DISKRIMINASI PASAR TENAGA KERJA

  Tokoh Pejuang Wanita Indonesia Raden Adjeng Kartini

  Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaiki kondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkan kungkungan adat, antara lain :

   Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok rumah.

   Tidak bebas mendapatkan akses pendidikan.

   Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan pria yang tidak dikenal.

  Fakta di Indonesia

  Penduduk yang Bekerja (Februari 2012) 45,000,000 40,000,000 35,000,000

  15,441,120 30,000,000

  6,876,405 25,000,000 20,000,000

  11,003,698 15,000,000

  25,116,020 22,938,665 10,000,000

  3,983,193 5,000,000

  2,518,306 9,755,566 3,295,852 3,473,057 3,541,749 3,108,946 184,125

  20,465 934,988 610,650 l n a n si sa ha an na ny na uk sa ala ni

  Ja in pi sio U ju ta od

  TU La fe im ta er Pr en m ro

  P Ta P P pe

  TU TU ga Ke na Te

  Pria Wanita

  Penduduk yang Bekerja (Februari 2012)

  JENIS KELAMIN Jenis Pekerjaan Jumlah Utama

Pria Wanita Tenaga Profesional

  3.473.057 3.983.193 7.456.250 Kepemimpinan 934.988 184.125 1.119.113 Tata Usaha

  3.541.749 2.518.306 6.060.055 TU Penjualan 9.755.566 11.003.698 20.759.264 TU Jasa 3.108.946 3.295.852 6.404.798 TU Pertanian 25.116.020 15.441.120 40.557.140

  Produksi 22.938.665 6.876.405 29.815.070 Lainnya 610.65 20.465 631.115 Jumlah

  69.479.641 43.323.164 112.802.805

  Rata-rata Upah (2006) 1,600,000 1,200,000 800,000 400,000 a ri a P it An an Ind Lis

  Jas Per Ban Keu Pert Pert a W am trik gku dag ustr gun ang ania i n tan an an ban ang an gan Wanita Pria

  Rata-rata Upah (2006)

SEKTOR LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN PRIA WANITA

  1 Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan (Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery) 438.149 234.586

  2 Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying) 1.541.241 771.415

  3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768

  4 Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water) 1.176.160 1.338.737

  5 Bangunan (Construction) 734.070 1.073.573

  6 Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale Trade,Restaurant & Hotel) 806.110 621.248

  7 Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi (Transportation,Storage & Communication) 934.761 944.419

  8 Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan (Financing,Insurance,Business Services) 1.422.252 1.461.926

  9 Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services) 1.126.559 789.557 Rata-rata 827.101 612.131

  Penduduk yang Bekerja Berdasarkan Jam Kerja (Februari 2012)

  40,000,000 35,000,000 8,874,959

  30,000,000 10,293,078

  25,000,000 24,757,499

  20,000,000 17,927,986

  15,000,000 7,354,950 4,827,312

  6,952,926 10,000,000

  8,668,913 8,397,485 5,000,000

  5,718,802 2,567,256 1,658,218 794,465

  1,590,396 1,379,487 1,039,073

  1-9 10-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-59 ≥ 60 Pria Wanita

  Konsep Diskriminasi

  Konsep Diskriminasi

George Borjas :

  

Differences in EARNINGS and

  

among equally skilled workers

employed in the same job simply because of the worker’s race,

gender, national origin, sexual

orientation, or other seemingly

irrelevant characteristics.

  Konsep Diskriminasi Discrimination means treating people differently and less favourably because of characteristics that are not related to

their merit or the requirements of the job.

  

These include race, colour, sex, religion,

political opinion, national extraction and social origin.

  The

Discrimination

Coefcient

  The Discrimination Coefficient Lauched for the first time by Gary S. Becker

  The Economics of Discrimination (1957)

  The Discrimination Coefficient 

Basic Concept :

  Taste Discrimination 

  

Assumption  Two types of workers :



White workers : wage  w

  W 

  Black workers : wage  w B

  The Discrimination Coefficient 

If the employer is prejudiced againts black, employer gets disutility from hiring black workers

  

Disutility : employer will act as if costs

for black worker w (1 + d), where d is

  B positive number and is called :

  

The Discrimination Coefficient

  The Discrimination Coefficient 

Suppose that w = $10 , and that d =0,5 ;

  B

the employer will then act as if hiring a

black worker costs $ 15

   The greater the prejudiced, the greater is

the disutility from hiring black workers,

and the greater is the discrimination coefficient d.

  The Discrimination Coefficient 

If these black employers prefer to hire black workers, they will act as if hiring a black worker is cheaper than it actually is

  Nepotism Coefficient  w (1 – n ) B

  Labor Market Discrimination Analysis

FIRM

  Non Discriminatory Firm W = VMP

  Discriminatory Firm White Firm againts Black

  Black Firm againts Black Discrimination Coefficient is very High Discrimination

  Coefficient is relatively Low

  

1. Employer

Discrimination

  Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001) WHITE BLACK HISPANIC Male Female Male Female Male Female Highschool Graduate or

  84.3

  85.2

  78.5

  78.9

  56.1

  57.9 more (Percent) Bachelor’s degree or more

  29.1

  25.4

  16.4

  17.5

  11.0

  11.2 (Percent)

Labor Force Participation

  79.9

  59.9

  72.1

  65.2

  83.8

  59.3 Rate (Percent) Unemployment Rate

  4.7

  3.6

  8.0

  7.0

  5.2

  6.6 (Percent)

Annual Earnings (in $1,000)

  49.8

  29.6

  33.5

  26.0

  30.8

  22.3 Annual Earnings

  55.4

  37.1

  38.5

  30.8

  34.3

  28.0 (Full Time)

  Fact : White Wage > Black Wage

  

Assumption :

   White Workers and Black Workers are Perfect Subtitutes in Production .

   Firms’s output depends on the total number of workers hired, regardless of

their race  have the same Marginal

Product of Labor ( MP )

  E

  Employer Discrimination

Production function:

  q = f ( E + E ) W B q  firm’s output

   number of white workers hired E W

  

 number of black workers hired

E B

  

Employment in

a non Discriminatory Firm

  Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm 

Both groups of workers have the same Value

  of Marginal Product, a non discriminatory firms will hire whichever group is Cheaper

  

Suppose that w > w , a firms that doesn’t

  W B discriminate will hire black workers up to the point where

• E

  B  w = VMP

  B E

  The Employment Decision of a Firm That Does Not Discriminate B w

• B

  E Dollar

  Employment Black workers wage is less than white wage

  How many worker will be hired..?? ?

  VMP E

w

  B = VMP

  E

  

Employment in

a

Discriminatory Firm

  Employment in a Discriminatory Firm 

The employer act as if black wage is not

  w , but instead equal to w (1 + d). Where B

  B d is discrimination coefficient.

  

The employer’s hiring decision based on a comparison w and w (1 + d)

  W B 

Hire only blacks if w (1 + d) < w

  B W 

  Hire only white if w (1 + d) &gt; w

  Employment in a Discriminatory Firm 

  As long as black and white workers are perfect subtitutes, firms have a segregated workforce.

  

Employer’s who have little prejudice and

hence have small discrimination coefficient, will hire only BLACKS (called “ Black Firm” ).

   Employer’s who are very prejudice and have

very large discrimination coefficient, will

hire only WHITES (called “ White Firm” ).

  Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

   The white firm hires workers up to the point where : w = VMP

  W E 

  Assumption : w &gt; W W B

   The white firm is paying an excessively

• E

  W

high price for its workers and hires

relatively few workers ( )

  The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm Dollar w

  W White Firm

  VMP E Employment

• E

  W

  Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

   Non discriminatory firms :

• E

  w = VMP  B E B

   If discrimination coefficient d :

   Price of Black Labor  w ( 1 + d )

  B 

  Amount of Labor hired :

  Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

BLACK FIRM

  The number of black workers hired,

therefore, is smaller for firms that have

larger discrimination coefficient.

  The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm

  B w

• B

  E ^{1 B} E B E Dollar

  Employment

  VMP E Black Firm

    1 d w

  B 

   

  1 1 d w

  B 

  Discrimination Coefficient

  Discrimination and Profts

  Discrimination and Profits Firms that discriminate lose on two counts : 

  

The prejudiced employer could have hired

the same number of black worker at lower

wage . Because black and white workers are perfect subtitutes .

  1 

  Discriminatory black firms are hiring too E E B B few workers ( or )  they are giving up profits in order to minimize contact with black workers.

  Profit and Discrimination Coefficient Dollar

  Black Firm  max

   w d w

  White Firm Max Profit

Discrimination Coefficient

  Discrimination and Profits The Most Profitable Firm 

  

Zero Discrimination

  Employee Discrimination 

  Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker” 

  Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black Firm dengan upah w akan merasa mendapat upah w (1- d).

  W W

  

Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of Firms”

karena white worker dan black worker adalah perfect

subtitutes sehingga firm membayar jumlah upah yang

sama.

  

3. Customer

Discrimination

  Customer Discrimination  Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan Keith R.

  Ihlanfeldt (1998)  research di Atlanta, Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles.

   Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh Actual Price

( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price  p (1 + d).

   Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan sesuai kondisi.

  Customer Discrimination

Relation between customer discrimination and percent of newly hired worked who are Black

  More than 50 % More than 75 % Of the firm’s Of the firm’s

  PERBEDAAN customers are customers are Black White Customer &amp; worker bertemu

  58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 % Customer &amp; worker tidak bertemu

  46,6 % 12,2 % 34,4 %

Perbedaan

  14,6 %

Customer Discrimination and NBA

  Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) : A study of attenance records indicates that replacing a black player with an eqqually talented white player bring in about 9,000 additional fans per year.

  At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of ticket prices and concession revenues), the racial switch would increase annual team revenues by roughly $450,000

  Measuring Discrimination

  Measuring Discrimination Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari

  ___

• M

Male, dengan average wage

  W

  ___

• F

Female, dengan average wage

  W

  

Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :

___ ___ ___

  W W W

  

  M F

  Measuring Discrimination

Pengembangan model :

  Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan

Earning Function : Male :

• w S

     

  M M M M

Female :

• w S

     

F F F F

menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila

   M mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.

  Measuring Discrimination

Model Regresi :

  F F F M M M F M W s s W W

            

  ___ ___ ___

  Measuring The Impact of Discrimination on the Wage

Men’s Men’s Earning Earning Dollars

  ___

Men’s Earning

  W M

Women’s Women’s Earning Earning

• Function

  F w

   M

  Measure Discrimination : ___

  ___

• Woman’s

Women’s Schooling Men’s Schooling

  W Earning F w

  W F F 

  F __ __

  Schooling

  Global Gender Gap 2012

Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia - Rank

  97

  93

  

92

  90

  87

  81

  68

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

  Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia - Score

  0.67

  0.66

  0.66

  0.66

  0.66

  0.66

  0.66

  0.66

  0.65

  0.65

  0.65

  0.65

  0.64 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

  Global Gender Gap Index 2012

  Global Gender Gap 2012

  Global Gender Gap 2012

  Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia

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