Compound verbs with the prepositions (in, out, over, under, and up) as the first element and verbs prefixed by [in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-] in longman dictionary of contemporary english - USD Repository
COMPOUND VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITIONS (
IN, OUT,
OVER, UNDER, AND UP) AS THE FIRST ELEMENT AND
VERBS PREFIXED BY (
IN-, OUT-, OVER-, UNDER-, AND UP-) IN
LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
CHRISTINA ANITA KUSUMA WARDANI
Student Number: 054214005
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2009
COMPOUND VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITIONS (
IN, OUT,
OVER, UNDER, AND UP) AS THE FIRST ELEMENT AND
VERBS PREFIXED BY (
IN-, OUT-, OVER-, UNDER-, AND UP-) IN
LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
CHRISTINA ANITA KUSUMA WARDANI
Student Number: 054214005
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2009
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
COMPOUND D VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITION ONS (IN, OUT,
OVER, UNDE DER, AND UP) AS THE FIRST ELEM EMENT AND
VERBS PREFIXED
IXED BY (
IN-, OUT-, OVER-, UNDER ER-, AND UP-) IN
LONGMAN D DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY RARY ENGLISH
A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis
COMPOUND D VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITION ONS (IN, OUT,
OVER, UNDE DER, AND UP) AS THE FIRST ELEM EMENT AND
VERBS PREFIXED
IXED BY (
IN-, OUT-, OVER-, UNDER ER-, AND UP-) IN
LONGMAN D DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY RARY ENGLISH
By
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN
AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Christina Anita Kusuma Wardani Nomor Mahasiswa : 054214005 Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah yang berjudul:
COMPOUND VERBS WITH THE PREPOSITIONS (
IN, OUT,
OVER, UNDER, AND UP) AS THE FIRST ELEMENT AND
VERBS PREFIXED BY (
IN-, OUT-, OVER-, UNDER-, AND UP-) IN
LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal : 13 Mei 2009 Yang menyatakan (Christina Anita K)
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that the thesis I wrote does not contain any works or parts of the works of other people, except cited in that quotation and the bibilography, as scientific paper should.
Made in : Yogyakarta Date : 13 May 2009 The writer Christina Anita K
This thesis is dedicated
to my beloved parents
and my great family.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Jesus Christ for His blessing that always guides me to the better life, for His love that gives tranquility in my life, and for His help that always keeps my spirit. I am so happy for so many chances, that He gives to me to learn so many things in this world.
I would be very delighted to thank my advisor, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd., M. A., who has helped me in doing this thesis. I would like also to thank Dra. B. Ria
Lestari, M.S. for her suggestion as my co-advisor.
I would also thank my mother, who always supports me in finishing this thesis soon. I also thank my father, who always teaches me to do the best in my life.
Moreover, I would also thank Thomas, who always helps me to handle all my problems and makes me to be a strong person. Finally, I would also thank my sister, , and my brother, Ari, who always support me. Without them, I am nothing.
Deny They are the soul of my life.
I would be glad to thank my best friends, Yovita, Ajeng, and Funny, who have supported and helped me during my study in Sanata Dharma University. I will never forget the wonderful time that we had so far. And, for all of my friends that I cannot mention here, I would like to say thanks for everything.
CHRISTINA ANITA KUSUMAWARDANI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE......................................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGE.............................................................................................. ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE......................................................................................... iii SURAT PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN........................................................ iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY..................................................................... v DEDICATION PAGE.......................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLE.................................................................................................. ix ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................... xi ABSTRAK............................................................................................................ xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................
1 A. Background of Study............................................................................
1 B. ProblemFormulation..............................................................................
3 C. Objectives of the Study.........................................................................
4 D. Benefits of the Study............................................................................
4 E. Definitions of Terms..............................................................................
5 ......................................................
7 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies....................................................................
7 B. Review of Related Theories..................................................................
10 1. Theories of Word-formation......................................................
10 2. Theories of Compounding.........................................................
12 3. Theories of Prepositions.............................................................
15 4. Theories of Verbs ......................................................................
17 5. Theory of Suprasegmental Element...........................................
19 6. Theories of Stress Patterns.........................................................
20 7. Theories of Prefixations.............................................................
21 C. Theoretical Framework..........................................................................
22 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ....................................................................
25 A. The Object of the Study.........................................................................
25 B. Approach................................................................................................
26 C. Method of the Study..............................................................................
27 1. Data Collection..........................................................................
27 2. Data Analysis.............................................................................
28 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS ................................................................................
30 1. The Meanings of Compound Verbs.....................................................
31 2. Different Meanings of Compound verbs and the Prefixation.............
44 3. The Stress Patterns of Compound verbs and the Prefixation..............
50 ...........................................................................
55 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................
58
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Some types of compounds in English.....................................................38 Table 11: The unpredictable meanings of compound verbs by the preposition in .................................................................................
45 Table 17: The meanings of the prefixation by the prefix {out-} ..........................
43 Table 16: The meanings of refixes {in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-} followed by verbs ................................................... ...............................
42 Table 15: The unpredictable meanings of compound verbs by the preposition up .................................................................................
41 Table 14: The unpredictable meanings of compound verbs by the preposition under ............................................................................
40 Table 13: The unpredictable meanings of compound verbs by the preposition over ..............................................................................
39 Table 12: The unpredictable meanings of compound verbs by the preposition out ..............................................................................
36 Table 10: The combined meanings of the elements by the preposition over .........................................................................................
15 Table 2: Compounds Versus Non-Compound......................................................
35 Table 9: The meanings of compound verbs discovered from the heads by the preposition up ................................................................
34 Table 8: The meanings of compound verbs discovered from the heads by the preposition under ...........................................................
33 Table 7: The meanings of compound verbs discovered from the heads by the preposition over .............................................................
32 Table 6: The meanings of compound verbs discovered from the heads by the preposition out ..............................................................
27 Table 5: The meanings of compound verbs discovered from the heads by the preposition in .................................................................
22 Table 4: The data collection of compound verbs and the prefixation...................
21 Table 3: Prefixes ...................................................................................................
46
Table 18: The meanings of the prefixation by the prefix {over-} ........................
47 Table 19: The meanings of the prefixation by the prefix {under-} ......................
48 Table 20: The meanings of the prefixation by the prefix {up-} ...........................
49 Table 21: The stress patterns of compound verbs ................................................
51 Table 22: The stress patterns of verbs with the prefixation ...........................................................................................
53
ABSTRACT
CHRISTINA ANITA KUSUMAWARDANI.Compound Verbs with the
Prepositions ( in, out, over, under, and up) as the First Element and Verbs
Prefixed by ( in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-) in Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English . Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2009.Compounds are the products of word-formation that are very productive in English. A compound is a word as the result of the combination of at least two free morphemes. This study focuses only in compound verbs formed by prepositions followed by verbs. A compound verb is a compound with verbs as the head so that it has a function as a verb. The prepositions chosen are in, out, over, under, and up.
Furthermore, it is necessary to differentiate them from the verbs with the prefixation of prefixes {in, out-, over-, under-, and up-} since these prefixes are homophonous with those prepositions in compound verbs.
This study has three objectives. The first is to find the meanings of the compund verbs and its elements. Those meanings are used to find the differences between the compound verbs and its elements. The second is to differentiate the meanings of the compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation. The third is to find the stress patterns of compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation. Moreover, those stress patterns are used to show whether the stress patterns of compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation are similar or not.
The data of this study were grouped based on the compound verbs or the prefixation. The data of the compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation were taken from Longman Dictionary of Contemporary of English (2003). The first result of the analysis was about meaning of compound verbs. There were three ways to discover the meanings of compound verbs. The meanings of compound verbs were discovered by having the head as the central meanings or by combining the meanings of the elements or the unpredictable meanings. The second result of the analysis was about how to differentiate the meanings of compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation. The meanings of the verbs with the prefixation are totally different from the compound verbs, although the prefixes are homophonous with the prepositions. The third result of the analysis was about the stress patterns of compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation. The stress patterns of compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation show that the stresses fall on the second element. Furthermore, some of the compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation also have the primary and secondary stresses since the prepositions or prefixes have two syllable.
The combination of study between compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation give some contributions in English, especially, enriching vocabulary. The meanings and stress patterns of compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation give the special characteristics that make them different from one another.
ABSTRAK CHRISTINA ANITA KUSUMAWARDANI.
Compound Verbs with the
Prepositions ( in, out, over, under, and up) as the First Element and Verbs
Prefixed by ( in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-) in Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English . Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra,
Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2009.Kata majemuk merupakan hasil pembentukan kata yang produktif dalam bahasa Inggris. Kata majemuk merupakan hasil penggabungan minimal dua morfem bebas. Studi ini difokuskan pada kata kerja majemuk yang dibentuk dari kata depan diikuti kata kerja. Kata kerja majemuk memiliki kata kerja sebagai kepalanya sehingga mempunyai fungsi sebagai kata kerja. Kata depan yang dipilih adalah in, out, over,
under
, dan up. Selain itu, perlu pembedaan antara kata kerja majemuk dengan kata depan sebagai elemen pertamanya dari kata kerja berawalan {in-, out-, over-, under-, dan up-} karena awalan tersebut memiliki pengucapan yang sama dengan kata depan di dalam kata kerja majemuk.
Studi ini memiliki tiga tujuan. Tujuan pertama adalah untuk menemukan arti kata kerja majemuk dan arti elemen-elemennya. Arti tersebut digunakan untuk menemukan perbedaan antara kata kerja majemuk dan elemen-elemennya. Tujuan kedua adalah untuk membedakan arti kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan. Tujuan ketiga adalah untuk mengetahui pola penekanan pengucapan yang ada pada kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan. Lebih jauh lagi, pola-pola penekanan pengucapan tersebut digunakan untuk mengetahui apakah pola-pola penekanan pengucapan pada kata majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan sama atau tidak.
Data studi ini dikelompokkan berdasarkan pada kata kerja majemuk atau kata kerja berawalan. Data kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan diambil dari
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary of English (2003). Hasil analisis pertama
adalah tentang arti kata kerja majemuk. Ada tiga cara untuk menemukan arti kata kerja majemuk. Arti dari kata kerja majemuk dapat ditemukan dari kepalanya sebagai pusat arti atau penggabungan arti dari elemen-elemennya atau arti yang tidak terprediksi. Hasil analisis kedua adalah tentang bagaimana membedakan arti kata kerja majemuk dengan kata kerja berawalan. Arti kata kerja berawalan sangat berbeda dari kata kerja majemuk, walaupun awalannya memiliki pengucapan yang sama dengan kata depan tersebut. Hasil ketiga dari analisis adalah tentang pola penekanan pengucapan pada kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan. Pola penekanan pengucapan pada kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan jatuh pada elemen kedua. Selain itu, beberapa kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan memiliki penekanan pengucapan yang kuat dan lemah karena beberapa kata depan dan awalan memiliki dua suku kata.
Kombinasi studi antara kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan memberi kontribusi di dalam bahasa Inggris, khususnya memperkaya kosakata. Arti dan pola penekanan pengucapan kata kerja majemuk dan kata kerja berawalan memberi sifat- sifat khusus yang membuatnya berbeda satu sama lain.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of Study In English vocabulary, so many words are different in their meanings and word
classes, such as: verbs, nouns, adjectives, prepositions, and adverbs. These word classes can be called as free morphemes. They are usually combined with bound morpheme in the derivational (such as prefixes, suffixes, and the others) and inflectional processes (such as additional –s for plural nouns). In addition, there is also a process which sometimes we do not notice. That is compounding process in which its products are usually called compounding words. In this process, we combine at least two words. The ways to write compounding words are explained by Katamba (1993). He states that some very established compounds are written as one word, with or without a hyphen (e.g. breakfast and ice-cream), two separate words (e.g. free trade), and sometimes in a single hyphenated word (e.g. free-trade) (1993: 293-294).
We can classify compounding words into three: compound nouns with nouns as the head, compound adjectives with adjective as the head, and compound verbs with verbs as the head. The position of the head is mostly determined by the words which are in the right. According to Katamba, that position is called endocentric (1993: 311). The present researcher is interested in discussing compound verbs which are formed by prepositions followed by verbs, since those constructions are commonly used in compound verbs, and verbs with the prefixation since the discussion of compound verbs is necessary to understand the prefixation. Since the number of prepositions are so many, this discussion is focused on the prepositions in, out, over,
under,
and up. Moreover, to differentiate them from the prefixation, the prefixes which are chosen are {in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-}.
In this study, the present researcher combines the morphological study, the phonological study, and the semantic study to discuss compound verbs which are formed by the prepositions in, out, over, under, and up followed by verbs and prefixes {in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-} followed by verbs. These combinations will be interesting because they give different information so that they can complete one another.
The present researcher discusses about the meanings of its elements and the new meanings as the result of compounding process in the semantics study. How the meanings of compound verbs are discovered is shown in this discussion. Moreover, the meanings of the prefixation with prefixes {in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-} are discussed because when those prefixes are attached to the verbs, they seem alike with compound verbs. Therefore, the meanings of the prefixation are necessary to discuss in this study.
In a phonological study, the stress pattern is the concerned of this study because the stress gives big influences in the meanings and the word classes in compounding stress lies on the first element in and as a verb when the stress lies on the word set. In this discussion, the stress patterns for both compound verbs and verbs with the prefixation are discussed.
A morphological study is used to give the basic concepts of compounding and prefixation processes on how those processes in compound verbs differ from verbs with the prefixation. Moreover, this will show that prefixation processes with prefixes and verbs and compounding processes with prepositions and verbs as the elements will share different meanings.
Compound verbs which are formed by prepositions followed verbs will be an important study since the combination of morphological, phonological, and semantic studies can be applied in it. This study also gives us understanding on how the compound verbs differ from verbs with the prefixation since those processes are mostly alike. In addition, this compounding process can not be avoided in our daily conversation since compounding process is very common in daily language.
Furthermore, this study will enrich our vocabulary and even make us to be creative to create new words. As what O’Grady et al states, compounding is highly productive in English and in related languages such as German (1989: 103).
B. Problems Formulation
In order to have clear direction, three problems have been formulated as the following questions:
1. How do the meanings of compound verbs with prepositions as the first element differ from the meanings of its elements?
2. How do the meanings of compound verbs differ from the meanings of the verbs with the prefixation?
3. What are the stress patterns of compound verbs with prepositions as the first element and the verbs with the prefixation?
C. Objectives of Study
This study has some objectives. The first is to find the meanings of the compound verbs and its elements which are prepositions and verbs. Those meanings will be used to find the differences between the compound verbs and its elements. The second is to find the different meanings of the products of the compounding processes in compound verbs and the product of the prefixation processes. The third is to find the stress patterns of compound verbs and verbs with the prefixation. Moreover, those stress patterns are used to find the differences of the compound verbs and the verbs with the prefixation.
D. Benefits of Study
The study of prepositions followed by verbs and verbs with the prefixation in
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
(2003) will give some benefits. In this study, we can find the meanings of the prepositions in, out, over, under, and up vocabulary, especially to understand the meanings. In this analysis, we can find how the meanings of compound verbs differ from verbs with the prefixation. In addition, it can be seen how stress patterns in English are important because it will influence the meanings and word classes. We can understand where the stresses of compound verbs which are formed by prepositions in, out, over, under, and up followed by verbs and prefixes {in-, out-, over-, under-, and up-} followed by verbs fall in to get the stress patterns of them.
E. Definition of Terms
There are some terms which are used in this study. They are compounding, preposition, verb, meaning, prefixation and stress pattern. The present researcher will use some definitions from linguists to understand those terms.
The term compounding is prototypically the concatenation of words to form other words (Spencer, 1991: 309). In compounding, at least two words are combined to form a new word with a new meaning.
The preposition is a part of speech which is often used in English sentences to give grammatical relation, for instance of, over, in, up, under, and the others. In discussing a preposition, Pei and Gaynor explain that a preposition is a word or particle which is placed before substantive to show syntactic or grammatical relation of the letters in the sentence (1969: 174).
A verb is one of a class of lexical units which is positioned as a predicate or predicator in syntactic role and which is characteristically that the words denoting action or processes, such as: run, make, melt, and the others (Matthews, 1997: 395).
In discussing the meaning, Pei and Gaynor states that “the meaning is the sense or thought content which a word or expression is intended to convey; the mental image formed in the consciousness of the hearer of an utterance, of the reader of a written word or phrase (1969: 133).” Therefore, meaning is represented by a word so that there is a mental image that can be understood by the speaker and listener.
“The prefixation is a method of affixing contrary to suffixation (Szymanek, 1989, 63).” In the prefixation processes, it combines prefixes to the base-form. The position of the prefix is in front of the base-form.
The stress pattern in English has important role. According to Pei and Gaynor in
Dictionary of Linguistics
, the stress pattern is the pattern of special emphasis on a sound or sound-group, defined of a greater amplitude of sound waves (1969: 204).
The stress pattern gives the intonation of pronouncing words by raising or falling the pitch and making the syllable louder and longer.
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part is the review of related
studies. It discusses about five studies which have done previously. The second part is the review of related theories which support this study. The last part of this chapter is the theoretical framework to show how this study is conducted and how the theories given in the second part of this chapter are applied.
A. Review of Related Studies
Limjadi (2005) in his thesis, entitled A study of English Compound Adjectives
Found in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (CD Version), states that
compound adjectives are syntactically equal as the other compounds so that all compound words have the same rules. These rules can be seen from the head position of English compound words. The heads of compound words are mostly in the second element and the first element is the modifier of the second word. This position is called as endocentric or right-headed as seen below:
(1) accident prone is a kind of tendency to get injured or break things easily, not a kind of accident.
(2) carsick is a kind of sickness in car traveling not a kind of car. The above examples show that the relationship among the elements will make us easier to make a guess in understanding the meaning of the compound words.
The rules of compound words in orthography, stress pattern, and meaning are explained by Aryanto (1997). He states that the compound words are formed by elements which have relations one another, so he uses clausal paraphrases to analyze the elements. Furthermore, he states that elements of compound words can include the grammatical categories, such as: noun, verb, adjective, and preposition. These grammatical categories can be positioned as the first or second elements. The category of compound will be determined by the second element of the compound words. Moreover, compound words which have an element of preposition will not take the preposition as the head.
The variety of prepositional meanings are analyzed by Sari in her study entitled
An Analysis of the Variety of Meaning of Compound Preposition in the Novel The
Sand of Timeby Sidney Shelson (2001: 75-80). There are ten compound preposition found in the novel. They are into, about, toward, outside, without, around, inside,
behind , across, and before. Those compound prepositions have some functions which
are place, direction, destination, position, dimension, orientation, motion-static, time, purpose, manner, material or means, condition, accompaniment, reference, partition, and description.
The study about prefixes are discussed by Natalianingrum (2007: 28-45) in her thesis entitled A Morphological Study of English Prefix {over-}. She discusses about the stem that occur with the prefix {over-} and the meanings of the prefix {over-} dirived after this prefix is attached. Four stems attached to the prefix {over-} are noun adjective as in overexcited and overlong, and adverb as in overmuch. The meanings of the prefix {over-} are ‘too much, completely, above”.
Wibawa (2008: 50-52) in his thesis entitled The Study of Adjective with Prefix {in-} without negating the stem discusses about the adjectives which are attached to the prefix {in-} without negating the stem. He has found 9 words which are
illuminated
, impassioned, incandescent, incomparable, infamous, inflamable, ingenious , innumerable, and invaluable.
This study is about compound verbs so that this study is different from the previous ones. Three previous studies discuss about the elements of compound words, compound adjectives, and the variety of meaning of compound prepositions. Unlike the study conducted by Aryanto (1997) which discusses about general grammatical categories that can generate compound words and analyze compound words by causal paraphrases and the study conducted by Limjadi (2005) which focuses on the functions of compound adjectives and the meaning of compound adjectives, this study will discuss about the meaning of compound verbs with prepositions as the first element and how the meanings of the compound verbs differ from the meanings of the elements. Moreover, the functions of compound prepositions which are discussed by Sari (2001) will differ from this study which discusses about the prepositions as the first element of compound verbs. This study will also discuss about the stress pattern of compound verbs with prepositions as the first element because understanding stress can help us in understanding meaning and
The studies which are conducted by Natalianingrum and Wibawa differ from this study since the present researcher focuses on the prefixes {in-, out-, over-, under- and up-}. The discussion is on the meanings and the stress patterns of those prefixes to differentiate them from the compound verbs with prepositions in, off, out, over,
under , and up as the first element.
B. Review of Related Theories This part provides several theories which support the analysis of this study.
The theories that will be used are theories of word-formation, theories of compound words, theories of preposition, theories of verb, theories of suprasegmental element, theories of stress patterns, and theories of prefixation.
1. Theories of Word-formation
In discussing word–formation, Katamba (1993: 65-72) sees the word-formation as an open-endedness of the lexicon. To make it clear, he explains that “word- formation rules have tended to be seen as being largely passive in the sense that they are basically used to analyze existing words rather than to create new ones (Katamba, 1993: 65).” The quotation tells that they are so many word lists and sentence lists in dictionaries, phrase books, and the others so that people tend to use the words which already exist rather than make up the new words when they speak. Therefore, the more words we recognize as the part of language the bigger and more open-ended will our lexicon be. Furthermore, it also depends on our ability in recognizing words whether compound words or the other part of the province of morphology and the lexicon, and which forms we treat as phrases or the other domain of syntax.
Word-formation is closely related to a base or stem to which a rule of word- formation is applied. In discussing the processes of English word-formation, Quirk (1973: 430-449) explains about affixation, conversion, compounding, reduplication, clipping, blending, and acronymy processes. The detail explanation can be seen as follows:
1. Affixation is a process of adding a prefix or a suffix or an infix to the base with or
without change in the word-class. In affixation, two common processes are prefixation in which a prefix is added in front of the base-form (e.g author co-
author
) and suffixation in which a suffix is added to the base-form in the back (e.g
kind kindness).
2. Conversion is a derivational process of changing the word-class without affixation
process. For examples, the verb love (as in I love him) corresponds to a noun love (as in His love brings happiness). Moreover, there are also some examples of conversions in English, such as: the changes of verbs to nouns (doubt, laugh), adjectives to nouns (comic, daily), nouns to verbs (mail, ship), adjectives to verbs (dry, calm), and the others.
3. Compound is a unit consisting of two or more bases. There are three common
types of compounds which are compound nouns (headache, story-telling), compound adjectives (handmade, homesick), and compound verbs (baby-sit, sleep-walk).
4. Reduplicative is a process of repeating two or more elements which are either
identical or only slightly different. The difference between the two elements may be in the initial consonant (walkie-talkie) or in the medial vowels (criss-cross).
5. Clipping is the subtraction of one or more syllables from a word. The process of
shorthening may occur at the beginning of the word (phone from telephone), at the end of the word (photo from photography), and at both beginning and end of the word (flu from influenza).
6. Blend is the fragmentary (at least one of the elements) when compared with its
corresponding uncompounded word form. For example, brunch is derived from
breakfast and lunch, motel from motor and hotel, and smog from smoke and fog.
7. Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters (or larger parts) of words. For
example, the letters represent full words, such as: C.O.D from cash on delivery and
UN
from the United Nations, the letters represent elements in a compound or just parts of a word, such as: TV from television and GHQ from General Headquarters, and the acronyms are produced as words, such as radar from radio detecting and ranging .
2. Theories of Compounding
Szymanek (1989) states that compounding involves putting together two or more lexical items, representing the major syntactic categories noun, verb, adjective (sometimes also Adverb, Pronoun, and particle). Besides, all compound lexemes can compound adjectives, (d) compound adverbs, and (e) isolated composites that do not fit to any four major classes like compound prepositions (into), compound pronouns (somebody), or conjunctions (nevertheless, however) (1989: 44). Furthermore, the simplest possible compound consists of a head and a modifier, for instance: the word
blackboard , board is the head and black functions as the modifier (1989: 36-37).
There are three possible criteria for compounding in English given by Szymanek (1989: 37-42). They are stress, orthography, and meaning. Further information about those three criteria for compounding are discussed in the following sections.
a. Stress
It is a commonplace for the two-elements in compounding having different degree of stress (Szymanek, 1989: 37). The pre-head usually receives stress more heavily than the head itself. It can be seen in the following examples:
'black ֽboard
Likewise:
1
2
1
2
1
2 postcard bookcase sound-wave The different degree of stresses are typically in compound words.
b. Orthography
There are no fix rules in orthography of compounds, but there are three kinds of writing systems which are as single words (postcard, football), hyphenated (sound-wave, tennis-ball), and two separate words (Blood bank, game ball). A
“uninterruptability” by a pause or inserting other elements (like plural ending –s), for example: the words spoonful and bagful, but they can not be inserted by –s like
spoonsful and bagsful (Szymanek, 1989: 41-42).
c. Meaning
Jespersen explains that “We have a compound if the meaning of the whole cannot be logically deduced from the meanings of elements separately (1965, IV: 137).” The meaning of compounds cannot be predicted from the elements because compounds will create new meaning (Szymanek, 1989: 42).
Akmajian (1984:720) explains that although the meaning of a complex word such as trees can be discovered from the combination of the meaning of its part, the meaning of compounds can not be discovered in that way, for example: a salt pile is a pile made up of salt, but a saltshaker is not a shaker made of salt. However, an apron string is a kind of string and a string apron is a kind of apron so that Selkirk says that “the meaning of the head of the compound seems to be the central meaning of the whole compound, at least for certain kinds of compound” ( Selkirk, 1982).
Compounds are also used to express semantic relationship in relation to the meaning as stated by O’Grady (1997: 154-155). In most cases, the meaning of the compounds can be identified by the right component called endocentric like steam
boat
is a boat powered by steam and air hose is a hose that carries air. On the contrary, the meaning of compound that does not follow from the meaning of its parts is called exocentric, such as: a greenbottle is not a type of bottle, a redneck is not a
Quirk (1973:444) also explains about the meanings of compound verbs. The opposite of Akmajian’s statement, he states that we concentrate on the productive or creative types of compounding and indicate the syntactic relations of the compounding elements by paraphrase”. This statement shows that the meanings of compound verbs can be discovered from the combination of the elements as seen in the following examples:
playboy~the boy plays, ie verb+subject call-girl~X calls the girl, ie verb+object
Akmajian (1984: 70-71) gives some types of compounds in English as shown in the following tabulation:
Table 1: Some types of compounds in English
N+N A+ N P+N V+N A+A N+A P+V Landlord Lowrider Overdose Hit-man Red-hot Nationwide Outrun Bathroom High chair Outrigger Swearword Widespread Earthbound overdo Movie Blackboard Onlooker Pickpocket Blue-green Heartbroken Uproot star sickroom underdog scarecrow bittersweat Skin-deep underfeed Ape-man
3. Theories of Prepositions
Prepositions are free morphemes that also can be attached to other free morphemes. Napoli (1996: 314-315) states that a preposition is relation words, but semantically prepositions are not rich enough to bear true modification. Here prepositions can be qualified (almost out, all over, halfway in).
In discussing prepositions, Quirk gives the examples of prepositions and their meanings (1973: 143-165). He explains that a preposition expresses a relation between two entities. There are two classifications for prepositions. The first classification is simple prepositions that consist of one word, such as: at, in, and for.
The second is complex prepositions consisting of more than one word and they are classified into the following categories: (a) Adverb or prep + prep: along with, as for, away from, out of, up to, and the others.
(b) Verb/ adjective/ conjunction/ and the others + prep: owning to, due to,
because of , and the others.
(c) Prep + noun + prep: by means of, in comparison with, in front of, and the others.
Moreover, the meaning of prepositions in, off, out, over, under, and up can be seen as the following: (1) Relative position: by, over, under, and the others. e.g. He was standing by his brother. (‘at the side of’)
(2) Passage (movement toward and then away from a place): by, over, under, and the others. e.g. He jumped over a ditch. (3) Direction (horizontal and vertical axis): up, down, along, and the others. e.g. I walked up and down the platform. e.g. He lives across the moors. (ie ‘from here’) (5) Resultative meaning: over, across, and the others. e.g. I managed to get over the fence. (ie so that I was then on the other side) (6) Time (when): at, on, in, and the others. e.g. at night, in August, during Holy Week. (7) Negative position and direction: away from, off, and the others.
The negative character of these prepositions is shown by parenthesized, off = not on . e.g. Once we were off the main freeway, the trip felt more like a vacation. (8) Ingredient, material: with, of, out of, and the others. e.g. He made the frame out of wood. (ie ‘wood was the only material’)