CODE SWITCHING IN SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE THROUGH MOBILE PHONE.
CODE SWITCHING IN SHORT MESSAGE SERVICE
THROUGH MOBILE PHONE
A Thesis
Submitted to the English Applied Linguistics Study Program
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora
By:
YENNI HASNAH
Registration Number: 082188330080
ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY PROGRAM
POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN
2013
ABSTRACT
Hasnah, Yenni. Registration Number: 082188330080. Code Switching in
Short Message Service through Mobile Phone. A Thesis. English
Applied Linguistics Study Program. Postgraduate School. State
University of Medan. 2012.
This study deals with code switching in Short Message Service (SMS)
through mobile phone. The objectives of this study are to investigate the types and
processes of code switching used in SMS. The instrument of the data collection is
documentation in which the data are gathered from the messages received by the
mobile phone of the researcher and some of them are from sample’s mobile
phone. Then, they are analyzed with the procedures proposed by Miles and
Huberman (1984) namely data collection, data display, data reduction, and
conclusion drawing. The results of the study show that: (1) there are two types of
code switching used by the senders when sending their messages to the receiver,
namely situational and metaphorical code switching as proposed by wardhaugh
(2006), but in situational code switching, not all the situations worked in this
study. However, the situations of the participant status and the interaction
formality are not proven since the communications are in written form through
SMS who enables the participants to edit the utterances that they want to convey,
and (2) there are three processes of code switching performed by the senders when
sending the messages, namely insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization
as proposedd by Muysken (2000). Based on the research findings, it is concluded
that the situations that affect the occurances of code switching are different
between oral and written communications. In the other words, the influential
situations of code switching occurances in oral communication are not surely
found in written one. Furthermore, it is suggested to do further studies about code
switching, particularly focusing on the types of code switching since in the
situational code switching, not all the situational factors found in this study. It is
also suggested to the texters to keep the ways they send SMS in order to enable
them keeping effeciency in texting.
iv
ABSTRAK
Hasnah, Yenni. NIM: 082188330080. Alih Kode dalam Layanan Pesan
Singkat melalui Handphone. Tesis. Linguistik Terapan Bahasa
Inggris, Sekolah Pascasarjana. Universitas Negeri Medan. 2013.
Studi ini berhubungan dengan penggunaan alih kode dalam layanan
pesan singkat (Short Message Service─SMS) melalui handphone. Tujuan studi ini
adalah untuk menemukan jenis-jenis dan proses-proses alih kode yang digunakan
dalam SMS. Instrumen pengumpulan data adalah melalui dokumentasi yang mana
data diperoleh dari pesan-pesan yang masuk ke handphone peneliti. Kemudian
data tersebut dianalisis melalui prosedur-prosedur yang diajukan oleh Miles dan
Huberman (1984) yaitu pengumpulan data, penyajian data, pengurangan data, dan
penarikan kesimpulan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: (1) ada dua jenis alih
kode yang digunakan oleh pengirim ketika mereka mengirim pesan kepada
penerima yaitu alih kode situasional dan metaporikal seperti yang dikemukakan
oleh Wardhaugh (2006). Tetapi, pada alih kode situasional, tidak semua situasi
ada. Bagaimanapun, situasi status partisipan dan keformalan interaksi tidak
terbukti keberadaannya dalam penelitian ini karena komunikasi yang terjadi dalam
bentuk tulisan melalui SMS yang memungkinkan partisipan mengedit ucapanucapan yang ingin mereka sampaikan, dan (2) ada tiga jenis proses alih kode yang
diterapkan oleh pengirim ketika mengirim pesan yaitu sisipan, pertukaran, dan
pengkongruenan leksikal seperti yang dikemukakan Muysken (2000).
Berdasarkan hasil-hasil penelitian tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahwa situasisituasi yang mempengaruhi terjadinya alih kode berbeda antara komunikasi lisan
dan tulisan. Dengan kata lain, situasi yang mempengaruhi terjadinya alih kode
pada komunikasi lisan belum tentu terjadi pada komunikasi tulisan. Selanjutnya,
disarankan untuk melakukan studi lebih lanjut tentang alih kode, khususnya
terfokus pada jenis-jenis alih kode karena pada alih kode situasional, tidak semua
faktor penyebab ditemukan dalam studi ini. Kemudian disarankan juga kepada
peng-SMS untuk mempertahankan cara mereka dalam ber-SMS agar
memungkinkan untuk mendapatkan keefesienan dalam ber-SMS.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is difficult to start dedicating her gratitude but certainly her gratitude
goes to those who have given her contributions in the process of finishing this
thesis. The completion of this thesis is nothing without the support of many
people around and close her. However, it would be impossible to mention all, but
in this precious oppurtunity, she would like to extend her indebtedness.
First and foremost, she would like to thank Allah SWT, The Almighty, the
most gracious, and most merciful, for His Guidance and Blessings until she can
succeed in presenting this academic work as one of the requirements to obtain the
degree of Master Humaniora. Then, may greetings are shaded to our prophet
Muhammad, his family and the noble friends.
First of all, the writer really owes the real debt of gratitude to Prof. Tina
Mariany Arifin, M.A., Ph.D., her first adviser whose advice, encouragement,
reviews, comments, suggestions, kindness, patience, care, and everything valuable
have been the features in the writing process of this thesis from the beginning
until the end. Then, her great gratitude goes to Prof. Dr. Berlin Sibarani, M.Pd.,
her second adviser whose time spent in giving the guidance, suggestions,
comments, criticisms, and everything valuable to qualify the content of this thesis.
Their unerring abilities to spot her mistakes saved her from many mishaps and
inspired her to go further than they might otherwise have done.
Secondly, the writer would like to extend her great gratitude to Prof. Dr.
Busmin Gurning, M.Pd. and Dr. Sri Minda Murni, M.S., the Head and Secretary
i
of the English Applied Linguistics Study Program for their assistance in the
process of setteling the administrative processes during her study.
The writer is also much indebted to Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M.Pd.,
Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A., Ph.D., and Dr. Eddy Setia, M.Ed., TESP, as her
reviewers and examiners for their constructive and valuable comments and
suggestions for the improvement of this study. Her thanks also go to all her
lecturers, Prof. D.P. Tampubolon, Ph.D., Prof. Dr. Lince Sihombing, M.Pd., Prof.
M. Butar-butar, M.A., Ph.D., Prof. M. Silitonga, M.A., Ph.D., and Prof. Dr. J.
Naibaho for their great and valuable contribution in increasing her insights and
skills in English Applied Linguistics during the course of her studies.
In the process of undertaking this study, she wishes to dedicate her
profound and sincere indebtedness to her very beloved parents; Endra, S.Pd.I and
Rohaniah, her lovely younger sisters; Irmayani, S.Pd, Salma Khairani, AM.Kep,
Ida Mahira, and her dearest younger brothers; Hamdani Mazri and Muhammad
Irwan Dani for their great attentions, supports, and prayers till the completion of
this thesis.
Special thanks are given to her beloved adopted mother, Bunda Hj.
Nur’ain Lubis, M.AP and the family for their great spirit and motivations in
completing the study. She also would like to take this opportunity to thank all the
lecturers in Muhammadiyah University of North Sumatera who have given spirit
and supports in finishing her study. Then, special thanks also to her clasmates in
class B2 (Ummi, Ima, Vina, Anim, Kak Berutu, Kak Nining, Kak Dian, Kak Uti,
Kak Juniar, Kak Lina, Kak Srik, Bu Lenni, Surya, Mandra, Bang Andi, Bang
ii
Ilham, Bang Reza, Pak Purwanto, Pak Salman, Pak Toni, Pak Sardon, Pak
Marudut, Pak Arsen ) and all the English Applied Linguiistic students, especially
intake XIV for their frienship. Last but not least, her thanks go to all friends who
know her for the motivations and frienships.
May Allah SWT, The Almighty Bless Us!
Medan,
April 2013
The Writer,
Yenni Hasnah
Registration Number.082188330080
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................
i
ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .....................................................................
vi
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................
viii
LIST OF APPENDICES ......................................................................
ix
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................
1
1.1 Background of the Study..........................................
1
1.2 Problems of the Study ..............................................
6
1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................
6
1.4 Scope of the Study ...................................................
6
1.5 Significance of the Study .........................................
7
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................
8
2.1 Concept of Code Switching ....................................
8
2.2 Types of Code Switching ........................................
12
2.3 Processes of Code Switching ..................................
23
2.4 Language and Communication ...............................
32
2.4.1 Language ........................................................
32
2.4.2 Communication ..............................................
34
2.5 SMS in Mobile Phone .............................................
36
2.6 Language in SMS ....................................................
37
2.7 Relevant Studies ......................................................
41
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD .............................................
44
3.1 Research Design ....................................................
44
3.2 Source of Data ........................................................
44
3.3 Instrument of Data Collection ................................
44
3.4 Procedure of Data Collection .................................
45
3.5 Technique of Data Analysis ...................................
45
3.6 Trustworthiness of the Study .................................
47
CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS, FINDING, AND
DISCUSSION ..............................................................
50
4.1 Data Analysis .........................................................
50
4.1.1 Types of Code Switching ..............................
50
4.1.2 Processes of Code Switching ........................
58
4.2 Finding ...................................................................
61
4.3 Discussion ..............................................................
62
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION .......................
67
5.1 Conclusion ..............................................................
67
5.3 Suggestion ...............................................................
67
REFERENCES ......................................................................................
69
APPENDICES .......................................................................................
74
LIST OF TABLES
Table
4.1
Page
The Differences between Situational and Metaphorical
Code Switching ........................................................................... 57
4.2
The Differences between Insertion, Alternation, and
Congruent Lexicalization ............................................................ 61
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix
Page
1
SMS Received on January 2010 ............................................
74
2
SMS Received on February 2010 ..........................................
76
3
SMS Received on March 2010 ..............................................
77
4
SMS Received on April 2010 ................................................
86
5
SMS Received on May 2010..................................................
93
6
SMS Received on June 2010..................................................
95
7
SMS Received on July 2010 .................................................. 100
8
SMS Received in 2013 ........................................................... 106
vi
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The great advancement in science and technology has touched many
aspects of human life. Almost all people of different age groups are aware of the
presence and influence of technology in the process of communication. One of the
man gadgets is the mobile or cellular phone. Therefore, in the process of
communication the different languages are used when they use that cellular
phone. At least one can use the local (native) language plus the national (Bahasa
Indonesia), and English as the international one.
Indonesia is a multicultural country and the emergence of local languages
is inevitable among tribes. Consequently, Indonesians are at least bilingual since
they master two languages, vernacular and Bahasa Indonesia. Moreover, it is not
surprising if some Indonesians are bilingual and/or multilingual at the same time
because of the foreign language learning. The more people master languages, the
more their ability to switch codes from one language into another language
because of the repertoire in their minds. Therefore, the phenomenon of code
switching happens not only between local languages and Bahasa Indonesia, but
also among local languages, Bahasa Indonesia and English.
Some previous studies have indicated that bilingual speakers continue
their code switching behavior when sending text messages (Deumert and
Masinyana, 2008; Haggan, 2007). Then, it is suggested that bilinguals could use
1
code switching to maximize their communication efficiency (i.e., using the fewest
possible characters or keystrokes to convey a message) in the domain of text
messages (Bautista, 2004). These studies have indicated that the combination of
technology and multilingualism may produce a new function for code switching.
In essence, multilingual texters should be able to choose the shortest words and
phrases from each language, perhaps mixed together, to reduce the number of
characters or amount of key pressing required to deliver a message due to the
limited sign of the screen.
Since the message sent through SMS is basically a medium of verbal
communication, but can also portrays non-verbal through use of punctuation
marks, for example ..-,??..!!!,it is certainly opened for linguistic analysis. The
most obvious linguistic features found in SMS language is the use of language
switching. Of course, it is commonly done by those who are bilingual or
multilingual. It seems that people who often send messages through the SMS of
their cellular phones are fond of mixing their Bahasa Indonesia with vernacular
language or even English. Furthermore, the definition of a bilingual itself is given
by Spolsky (1998) namely a person who has some functional ability in the second
language.
Referring to the definition of bilingual given by Spolsky (1998), those
people who use both English and Bahasa Indonesia in their SMS messages cannot
be considered bilinguals because English has not been the second language in
Indonesia. However, by switching the languages in their messages, they have
acted as if they were bilinguals. In addition, language switching is also closely
related to the phenomenon of diglossia, in which one language is considered
higher than another (Fishman, 1972). Above all, there are still some factors that
can motivate people in switching their languages when they are writing messages
through their mobile phone.
The condition of Indonesia with most of the people live in a bilingual or
multilingual community will encourage the people to be able to speak with at least
two different languages. In other words, the people can use even alternate more
than one language. In this case, it is often known as code switching. As stated by
Grosjean (1982) that code switching as the alternate use of two or more languages
in the same utterance or conversation. Then, Holmes (1992) argues that the
feature of bilingual speech such as interference, code mixing and code switching
are normal phenomenon because bilinguals often find it easier to discuss a
particular topic in one language rather than another. It means that the occurrence
of code switching cannot be avoided among bilingual and/or multilingual people.
The phenomenon of code switching does not only occur orally in daily life
situation through conversation but also in written through text. One of the many
reasons is due to the presence of the product of technology like mobile phone,
which is also widely known as cellular phone. Therefore, the most popular feature
offered by cellular phone is Short Message Service (SMS) since the mobile
technology has spread rapidly throughout the world faster than any other
communication technologies and is now widely used everywhere. There are some
reasons for this feature. First of all, it is mainly because of the cost that is much
lower than the cost of calling. Secondly, this SMS normally allows the sender to
write up to 160 characters per message. It is sufficient for a short greeting,
content, and closing. Third, the message is sent instantly to the receiver much
faster than the fastest means of sending a letter. Consequently, the phenomenon of
sending messages through SMS is becoming more and more popular until the
present time.
SMS, as defined within the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) as digital mobile phone standard, is a service which enables its users to
send short text messages from one mobile phone to another, or to a mobile phone
via the Internet (Segerstad, 2002). The widespread use of cellular phones has led
to the proliferation of messages sent using the SMS. The 160-character limit on
text messages encourages the use of shortenings and other shortcuts of language
in use. When bilingual or multilingual speakers use SMS, their access to multiple
sources of vocabulary, sentence structure, and other language devices would
appear to provide additional resources for addressing the character limits imposed
in SMS, perhaps by increasing the available pool of short phrases and words.
Once, it should be noted that the normal capacity of the SMS is only 160
characters. There is one possibility that people may switch their languages for
keeping the efficiency. It means that the senders want to save the charge by
keeping the space so that it can contain a longer message. For example, the word
‘kamu’ needs four characters while ‘u’ will only spend one character. However,
beside of keeping efficiency, there are the other factors behind the occurrence of
code switching.
According to Hoffmann (1991), there are seven reasons for bilinguals to
switch their languages. The seven reasons are: (1) talking about a particular topic,
(2) quoting somebody else, (3) being emphatic about something, (4) interjection,
(5) repetition used for clarification, (6) intention of clarifying the speech content
for the interlocutor, and (7) expressing group identity. Besides the reasons
suggested by Hoffman, Saville and Troike (1986) gives additional reasons: (1)
softening and strengthening request or command, (2) because of real lexical need,
either if the speaker knows the desired expression in one language cannot be
satisfactorily translated into second, and (3) to exclude other people when a
comment is intended for only a limited audience. However, In SMS messages,
one reason of language switching that cannot be excluded is for the sake of
efficiency. This reason is in line with Bautista (2004) who asserts that bilinguals
could use code switching to maximize their communication efficiency (i.e., using
the fewest possible characters or keystrokes to convey a message) in the domain
of text messages.
In line with the descriptions above, i.e. the advancement and innovation of
science and technology has been able to touch the human life in term of
communication process by creating a mobile phone as one means to communicate
that most of the people have had it and they tend to send message than calling
with various reasons whose messages contain code switching because of the
bilingual and/or diglossia situation they have, the present study was very much
concentrated on exploring the using of code switching in mobile text messages. In
this case, the researcher focused on the types and processes of code switching
used in SMS.
1.2 Problems of the Study
The problems of the study are formulated as the followings.
1. What types of code switching are found in SMS through mobile phone?
2. How is code switching used in SMS through mobile phone?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
In line with the problems, this study is intended to discover:
1. the types of code switching used in SMS through mobile phone,
2. the processes of using code switching in SMS through mobile phone, and
1.4 Scope of the Study
The process of communication is conducted in many ways depending on
the sender and receiver of the message. One of the latest means of communication
that most of the people have done is through the use of mobile phone with the
term SMS. Due to the limited space on the mobile screen and regarding the
effectiveness and efficiency of the sending of messages and in term of the money
spent, people use technology to simplify the process of communication.
Moreover, there are varieties of language being used in this feature like
abbreviation, deletion of any vowel or consonant, emotion, even code switching.
The present study was limited to address the use of code switching in SMS
through mobile phone. In this case, the study was focused on the types and
processes of using code switching
1.5 Significance of the Study
It is expected that the findings of the study are useful and relevant
theoretically and practically. Theoretically, the findings of this study are expected
to be useful for the readers especially for the college students who want to study
more about sociolinguistics related to code switching. They can enrich their
insight about the types and processes of code switching because this research
provides the different phenomenon of code switching. It is code switching in SMS
which most of people do it. Furthermore, it is estimated that the results of the
study can practically make a significant contribution to assert the importance way
of using code switching in the written text particularly in SMS. It is considered
that the main feature of SMS that is limited on 160 characters per message can
encourage the people to do code switching in their texting in order to save the
space.
68
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion
After analyzing the data and referring to some findings of the study,
conclusions are stated as the followings.
(1) There are two types of code switching used by the senders when sending their
messages, namely situational and metaphorical. But, not all the situations of
situational code switching are proven in this study. Some of them, the factor
of participants’ status and type of interaction do not work in this study since
the study deals with written communication who enables the participants to
edit the utterances they want to convey.
(2) The code switching is used by insertion, alternation, and congruent
lexicalization.
5.2 Suggestion
Relating to the conclusions that have been stated, the suggestions are
presented below.
(1) Since this study is limited on sociolinguistic and grammatical aspects of code
switching, while the psycolinguistic aspect is not included, it is suggested to
the other researchers to develop this research especially in finding the other
types and processes of code switching in another written media like e-mail,
twitter, blackberry message, and so forth.
68
69
(2) Referring to the finding of this study that not all the situational factors of code
switching found, namely participant status and type of interaction since the
interactions
between
participants
occured
through
SMS
(written
communication that enables them to edit their utterances), it is suggested to
the texters to keep the ways they interact as they want in order to create the
distinctive feature of language used in SMS such as using code switching.
Moreover, such switching can enable them to keep effeciency in texting.
70
REFERENCES
Al-Khatib, M. A and Sabbah, E. H. 2008.Language Choice in Mobile Text
Messages among JordanianUniversity Student. Jordan: University of
Science and Technology.
Androutsopoulos, S. 2006. Multilingualism, Diaspora, and the Internet: Codes
and Identities on German-Based Diaspora Websites. Journal of
Sociolinguistics, 10, 520-547.
Appel, R. and Muysken, P. 1987. Language Contact and Bilingualism. London:
Edward Arnold.
Apriana, Aulia. 2006. Mixing and Switching Languages in SMS Messages.
Malang: UniversitasNegeri Malang.
Auer, P. 1984. On the Meaning of Conversational Code-switching. Germany:
Gunter Narr Verlag.
---------. 1988. A Conversation Analytic Approach to Code-switching and
Transfer. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Baron, N. 2000. Alphabet to Email: How Written English Evolved and Where It’s
Heading. London: Routledge.
Baron, N. et al. 2005. Tethered or Mobile? Use of Away Messages in Instant
Messaging by American College Students. London: Springer-Verlag.
Bautista, M. 2004. Tagalog-English Code Switching as a Mode of Discourse. Asia
Pacific Education Review 5–2: 226–233.
Bhatia, T. K. and Ritchie, W. C. 1996. Bilingual Language Mixing, Universal
Grammar, and Second Language Acquisition. San Diego/London:
Academic Press.
Biber, D. 1998. Variation across Speech and Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Blom, J. P. and Gumperz, J. J. 1972. Social Meaning in Linguistic Structure:
Code-Switching in Norway. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bodomo, A. B. 2009. Computer-mediated Communication for Linguistics and
Literacy: Technology and Natural Language Education. Hershey, PA,
USA: IGI Global.
71
Bogdan, R. and Biklen, S. 1992. Qualitative Research for Education: An
Introduction to Theory and Research. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and
Bacon.
Crystal, D. 2001. Language and the Internet. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity
Press.
December, J. 2005. Units of Analysis for Internet Communication. Journal of
Computer
Mediated
Communication
1
(4).
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol1/issue4/december.html.
Deumert, A. and Masinyana, S. O. 2008. Mobile Language Evidence from a
Bilingual South African Sample. English World-Wide.
Doring, N. 2002. Abbreviations and Acronyms in SMS Communication.
Http://www.nicola-doering.de/.
Fishman, J. 1972. Language in Sociocultural Change. Stanford: Stanford.
Fiske, J. 1990. Introduction to Communication Studies (Second Edition). London:
Routledge.
Fraenkel, J. R. and Wallen, N. E. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.
Goggin, G. 2004. Mobile Text. M/C: Journal of Media and Culture7, Jan 12th.
Online: http://www.media-culture.org.au/0401/03-goggin.html.
Grosjean, F. 1982. Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism.
Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press.
Gumperz, J. J. 1976. The Sociolinguistic Significance of Conversational Code
Switching. Berkeley, CA: University of California Language Behavior
Research Laboratory.
------------------. 1982. Language and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Haggan, M. 2007. Text Messaging in
Message?Multilingua26(4):427-449.
Kuwait. Is the Medium the
Hamers, F. J. and Blanc, H. A. M. 1987. Bilinguality and Bilingualism.
Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.
Hoffmann, C. 1991. An Introduction to Bilingualism. New York: Longman.
72
Holmes, J. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman.
-----------. 1994. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London and New York:
Longman.
Hughes, R. 1996. English in Speech and Writing: Investigating language and
literature. London: Routledge.
Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lin, A. 2000. Deconstructing “Mixed Code”. Hong Kong: Linguistic Society of
Hong Kong.
Lobet, C. and Maris, C. 2003. Mobile Phone Tribes: Youth and Social Identity.
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lucas, S. E. 1992. The Art of Public Speaking(Fourth Edition). New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Maehlum, B. 1990. Code Switching in Hemnesberget – Myth or Reality?. Oslo:
Novus Press.
McLauglin, B. 1984. Second Language Acquisition in Childhood, Vol. I Preschool Children. London: Hisdale.
Miles M. B. and Huberman A. M. 1984. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook
of New Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Montgomery, M. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society (Second
Edition). London: Routledge.
Muysken, P. 1995. Code Switching and Grammatical Theory. Cambridge, UK
and New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.
---------------. 2000. Bilingual Speech: A Typology of Code-Mixing. Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversity Press.
Myers, M and Scotton, C. 1993. Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in
Code Switching. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
----------------------------------------. 2003. What Lies beneath: Split (Mixed)
Languages as Contact Phenomena. Berlin and New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Puro, J. P. 2003. Finland: A Mobile Culture. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity
Press.
73
Rafi, M. S. 2008. SMS Text Analysis: Language, Gender and Current Practices.
Lahore: University of Management & Technology.
Redlinger, W. E. and Park, T. 1980. Language Mixing in Young Bilinguals.
Journal of Child Language, 7 (2), 337–352.
Romaine. S. 2000. Language in Society: An Introduction
Sociolinguistic(Second Edition). Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press
to
Savile, M. and Troike, M. 1986. The Ethnography of Communication: An
Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Scotton, C. 1995. Social Motivations for Code Switching: Evidence from Africa.
Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.
Segerstad, H. 2002. Use and Adaptation of Written Language to the Conditions of
Computer-Mediated Communication. Unpublished PhD Dissertation.
University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
http://www.ling.gu.se/ ~ylva/.
Siebenhaar, B. 2006. Code Choice and Code Switching in Swiss German Internet
Relay Chat Rooms. Journal of Sociolinguistics10–4: 481–506.
Shannon, C and Weavers, W. 1949. The Mathematical Theory of Communication.
Illionis: University of Illionis Press.
Sperber, D. 1975. Rethinking Symbolism. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Spolsky, B. 1998. Sociolinguistics. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.
Stockwell, P. 2002. Sociolinguistics: A Resource Book for Students. London:
Routledge.
Sue, H. Y. 2003. The Multilingual and Multi-Orthogrphic Taiwan-based Internet:
Creative Uses of Writing Systems on College affiliated BBSs. Journal of
Computer Mediated Communication 9: 1.
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol9/ issue1/su.html.
Thompson, N. 2003. Communication and Language: A Handbook of Theory and
Practice.Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wardhaugh, R. 2006. An
OxfordUniversity Press.
Introduction
to
Sociolinguistics.
Oxford:
74
Warschauer, R. et al. 2002. Language Choice Online: Globalization and Identity
in Egypt. Journalof Computer Mediated Communication7: 4. Online:
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol7/issue4/warschauer. html.
Woolard, Kathryn A. (1988). Code-switching and Comedy in Catalonia.
Codeswitching: Anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives. Berlin
and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Yeh, M. J. 2004. A Preliminary Study on SMS Use of Youth Tribes. Information
Society Research 6: 235–282.
THROUGH MOBILE PHONE
A Thesis
Submitted to the English Applied Linguistics Study Program
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora
By:
YENNI HASNAH
Registration Number: 082188330080
ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY PROGRAM
POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN
2013
ABSTRACT
Hasnah, Yenni. Registration Number: 082188330080. Code Switching in
Short Message Service through Mobile Phone. A Thesis. English
Applied Linguistics Study Program. Postgraduate School. State
University of Medan. 2012.
This study deals with code switching in Short Message Service (SMS)
through mobile phone. The objectives of this study are to investigate the types and
processes of code switching used in SMS. The instrument of the data collection is
documentation in which the data are gathered from the messages received by the
mobile phone of the researcher and some of them are from sample’s mobile
phone. Then, they are analyzed with the procedures proposed by Miles and
Huberman (1984) namely data collection, data display, data reduction, and
conclusion drawing. The results of the study show that: (1) there are two types of
code switching used by the senders when sending their messages to the receiver,
namely situational and metaphorical code switching as proposed by wardhaugh
(2006), but in situational code switching, not all the situations worked in this
study. However, the situations of the participant status and the interaction
formality are not proven since the communications are in written form through
SMS who enables the participants to edit the utterances that they want to convey,
and (2) there are three processes of code switching performed by the senders when
sending the messages, namely insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization
as proposedd by Muysken (2000). Based on the research findings, it is concluded
that the situations that affect the occurances of code switching are different
between oral and written communications. In the other words, the influential
situations of code switching occurances in oral communication are not surely
found in written one. Furthermore, it is suggested to do further studies about code
switching, particularly focusing on the types of code switching since in the
situational code switching, not all the situational factors found in this study. It is
also suggested to the texters to keep the ways they send SMS in order to enable
them keeping effeciency in texting.
iv
ABSTRAK
Hasnah, Yenni. NIM: 082188330080. Alih Kode dalam Layanan Pesan
Singkat melalui Handphone. Tesis. Linguistik Terapan Bahasa
Inggris, Sekolah Pascasarjana. Universitas Negeri Medan. 2013.
Studi ini berhubungan dengan penggunaan alih kode dalam layanan
pesan singkat (Short Message Service─SMS) melalui handphone. Tujuan studi ini
adalah untuk menemukan jenis-jenis dan proses-proses alih kode yang digunakan
dalam SMS. Instrumen pengumpulan data adalah melalui dokumentasi yang mana
data diperoleh dari pesan-pesan yang masuk ke handphone peneliti. Kemudian
data tersebut dianalisis melalui prosedur-prosedur yang diajukan oleh Miles dan
Huberman (1984) yaitu pengumpulan data, penyajian data, pengurangan data, dan
penarikan kesimpulan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa: (1) ada dua jenis alih
kode yang digunakan oleh pengirim ketika mereka mengirim pesan kepada
penerima yaitu alih kode situasional dan metaporikal seperti yang dikemukakan
oleh Wardhaugh (2006). Tetapi, pada alih kode situasional, tidak semua situasi
ada. Bagaimanapun, situasi status partisipan dan keformalan interaksi tidak
terbukti keberadaannya dalam penelitian ini karena komunikasi yang terjadi dalam
bentuk tulisan melalui SMS yang memungkinkan partisipan mengedit ucapanucapan yang ingin mereka sampaikan, dan (2) ada tiga jenis proses alih kode yang
diterapkan oleh pengirim ketika mengirim pesan yaitu sisipan, pertukaran, dan
pengkongruenan leksikal seperti yang dikemukakan Muysken (2000).
Berdasarkan hasil-hasil penelitian tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahwa situasisituasi yang mempengaruhi terjadinya alih kode berbeda antara komunikasi lisan
dan tulisan. Dengan kata lain, situasi yang mempengaruhi terjadinya alih kode
pada komunikasi lisan belum tentu terjadi pada komunikasi tulisan. Selanjutnya,
disarankan untuk melakukan studi lebih lanjut tentang alih kode, khususnya
terfokus pada jenis-jenis alih kode karena pada alih kode situasional, tidak semua
faktor penyebab ditemukan dalam studi ini. Kemudian disarankan juga kepada
peng-SMS untuk mempertahankan cara mereka dalam ber-SMS agar
memungkinkan untuk mendapatkan keefesienan dalam ber-SMS.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is difficult to start dedicating her gratitude but certainly her gratitude
goes to those who have given her contributions in the process of finishing this
thesis. The completion of this thesis is nothing without the support of many
people around and close her. However, it would be impossible to mention all, but
in this precious oppurtunity, she would like to extend her indebtedness.
First and foremost, she would like to thank Allah SWT, The Almighty, the
most gracious, and most merciful, for His Guidance and Blessings until she can
succeed in presenting this academic work as one of the requirements to obtain the
degree of Master Humaniora. Then, may greetings are shaded to our prophet
Muhammad, his family and the noble friends.
First of all, the writer really owes the real debt of gratitude to Prof. Tina
Mariany Arifin, M.A., Ph.D., her first adviser whose advice, encouragement,
reviews, comments, suggestions, kindness, patience, care, and everything valuable
have been the features in the writing process of this thesis from the beginning
until the end. Then, her great gratitude goes to Prof. Dr. Berlin Sibarani, M.Pd.,
her second adviser whose time spent in giving the guidance, suggestions,
comments, criticisms, and everything valuable to qualify the content of this thesis.
Their unerring abilities to spot her mistakes saved her from many mishaps and
inspired her to go further than they might otherwise have done.
Secondly, the writer would like to extend her great gratitude to Prof. Dr.
Busmin Gurning, M.Pd. and Dr. Sri Minda Murni, M.S., the Head and Secretary
i
of the English Applied Linguistics Study Program for their assistance in the
process of setteling the administrative processes during her study.
The writer is also much indebted to Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M.Pd.,
Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A., Ph.D., and Dr. Eddy Setia, M.Ed., TESP, as her
reviewers and examiners for their constructive and valuable comments and
suggestions for the improvement of this study. Her thanks also go to all her
lecturers, Prof. D.P. Tampubolon, Ph.D., Prof. Dr. Lince Sihombing, M.Pd., Prof.
M. Butar-butar, M.A., Ph.D., Prof. M. Silitonga, M.A., Ph.D., and Prof. Dr. J.
Naibaho for their great and valuable contribution in increasing her insights and
skills in English Applied Linguistics during the course of her studies.
In the process of undertaking this study, she wishes to dedicate her
profound and sincere indebtedness to her very beloved parents; Endra, S.Pd.I and
Rohaniah, her lovely younger sisters; Irmayani, S.Pd, Salma Khairani, AM.Kep,
Ida Mahira, and her dearest younger brothers; Hamdani Mazri and Muhammad
Irwan Dani for their great attentions, supports, and prayers till the completion of
this thesis.
Special thanks are given to her beloved adopted mother, Bunda Hj.
Nur’ain Lubis, M.AP and the family for their great spirit and motivations in
completing the study. She also would like to take this opportunity to thank all the
lecturers in Muhammadiyah University of North Sumatera who have given spirit
and supports in finishing her study. Then, special thanks also to her clasmates in
class B2 (Ummi, Ima, Vina, Anim, Kak Berutu, Kak Nining, Kak Dian, Kak Uti,
Kak Juniar, Kak Lina, Kak Srik, Bu Lenni, Surya, Mandra, Bang Andi, Bang
ii
Ilham, Bang Reza, Pak Purwanto, Pak Salman, Pak Toni, Pak Sardon, Pak
Marudut, Pak Arsen ) and all the English Applied Linguiistic students, especially
intake XIV for their frienship. Last but not least, her thanks go to all friends who
know her for the motivations and frienships.
May Allah SWT, The Almighty Bless Us!
Medan,
April 2013
The Writer,
Yenni Hasnah
Registration Number.082188330080
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................
i
ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .....................................................................
vi
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................
viii
LIST OF APPENDICES ......................................................................
ix
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................
1
1.1 Background of the Study..........................................
1
1.2 Problems of the Study ..............................................
6
1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................
6
1.4 Scope of the Study ...................................................
6
1.5 Significance of the Study .........................................
7
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...................................
8
2.1 Concept of Code Switching ....................................
8
2.2 Types of Code Switching ........................................
12
2.3 Processes of Code Switching ..................................
23
2.4 Language and Communication ...............................
32
2.4.1 Language ........................................................
32
2.4.2 Communication ..............................................
34
2.5 SMS in Mobile Phone .............................................
36
2.6 Language in SMS ....................................................
37
2.7 Relevant Studies ......................................................
41
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD .............................................
44
3.1 Research Design ....................................................
44
3.2 Source of Data ........................................................
44
3.3 Instrument of Data Collection ................................
44
3.4 Procedure of Data Collection .................................
45
3.5 Technique of Data Analysis ...................................
45
3.6 Trustworthiness of the Study .................................
47
CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS, FINDING, AND
DISCUSSION ..............................................................
50
4.1 Data Analysis .........................................................
50
4.1.1 Types of Code Switching ..............................
50
4.1.2 Processes of Code Switching ........................
58
4.2 Finding ...................................................................
61
4.3 Discussion ..............................................................
62
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION .......................
67
5.1 Conclusion ..............................................................
67
5.3 Suggestion ...............................................................
67
REFERENCES ......................................................................................
69
APPENDICES .......................................................................................
74
LIST OF TABLES
Table
4.1
Page
The Differences between Situational and Metaphorical
Code Switching ........................................................................... 57
4.2
The Differences between Insertion, Alternation, and
Congruent Lexicalization ............................................................ 61
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix
Page
1
SMS Received on January 2010 ............................................
74
2
SMS Received on February 2010 ..........................................
76
3
SMS Received on March 2010 ..............................................
77
4
SMS Received on April 2010 ................................................
86
5
SMS Received on May 2010..................................................
93
6
SMS Received on June 2010..................................................
95
7
SMS Received on July 2010 .................................................. 100
8
SMS Received in 2013 ........................................................... 106
vi
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The great advancement in science and technology has touched many
aspects of human life. Almost all people of different age groups are aware of the
presence and influence of technology in the process of communication. One of the
man gadgets is the mobile or cellular phone. Therefore, in the process of
communication the different languages are used when they use that cellular
phone. At least one can use the local (native) language plus the national (Bahasa
Indonesia), and English as the international one.
Indonesia is a multicultural country and the emergence of local languages
is inevitable among tribes. Consequently, Indonesians are at least bilingual since
they master two languages, vernacular and Bahasa Indonesia. Moreover, it is not
surprising if some Indonesians are bilingual and/or multilingual at the same time
because of the foreign language learning. The more people master languages, the
more their ability to switch codes from one language into another language
because of the repertoire in their minds. Therefore, the phenomenon of code
switching happens not only between local languages and Bahasa Indonesia, but
also among local languages, Bahasa Indonesia and English.
Some previous studies have indicated that bilingual speakers continue
their code switching behavior when sending text messages (Deumert and
Masinyana, 2008; Haggan, 2007). Then, it is suggested that bilinguals could use
1
code switching to maximize their communication efficiency (i.e., using the fewest
possible characters or keystrokes to convey a message) in the domain of text
messages (Bautista, 2004). These studies have indicated that the combination of
technology and multilingualism may produce a new function for code switching.
In essence, multilingual texters should be able to choose the shortest words and
phrases from each language, perhaps mixed together, to reduce the number of
characters or amount of key pressing required to deliver a message due to the
limited sign of the screen.
Since the message sent through SMS is basically a medium of verbal
communication, but can also portrays non-verbal through use of punctuation
marks, for example ..-,??..!!!,it is certainly opened for linguistic analysis. The
most obvious linguistic features found in SMS language is the use of language
switching. Of course, it is commonly done by those who are bilingual or
multilingual. It seems that people who often send messages through the SMS of
their cellular phones are fond of mixing their Bahasa Indonesia with vernacular
language or even English. Furthermore, the definition of a bilingual itself is given
by Spolsky (1998) namely a person who has some functional ability in the second
language.
Referring to the definition of bilingual given by Spolsky (1998), those
people who use both English and Bahasa Indonesia in their SMS messages cannot
be considered bilinguals because English has not been the second language in
Indonesia. However, by switching the languages in their messages, they have
acted as if they were bilinguals. In addition, language switching is also closely
related to the phenomenon of diglossia, in which one language is considered
higher than another (Fishman, 1972). Above all, there are still some factors that
can motivate people in switching their languages when they are writing messages
through their mobile phone.
The condition of Indonesia with most of the people live in a bilingual or
multilingual community will encourage the people to be able to speak with at least
two different languages. In other words, the people can use even alternate more
than one language. In this case, it is often known as code switching. As stated by
Grosjean (1982) that code switching as the alternate use of two or more languages
in the same utterance or conversation. Then, Holmes (1992) argues that the
feature of bilingual speech such as interference, code mixing and code switching
are normal phenomenon because bilinguals often find it easier to discuss a
particular topic in one language rather than another. It means that the occurrence
of code switching cannot be avoided among bilingual and/or multilingual people.
The phenomenon of code switching does not only occur orally in daily life
situation through conversation but also in written through text. One of the many
reasons is due to the presence of the product of technology like mobile phone,
which is also widely known as cellular phone. Therefore, the most popular feature
offered by cellular phone is Short Message Service (SMS) since the mobile
technology has spread rapidly throughout the world faster than any other
communication technologies and is now widely used everywhere. There are some
reasons for this feature. First of all, it is mainly because of the cost that is much
lower than the cost of calling. Secondly, this SMS normally allows the sender to
write up to 160 characters per message. It is sufficient for a short greeting,
content, and closing. Third, the message is sent instantly to the receiver much
faster than the fastest means of sending a letter. Consequently, the phenomenon of
sending messages through SMS is becoming more and more popular until the
present time.
SMS, as defined within the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) as digital mobile phone standard, is a service which enables its users to
send short text messages from one mobile phone to another, or to a mobile phone
via the Internet (Segerstad, 2002). The widespread use of cellular phones has led
to the proliferation of messages sent using the SMS. The 160-character limit on
text messages encourages the use of shortenings and other shortcuts of language
in use. When bilingual or multilingual speakers use SMS, their access to multiple
sources of vocabulary, sentence structure, and other language devices would
appear to provide additional resources for addressing the character limits imposed
in SMS, perhaps by increasing the available pool of short phrases and words.
Once, it should be noted that the normal capacity of the SMS is only 160
characters. There is one possibility that people may switch their languages for
keeping the efficiency. It means that the senders want to save the charge by
keeping the space so that it can contain a longer message. For example, the word
‘kamu’ needs four characters while ‘u’ will only spend one character. However,
beside of keeping efficiency, there are the other factors behind the occurrence of
code switching.
According to Hoffmann (1991), there are seven reasons for bilinguals to
switch their languages. The seven reasons are: (1) talking about a particular topic,
(2) quoting somebody else, (3) being emphatic about something, (4) interjection,
(5) repetition used for clarification, (6) intention of clarifying the speech content
for the interlocutor, and (7) expressing group identity. Besides the reasons
suggested by Hoffman, Saville and Troike (1986) gives additional reasons: (1)
softening and strengthening request or command, (2) because of real lexical need,
either if the speaker knows the desired expression in one language cannot be
satisfactorily translated into second, and (3) to exclude other people when a
comment is intended for only a limited audience. However, In SMS messages,
one reason of language switching that cannot be excluded is for the sake of
efficiency. This reason is in line with Bautista (2004) who asserts that bilinguals
could use code switching to maximize their communication efficiency (i.e., using
the fewest possible characters or keystrokes to convey a message) in the domain
of text messages.
In line with the descriptions above, i.e. the advancement and innovation of
science and technology has been able to touch the human life in term of
communication process by creating a mobile phone as one means to communicate
that most of the people have had it and they tend to send message than calling
with various reasons whose messages contain code switching because of the
bilingual and/or diglossia situation they have, the present study was very much
concentrated on exploring the using of code switching in mobile text messages. In
this case, the researcher focused on the types and processes of code switching
used in SMS.
1.2 Problems of the Study
The problems of the study are formulated as the followings.
1. What types of code switching are found in SMS through mobile phone?
2. How is code switching used in SMS through mobile phone?
1.3 Objectives of the Study
In line with the problems, this study is intended to discover:
1. the types of code switching used in SMS through mobile phone,
2. the processes of using code switching in SMS through mobile phone, and
1.4 Scope of the Study
The process of communication is conducted in many ways depending on
the sender and receiver of the message. One of the latest means of communication
that most of the people have done is through the use of mobile phone with the
term SMS. Due to the limited space on the mobile screen and regarding the
effectiveness and efficiency of the sending of messages and in term of the money
spent, people use technology to simplify the process of communication.
Moreover, there are varieties of language being used in this feature like
abbreviation, deletion of any vowel or consonant, emotion, even code switching.
The present study was limited to address the use of code switching in SMS
through mobile phone. In this case, the study was focused on the types and
processes of using code switching
1.5 Significance of the Study
It is expected that the findings of the study are useful and relevant
theoretically and practically. Theoretically, the findings of this study are expected
to be useful for the readers especially for the college students who want to study
more about sociolinguistics related to code switching. They can enrich their
insight about the types and processes of code switching because this research
provides the different phenomenon of code switching. It is code switching in SMS
which most of people do it. Furthermore, it is estimated that the results of the
study can practically make a significant contribution to assert the importance way
of using code switching in the written text particularly in SMS. It is considered
that the main feature of SMS that is limited on 160 characters per message can
encourage the people to do code switching in their texting in order to save the
space.
68
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion
After analyzing the data and referring to some findings of the study,
conclusions are stated as the followings.
(1) There are two types of code switching used by the senders when sending their
messages, namely situational and metaphorical. But, not all the situations of
situational code switching are proven in this study. Some of them, the factor
of participants’ status and type of interaction do not work in this study since
the study deals with written communication who enables the participants to
edit the utterances they want to convey.
(2) The code switching is used by insertion, alternation, and congruent
lexicalization.
5.2 Suggestion
Relating to the conclusions that have been stated, the suggestions are
presented below.
(1) Since this study is limited on sociolinguistic and grammatical aspects of code
switching, while the psycolinguistic aspect is not included, it is suggested to
the other researchers to develop this research especially in finding the other
types and processes of code switching in another written media like e-mail,
twitter, blackberry message, and so forth.
68
69
(2) Referring to the finding of this study that not all the situational factors of code
switching found, namely participant status and type of interaction since the
interactions
between
participants
occured
through
SMS
(written
communication that enables them to edit their utterances), it is suggested to
the texters to keep the ways they interact as they want in order to create the
distinctive feature of language used in SMS such as using code switching.
Moreover, such switching can enable them to keep effeciency in texting.
70
REFERENCES
Al-Khatib, M. A and Sabbah, E. H. 2008.Language Choice in Mobile Text
Messages among JordanianUniversity Student. Jordan: University of
Science and Technology.
Androutsopoulos, S. 2006. Multilingualism, Diaspora, and the Internet: Codes
and Identities on German-Based Diaspora Websites. Journal of
Sociolinguistics, 10, 520-547.
Appel, R. and Muysken, P. 1987. Language Contact and Bilingualism. London:
Edward Arnold.
Apriana, Aulia. 2006. Mixing and Switching Languages in SMS Messages.
Malang: UniversitasNegeri Malang.
Auer, P. 1984. On the Meaning of Conversational Code-switching. Germany:
Gunter Narr Verlag.
---------. 1988. A Conversation Analytic Approach to Code-switching and
Transfer. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
Baron, N. 2000. Alphabet to Email: How Written English Evolved and Where It’s
Heading. London: Routledge.
Baron, N. et al. 2005. Tethered or Mobile? Use of Away Messages in Instant
Messaging by American College Students. London: Springer-Verlag.
Bautista, M. 2004. Tagalog-English Code Switching as a Mode of Discourse. Asia
Pacific Education Review 5–2: 226–233.
Bhatia, T. K. and Ritchie, W. C. 1996. Bilingual Language Mixing, Universal
Grammar, and Second Language Acquisition. San Diego/London:
Academic Press.
Biber, D. 1998. Variation across Speech and Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Blom, J. P. and Gumperz, J. J. 1972. Social Meaning in Linguistic Structure:
Code-Switching in Norway. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bodomo, A. B. 2009. Computer-mediated Communication for Linguistics and
Literacy: Technology and Natural Language Education. Hershey, PA,
USA: IGI Global.
71
Bogdan, R. and Biklen, S. 1992. Qualitative Research for Education: An
Introduction to Theory and Research. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and
Bacon.
Crystal, D. 2001. Language and the Internet. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity
Press.
December, J. 2005. Units of Analysis for Internet Communication. Journal of
Computer
Mediated
Communication
1
(4).
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol1/issue4/december.html.
Deumert, A. and Masinyana, S. O. 2008. Mobile Language Evidence from a
Bilingual South African Sample. English World-Wide.
Doring, N. 2002. Abbreviations and Acronyms in SMS Communication.
Http://www.nicola-doering.de/.
Fishman, J. 1972. Language in Sociocultural Change. Stanford: Stanford.
Fiske, J. 1990. Introduction to Communication Studies (Second Edition). London:
Routledge.
Fraenkel, J. R. and Wallen, N. E. 1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education. New York: McGraw Hill.
Goggin, G. 2004. Mobile Text. M/C: Journal of Media and Culture7, Jan 12th.
Online: http://www.media-culture.org.au/0401/03-goggin.html.
Grosjean, F. 1982. Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism.
Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity Press.
Gumperz, J. J. 1976. The Sociolinguistic Significance of Conversational Code
Switching. Berkeley, CA: University of California Language Behavior
Research Laboratory.
------------------. 1982. Language and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Haggan, M. 2007. Text Messaging in
Message?Multilingua26(4):427-449.
Kuwait. Is the Medium the
Hamers, F. J. and Blanc, H. A. M. 1987. Bilinguality and Bilingualism.
Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.
Hoffmann, C. 1991. An Introduction to Bilingualism. New York: Longman.
72
Holmes, J. 1992. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman.
-----------. 1994. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London and New York:
Longman.
Hughes, R. 1996. English in Speech and Writing: Investigating language and
literature. London: Routledge.
Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lin, A. 2000. Deconstructing “Mixed Code”. Hong Kong: Linguistic Society of
Hong Kong.
Lobet, C. and Maris, C. 2003. Mobile Phone Tribes: Youth and Social Identity.
Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lucas, S. E. 1992. The Art of Public Speaking(Fourth Edition). New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Maehlum, B. 1990. Code Switching in Hemnesberget – Myth or Reality?. Oslo:
Novus Press.
McLauglin, B. 1984. Second Language Acquisition in Childhood, Vol. I Preschool Children. London: Hisdale.
Miles M. B. and Huberman A. M. 1984. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook
of New Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Montgomery, M. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society (Second
Edition). London: Routledge.
Muysken, P. 1995. Code Switching and Grammatical Theory. Cambridge, UK
and New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.
---------------. 2000. Bilingual Speech: A Typology of Code-Mixing. Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversity Press.
Myers, M and Scotton, C. 1993. Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in
Code Switching. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
----------------------------------------. 2003. What Lies beneath: Split (Mixed)
Languages as Contact Phenomena. Berlin and New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Puro, J. P. 2003. Finland: A Mobile Culture. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity
Press.
73
Rafi, M. S. 2008. SMS Text Analysis: Language, Gender and Current Practices.
Lahore: University of Management & Technology.
Redlinger, W. E. and Park, T. 1980. Language Mixing in Young Bilinguals.
Journal of Child Language, 7 (2), 337–352.
Romaine. S. 2000. Language in Society: An Introduction
Sociolinguistic(Second Edition). Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press
to
Savile, M. and Troike, M. 1986. The Ethnography of Communication: An
Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Scotton, C. 1995. Social Motivations for Code Switching: Evidence from Africa.
Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.
Segerstad, H. 2002. Use and Adaptation of Written Language to the Conditions of
Computer-Mediated Communication. Unpublished PhD Dissertation.
University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
http://www.ling.gu.se/ ~ylva/.
Siebenhaar, B. 2006. Code Choice and Code Switching in Swiss German Internet
Relay Chat Rooms. Journal of Sociolinguistics10–4: 481–506.
Shannon, C and Weavers, W. 1949. The Mathematical Theory of Communication.
Illionis: University of Illionis Press.
Sperber, D. 1975. Rethinking Symbolism. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Spolsky, B. 1998. Sociolinguistics. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.
Stockwell, P. 2002. Sociolinguistics: A Resource Book for Students. London:
Routledge.
Sue, H. Y. 2003. The Multilingual and Multi-Orthogrphic Taiwan-based Internet:
Creative Uses of Writing Systems on College affiliated BBSs. Journal of
Computer Mediated Communication 9: 1.
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol9/ issue1/su.html.
Thompson, N. 2003. Communication and Language: A Handbook of Theory and
Practice.Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wardhaugh, R. 2006. An
OxfordUniversity Press.
Introduction
to
Sociolinguistics.
Oxford:
74
Warschauer, R. et al. 2002. Language Choice Online: Globalization and Identity
in Egypt. Journalof Computer Mediated Communication7: 4. Online:
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol7/issue4/warschauer. html.
Woolard, Kathryn A. (1988). Code-switching and Comedy in Catalonia.
Codeswitching: Anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives. Berlin
and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Yeh, M. J. 2004. A Preliminary Study on SMS Use of Youth Tribes. Information
Society Research 6: 235–282.