controversy and
debate in choosing to focus on certain features of social life as `problems'.
The critique approaches the diagnosis of the problem in a rather
indirect way, by asking what the obstacles are to it being tackled what is it about
the way in which social life is structured and organized that makes this a problem
which is resistant to easy resolution? The diagnosis considers the way social
practices are networked together, the way semiosis relates to other elements of
social practices, and features of discourse itself. Since the latter constitutes the
particular focus of discourse analysis.
2.2.2 Fairclough’s Framework for Analysis
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Discourses are forms of social practice. They are also obviously texts
(in the wider sense of the word). But Fairclough‟s framework adds a mediating‟
third dimension “which focuses on discourse as a specifically discursive practice”
(Fairclough, 1992: 71). Discursive practice is itself a form of social practice, and
focuses on the processes of text production, distribution and consumption. This is
represented diagrammatically as follows:
Figure 2.1 Fairclough‟s Three Dimensional Conception
This three dimensional conception of discourse attempt to bring
together three analytical traditions, each of which is indispensable for discourse
analysis. These are the tradition of close textual and linguistic analysis within
linguistics, the macrosociological tradition of analyzing social practice in relation
to social structures. The procedures which members use are themselves
heterogeneous and contradictory, and contested in struggles which partly have a
discursive nature. The part of the procedure which deals with the analysis of texts
can be called „description‟ and the parts which deal with analysis of discursive
practice and with analysis of the social practice of which the discourse is a part
can be called „interpretation‟, (Fairclough, 1992). From the three dimensional can
be discussed as follows:
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1. Discourse as text.
The division of analytical topics between text analysis and analysis of discursive
practice (and so between the analytical activities of description and interpretation)
is not a sharp one. Some of the categories in the framework for text analysis
appear to be oriented to language forms, while others appear to be oriented to
meanings. This distinction is a misleading one, however, because in analyzing
texts one is always simultaneously addressing questions of form and questions of
meaning. Text analysis can be organized under four main headings; vocabulary,
grammar, cohesion and text structure. These can be thought as ascending in scale:
vocabulary deals with individual words, grammar deals with words combined into
clauses and sentences, cohesion deals with how clauses and sentences are linked
together, and text structure deals with large scale organizational properties of
texts. In addition, a further three main headings which will be used in analysis of
discursive practice rather than text analysis, though they certainly involve formal
features of texts; the force of utterances, i.e. what sorts of speech acts (promises,
requests, threats, etc) they constitute; the coherence of texts; and the intertextuality
of texts. Together, these seven headings constitute a framework for analysis texts
which covers aspects of their production and interpretation as well as formal
properties of text. (Fairclough, 1992:75)
2. Discursive practice (production, distribution and consumption).
Discursive practice involves processes of text production, distribution, and
consumption, and the nature of these processes varies between different types of
discourse according to social factors. There are other ways in which the concept
of text producer is more complicated than it may seem. It is useful to deconstruct
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the producer into a set of positions, which may be occupied by the same person or
by different people. Texts are also consumed differently in different social
contexts. Consumption like production may be individual or collective. Some
texts have a simple distribution to the immediate context of situation in which it
occurs, whereas others have a complex distribution. (Fairclough, 1992:79)
3. Discourse as Social Practice (ideology and hegemony).
Discourse related into ideology and power, and place discourse within a view of
power as hegemony, and a view of the evolution of power relations as hegemonic
struggle. Fairclough maintains that ideology invests language in various ways,
various levels, and that we do not have to chose between different possible
„locations‟ of ideology, all of which seem partly justified and none of which seem
entirely satisfactory. Hegemony is about constructing alliances, and integrating
rather than simply dominating subordinate classes, through concessions or
through ideological means, to win their consents. (Fairclough, 1992:92)
2.3 Ideology according to Fairclough’s Theory
Ideology be regarded as essentially tied to power relation. Ideology
is most effective when its workings are least visible. If one becomes aware that a
particular aspect of common sense is sustaining power inequalities at one's own
expense, it ceases to be common sense, and may cease to have the capacity to
sustain power inequalities, i.e. to function ideologically. And invisibility is
achieved when ideologies are brought to discourse not as explicit elements of the
text, but as the background assumptions which on the one hand lead the text
producer to 'textualize' the world in a particular way, and on the other hand lead
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the interpreter to interpret the text in a particular way. Texts do not typically spout
ideology. They so position the interpreter through their cues that she brings
ideologies to the interpretation of texts - and reproduces them in the process.
There is a constant endeavour on the part of those who have power
to try to impose an ideological common sense which holds for everyone. But there
is always some degree of ideological diversity, and indeed conflict and struggle,
so that ideological uniformity is never completely achieved. That is why we are
sometimes able as interpreters to keep at arm's length assumptions which text
producers put across as, commonsensical. Everyone will be familiar with one
domain of ideological diversity: political ideologies. This is perhaps a good
starting point, because we can all find political texts whose Ideological common
sense is at odds with our own.
Ideology certainly does not give the impression of having a single
fixed meaning. Indeed, it is not unusual to find words like ideology described as
'meaningless' because they have so many meanings. But the situation is not quite
that desperate: ideology does have a number of meanings, but it is not endlessly
variable in meaning, and the meanings it has tend to cluster together into a small
number of main 'families'.
2.3.1 Liberalism
Liberalism is an ideology that developed by political thinkers in the 18 th
century. It developed in opposition to control government and society by
aristocracy and absolute monarchy. Its fundamental are; people are rational
individuals and able to make decisions for themselves in normal circumstances,
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people should have freedom to take their own decisions without control
government, as well as freedoms such as free speech, free to write or free to
decide whether to follow a religion people should be free to have property and use
it as they wish. The people can be free to use any kind of words in public, instead
of formal, colloquial or even slang and vulgarism.
Modern society is characterized by rather a high degree of integration of
social institutions into the business of maintaining class domination.
Correspondingly, one might expect a high degree of ideological integration
between institutional orders of discourse within the societal order of discourse.
There are for instance certain key discourse types which embody ideologies which
legitimize, more or less directly, existing societal relations, and which are so
salient in modern society that , they have 'colonized' many institutional orders of
discourse. They, include advertising discourse, and the discourses of interviewing
and counseling/therapy. (Fairclough, 1989:36)
The myth of free speech, that anyone is 'free' to say what they like, is an
amazingly powerful ,one, given the actuality of a plethora of constraints on access
to various sorts of speech, and writing. These are part and parcel of more general
constraints of social practice - on access to the more exclusive social institutions,
their practices, and especially the most powerful subject positions constituted" in
their practices. And in terms of discourse in particular, on access to the discourse
types, and discoursal positions of power. In a sense, these 'cultural goods' are
analogous to other socially valued 'goods' of a more tangible nature accumulated
wealth, good jobs, good housing, and so forth. (Fairclough, 1989:63)
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In this study, liberalism in texts indicated by the using of vulgar words
contained in female sexuality articles. There were vulgarism context, the using of
vulgar words, and freely told about sex activities.
2.3.2 Capitalism
Capitalism has undergone many changes since the nineteenth century.
Marx identified in his economic analyses a tendency towards monopoly, towards
the concentration of production in an ever-decreasing number of ever-larger units.
This tendency has become more pronounced with the passage of time, and the
scale of concentration is now international: a relatively small number of massive
multinational corporations now dominate production in the capitalist world.
At the same time, the capitalist economic domain has been progressively
enlarged to take in aspects of life which were previously seen as quite separate
from production. The commodity has expanded from being a tangible 'good' to
include all sorts of intangibles: educational courses, holidays, health insurance,
and funerals are now bought and sold on the open market in 'packages', rather like
soap powders. And an ever greater focus has been placed upon the consumption
of commodities, a tendency summed up in the term consumerism. As a result, the
economy and the commodity market massively impinge upon people's lives,
including, especially through the medium of television, their 'private' lives in the
home and the family. Another tendency which has been taking place in parallel
with this is increasing state and institutional control over people through various
forms of bureaucracy.
On the one hand, the state has become increasingly interventionary to
create the conditions for the smooth operation of the multinational corporations, in
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terms of currency controls, control of inflation, constraints on wages and on the
capacity of trade unions to take industrial action, and so forth. On the other hand,
the reverse side of the benefits which people have gained from the welfare state is
a sharp increase in the extent to which individual members of 'the public' are
subjected to bureaucratic scrutiny. (Fairclough, 1989:35)
The hidden power of media discourse and the capacity of the capitalist
class and other power-holders to exercise this power : depend on systematic
tendencies in news reporting and other : media activities, A single text on its own
is quite insignificant: the effects of media power are cumulative, working through
the repetition of particular ways of handling causality and agency, particular ways
of positioning the reader, and so forth. Thus through the way it positions readers,
for instance, media: discourse is able to exercise a pervasive and powerful
influence in social reproduction because of the very scale of the modem mass
media and the extremely high level of exposure of whole populations to a
relatively homogeneous output. :!;Jut caution is : necessary: people do negotiate
their relationship to ideal subjects. The power of the media does not mechanically
follow from their mere existence. (Fairclough, 1992:54)
In this study, capitalism indicates texts can interpret how media shows
power to persuade people in women magazines especially for women readers.
2.3.3 Consumerism
Consumerism is a property of modem capitalism which involves a shift in
ideological focus from economic production to economic consumption, and an
unprecedented level of impingement by the economy on people's lives. Let us
briefly trace the emergence of consumerism before looking at its contemporary
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impact. Consumerism grew out of sets of economic, technological and cultural
conditions which have mostly developed since the early decades of the twentieth
century; although we can identify consumerist tendencies in the earlier part of this
period, in the 1920s for instance, consumerism has grown in salience through the
period as these three types of conditions have developed. And, indeed, it has
helped to feed its own growth by contributing to these developments, particularly
in the cultural sphere. The economic conditions relate, firstly, to the stage of
development of capitalist commodity production. Consumerism is a product of
mature capitalism when productive capacity is such that an apparently endless
variety of commodities can be produced in apparently unlimited quantities.
(Fairclough, 1989:199)
In this study, consumerism in the texts in female sexuality articles showed
how articles can persuade the readers to buy some products, by selling promotions
and the content of articles used to economical strategies.
2.4 Fairclough’s Framework for Analysis
2.4.1 Analysis of Text
This framework allows for a selection of pertinent observations to be
made about the text, it is by no means claimed that this is an exhaustive analysis
of features relevant to CDA. These aspects deemed less relevant to the selected
text are barely touched upon.
2.4.1.1 Vocabulary
In this case, Fairclough‟s framework for CDA (1992) focuses on
vocabulary in three ways:
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1. Meanings of words, the emphasis is upon „key words‟ which are
general or more local cultural significance; upon words whose
meaning potential of a word – a panicular structuring of its meaning
– as a mode of hegemony and a focus of struggle.
2. Wording of meanings , the objective is to contrast the ways
meanings are worded with the ways they are worded in other (types
of) text, and to identify the interpretative perspective that underlies
this wording. (1992 : 237)
3. Metaphors, a word or phrase can be represented another meanings,
and regarded as representative or symbolic of something else,
especially something abstract.
2.4.1.2 Grammar
Fairclough (1992: 235) also lists three dimensions of grammar which
may be analyzed, along with the function of language to which they correspond:
a. Transitivity, the objective is to see whether particular process
types and participants are favored in the text, what choices are
made in voice (active or passive), and how significant is the
nominalization of processes. A major concern is agency, the
expression of causality, and the attribution of responsibility.
b. Theme, the objective is to see if there is a discernible pattern in the
text‟s thematic structure to the choices of themes for clauses.
c. Modality, the objective is to determine patterns in the text in the
degree of affinity expressed with propositions through modality. A
major concern is to assess the relative import of modality features
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for (a) social relations in the discourse, and (b) controlling
representations of reality.
2.4.1.3 Cohesion
Cohesion is looking at how clauses are linked together into sentences
and how sentences are in turn linked together to form larger units in texts. Linkage
is achieved in various ways; through using vocabulary from a common semantic
field, repeating words, using near – synonyms, and so on; through a variety of
referring and substituting devices (pronouns, definite article, demonstratives,
ellipsis of repeated words, and so forth); through using conjunctive words, such as
„therefore‟, and „however‟, „and‟ and „but‟.
2.4.1.4 Text Structure
Text structure also concerns the „architecture‟ of texts, and
specifically higher - level design features of different types of text : what elements
or episodes are combined in what ways and what order to constitute.
2.4.2 Analysis of Discursive Practice
Discursive Practice, include processes of text production, distribution,
and consumption, and the nature of these processes varies between different types
of discourse according to social factors. And the analysis of discursive practice
focused on force of utterances, coherence of texts and intertextuality of texts.
2.4.2.1 Force of Utterances
Utterances focused on the production or interpretation of a text is
usually represented as a multilevel process. Lower levels analyze a set on
sequence of sounds or marks on paper into sentences. Higher levels are concerned
with meaning, the ascription of meanings to sentences, to whole text, and to parts
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or „episodes‟ of a text which consist of sentences which can be interpreted as
coherently connected. Interpretation is also characterized by predictions about the
meaning of higher level units early in the process of interpreting them on the basis
of limited evidence, and these predicted meanings shape the way lower – level
units are interpreted.
2.4.2.2 Coherence of Texts
The concept of 'coherence' is at the centre of most accounts of
interpretation. As Fairclough has already indicated, coherence is not a property of
texts, but a property which interpreters impose upon texts, with different
interpreters (including the producer of the text) possibly generating different
coherent readings of the same text. Nor should coherence be understood in an
absolute, logical sense: a coherent text hangs together sufficiently well for present
purposes as far as the interpreter is concerned, which does not preclude
indeterminacies and ambivalence. (Fairclough, 1992:134)
A coherent text is a text whose constituent parts (episodes, sentences) are
meaningfully related so that the text as a whole 'makes sense', even though there
may be relatively few formal markers of those meaningful relationships - that is,
relatively little explicit 'cohesion'. The point is, however, that a text only makes
sense to someone who makes sense of it, someone who is able to infer those
meaningful relations in the absence of explicit markers.
But the particular way in which a coherent reading is generated for a
text depends again upon the nature of the interpretative principles that are being
drawn upon. Particular interpretative principles come to be associated in a
naturalized way with particular discourse types, and such linkages are worth
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investigating for light they shed on the important ideological functions of
coherence in interpreting subjects. That is, texts set up positions for interpreting
subjects that are 'capable' of making sense of them and 'capable' of making the
connections and inferences; in accordance with relevant interpretative principles,
necessary to generate coherent readings.
2.4.2.3 Intertextuality of Texts
The concept of intertextuality sees texts historically as transforming the
past - existing conventions and prior texts - into the present. This may happen in
relatively conventional and normative ways: discourse types tend to rum
particular ways of drawing upon conventions and texts into routines, and to
naturalize them. However, this may happen creatively, with new configurations of
elements of orders of discourse, and new modes of manifest intertextuality, It is
the inherent historicity of an intertextual view of texts, and the way it so readily
accommodates creative practice, that make it so suitable for present concerns
with discursive change, though it needs to be linked to a theory of social and
political change for investigation of discursive change within wider processes of
cultural and social change.
2.5 Semantics
Semantics, the study of word meaning and sentence meaning, abstracted
away from contexts of use, is a descriptive subject. It is an attempt to describe and
understand the nature of the knowledge about meaning in their language that
people have from knowing the language. It is not a prescriptive enterprise with an
interest in advising or pressuring speakers or writers into abandoning some
meanings and adopting others (though pedants can certainly benefit from studying
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the semantics of a language they want to lay down rules about, to become clear on
what aspects of conventional meaning they dislike and which they favour). A
related point is that one can know a language perfectly well without knowing its
history. While it is fascinating to find out about the historical currents and changes
that explain why there are similarities in the pronunciations or spellings of words
that share similarities in meaning.
Semantics is descriptive, and not centrally concerned with how words
came historically to have the meanings they do. Nor do semanticists aim to write
encyclopedic summaries of all human knowledge. An explicated utterance (based
on a declarative sentence) expresses a proposition, which can be true or false. The
central kind of inference in semantics is entailment. Entailments are propositions
guaranteed to be true when a given proposition is true, though we can, loosely,
think of entailing as a connection between sentences. The sense of a word
determines what it denotes (how it relates to the world outside of language) and
the entailment possibilities that the word gives to sentences. (Griffiths, 2006:22)
2.6 Women’s Magazines
There is plenty of research conducted on women‟s magazines and how
they portray women. Magazines from Cosmopolitan to Glamour have been
studied by numerous researchers and from many points of view. Caldas-Coulthard
(1996: 253) divides women‟s magazines into two different categories: the
traditional ones such as Woman‟s Own and the “newer glossy ones” such as
Cosmopolitan. Since the researcher target of interest is Cosmopolitan and
Glamour, the researcher here going to concentrate on the analysis made on these
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“newer” magazines. The researcher will discuss themes relevant to the researcher
own research, and present the researcher own view of some of the related studies.
2.7 Studies on Women’s Representation as Female Sexuality
There is plenty of research conducted on women‟s magazines and how
they portray women. Magazines from Cosmopolitan to Glamour have been
studied by numerous researchers and from many points of view. Caldas-Coulthard
(1996: 253) divides women‟s magazines into two different categories: the
traditional ones such as Woman‟s Own and the “newer glossy ones” such as
Cosmopolitan. Since the researcher target of interest is Cosmopolitan and
Glamour, the researcher here going to concentrate on the analysis made on these
“newer” magazines. The researcher will discuss themes relevant to the researcher
own research, and present the researcher own view of some of the related studies.
2.7.1 Contradiction
First of all, one discussion highly important to the present study is that
about contradiction and coherence in women‟s magazines. Gill (2007:191-204)
explains that there are continuous inconsistencies in women‟s magazines, ranging
from differing advice concerning how to stay fit to varying views on women‟s
sexual pleasure. Many different voices can be heard in the magazines
simultaneously, from a feminist one telling women to do as they feel comfortable
to a conservative one advising them to please their man as best they can. The
discussion, then, is over whether these inconsistencies truly mean that the
magazines are inherently contradictory in nature, or if the incongruities are merely
superficial and possibly a means of concealing and excusing an ideology which as
such would seem out-dated to the magazines‟ readers.
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This debate is relevant to the study since critical discourse analysis
pays particular attention to different voices in texts and attempts to give them a
plausible explanation. Then, be commenting directly on this discussion as the
researcher analyzes Cosmopolitan magazine and determine what, if any, distinct
ideology can be found behind its articles. Gill‟s study is especially useful for me
in this work since she gives a wide overlook onto the topic and presents a great
deal of important studies made in this field to support her arguments. Many
researchers have come to think that the apparent contradictions in women‟s
magazines are only an illusion. For instance, Machin and Thornborrow (2003)
conclude that there in fact is a very coherent ideology behind all the surface-level
discrepancies in Cosmopolitan. They examined Cosmopolitan magazines from 44
different countries in order to find similarities and differences in the ideologies
and representations in them. They found that despite the fact that Cosmopolitan
seems to emphasize women‟s independence, the magazine actually consistently
advocates a very different view of women.
In fact, the magazine expected women to be insecure and unhappy in
their bodies, and all the power women had was most often derived from their
sexuality. Although apparently having all the freedom modern women should
have, women were yet defined in relation to men and assessed by their
appearance. When women‟s work was discussed, it was done in terms of its social
aspects and not the work itself. In addition, pleasing men was often a priority for
women. This study, then, argues for the view that there actually is quite a
consistent ideology behind at least Cosmopolitan. The ideology Machin and
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Thornborrow (2003) found in Cosmopolitan magazine gives me a good point of
comparison as I discuss my own study results.
2.7.2 Feminism
The debate over contradiction and coherence also relates to a second
question relevant to me, that is whether or not women‟s magazines are feminist.
Gill (2007:198-204) writes that women‟s magazines have at least some feminist
ideas in them. For instance, women are naturally presumed to have the right to
work and compete with men in the workplace. She (2007) continues, however,
that an opposite view can also be argued for. Women‟s magazines place a strong
emphasis on women‟s appearance. In addition, no structural inequalities are
presented in the magazines; to any problems that women might have, individual
transformation is offered as the solution. It can be conclude that women‟s
magazines are often characterized by, among other things, a distinct emphasis on
women‟s appearance and the minimization of the importance of social problems
related to womanhood.
2.7.2.1 Femininity
From Schippers (2007), „femininity‟ may be understood as having
three components: it is a social location that individuals, regardless of gender, can
move through by performance; it is a set of practices pertaining to behaviours and
characteristics associated with what it means to be „feminine‟; and should these
set of practices be adopted by women or men, they would have cultural and social
results. It is, therefore, argued that femininity is a position that an individual
performs through, by the collective embodiment of behaviours and characteristics
associated with the concept of being feminine.
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2.7.2.2 Female Sexuality
Women who read sex-related magazine articles from popular women's
magazines like Cosmopolitan are less likely to view premarital sex as a risky
behaviour, a new study has revealed. Additionally, the women who are exposed to
these articles are more supportive of sexual behaviour that both empowers women
and prioritizes their own sexual pleasure. When exposed to explicit textual
messages about female sexual assertiveness in women's magazines, readers
regarded women's capacity to experience and act on feelings of sexual desire more
favorably.
In addition to finding that the group of women exposed to the sexrelated articles endorsed more risky sexual behaviour, the researchers found that
white women in particular viewed premarital sex as less risky and endorsed taking
on a more assertive sexual role than women of color, it suggest that the complex
and sometimes conflicting representations of female sexuality proliferating in the
mass media and popular culture could potentially have both empowering and
problematic effects on women's developing sexual identities.
2.7.3 Addressing Woman
A fourth discussion touching the topic concerns the way women are
addressed in women‟s magazines. Several researchers have concluded that women
are often addressed in a friendly tone in women‟s magazines. According to Gill
(2007:183), journalists in these magazines often attempt to form a personal
relationship with the readers. Magazines meant for younger women, on the other
hand, assume a big-sisterly tone (Talbot:1992), which could be considered a more
obvious version of the friendly tone of women‟s magazines. Whether sisterly or
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friendly, the editors tend to give their readers advice and guidance that normally
might be expected from people with whom the readers have an actual relationship.
Gill‟s and Talbot‟s observations give a point of comparison as the researcher
examine the tone of voice used the articles of interest to me. They also give the
clues at how to interpret the tone of voice used in them.
2.8 Cultural Diversity
Cultural Diversity has moreover become a major social concern,
linked to the growing diversity of social codes within and between societies.
Confronted by this diversity of practices and outlooks, States sometimes find
themselves at a loss to know how to respond, often as a matter of urgency, or how
to take account of cultural diversity in the common interest. To contribute to the
devising of specific responses, this report seeks to provide a framework for
renewed understanding of the challenges inherent in cultural diversity, by
identifying some of the theoretical and political difficulties that it inevitably
entails. A first difficulty has to do with the specifically cultural nature of this
form of diversity. Many societies have recourse to various proxies, particularly
ethnic or linguistic characterizations, to take account of their cultural
heterogeneity. The first challenge will therefore be to examine the different
policies pursued without losing sight of our topic, which is cultural diversity and
not the proxies to which it is sometimes reduced.
In Indonesia, these women‟s magazines are mostly read by high class
women, because these magazines priced are expensive and these magazines use
English language, so not everyone can understand what the articles in magazines
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about. Then, these women‟s magazines include female sexuality topics which is
the culture is totally different with Indonesian culture.
2.9 Conceptual Framework
Liberalism
Capitalism
Ideology
Consumerism
Vocabulary
Fairclough‟s
Framework
for Analysis
Grammar
Analysis of
Text
Cohesion
Text Structure
Force of
Utterances
Analysis of
Discursive
Practice
Coherence of
Texts
Intertextuality
of Text
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2.10 Previous Relevant Studies
They are some studies that have been done by other researchers
concerning critical discourse analysis. A thesis written by Norval (2011) entitled
“Research into Women‟s Magazine and The Social Construction of Womanhood”
from University of Leeds. In his study, he investigated the relationship between
women and magazines today, occupying the significant gap left in this area of
study in recent decades. Building on this foundation, this research also aims to
specifically examine the form and content of the „weekly glossy‟ hybrid genre
created by Grazia magazine. His study had been contributed in this research as a
perspective of womanhood in the correlation into social construction. Then, his
study also used women‟s magazine for the source of the data, there is Grazia
magazine, whereas in this research, women magazines also been used as a
material for the data research.
In addition to Rosul (2011) researched “A Critical Discourse Analysis
of Fairness – Product Advertisement for Woman and Men” from East West
University, this study mainly focused on how people seem to be influenced by the
advertisement of the fairness products (hereafter ads). This study had been
contributed in this research, whereas the discussion about Critical Discourse
Analysis that correlated into social affection for fairness - product advertisement
marketing. The theory of CDA that been used in this study, became as a
supporting data addition for this research analysis.
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Then, a thesis written by Mearns (2013) entitled
“Gender in
Commercial Radio In New Zealand : A Critical Discourse Analysis of the “Secret
Life of Girls” from Auckland University of Technology. This thesis is grounded
in the political economy of communication tradition and is also influence by
feminist theory. Her study had been contributed to this research, where the
relation of CDA and feminist theory had became an addition of information to
support the ideas of this research. In her study, CDA and feminist theory was
separated.
A
journal
written
by
Aoumeur
(2014)
entitled
“Gender
Representations in Three School Textbooks, A Feminist Critical Discourse
Analysis” from IMPACT: International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts
and Literature. This study is devoted to the analysis of male and female
representations in three school textbooks to which children from 6 to10 years old
are exposed to, in primary schools in Algeria. The methodology adopted is to
connect the linguistic features in the texts (the micro) to the social factors (the
macro). The Analysis reveals that despite the measures taken by the Algerian
government, in general and the Ministry of education, in particular to provide
high-quality education and promote gender equality, male and female
representations are still „problematic‟. In general gender is still represented in a
way that supports the status–quo. The school textbooks in Algeria contribute to
the socialization of children in a very traditional and stereotypical way. In his
study had been contributed to this research
which discussed about gender
representations from school book used a feminist critical discourse analysis
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theory. In his case, feminist theory and critical discourse analysis were combined.
This theory was affected to enrich the data information for this research.
Then the last is a journal written by Lehtonen (2007)
entitled
“Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis and Children‟s Fantasy Fiction – Modeling
a New Approach from University of Jyväskylä, Finland. In this study is to
examine gender in children‟s fantasy fiction. There are two major aspects in
claiming that a critical linguistic, feminist approach to children‟s fantasy might be
needed. This study had been contributed to this research, whereas the gender
problem had been discussed then used feminist critical discourse analysis as a
theory. Same as like previous study above, feminist theory and critical discourse
analysis were combined. This theory was helped to this research as a major
information for feminism views in the case of women magazines.
The previous relevant studies, however give some contributions to the
present study. They had been considered as the relevant references to explore the
study that had been carried out. Then, they had been supported this research to
vary the aspects or problems investigated in order to bring the new one although
all of them have the same issue to discuss.
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