An analysis of the metaphorical meanings of the verbs drive, fly, and sink.

ABSTRACT

Hananingsih, Agustina. (2014).An Analysis of the Metaphorical Meanings of the Verbs Drive, Fly, and Sink. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education.Sanata Dharma University.

Metaphor has already manifested not only in language but also in thought and action. However, the concept of metaphoris something people are commonly not aware of. “You _drive me mad” _{metaphorical expression occurred in British}

National Corpus becomes one of the concrete examples of the metaphor occurrence. However, the meaning of the metaphor withdrivehas not been portrayed specifically in that expression. Besidesdrive, the researcher discovers that the verb fly and sink also contain the meanings of the metaphors through some expressions found in British National Corpus (BNC) and Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).

There are two research problems in the research. The research problems are 1) What are the meanings of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sink? and 2) What are the concrete example uses ofdrive,fly, andsinkcontaining metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English?Thus, the objectives of the research are to discover the meanings of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sink, also to find out the concrete example uses of drive, fly, andsink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English.

In the research, the meanings of the metaphors withdrive,fly, andsinkdealt with the context of the expressions. Thus, this research was included in pragmatics study since pragmatics is the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. In order to analyze the meanings of the metaphors withdrive,fly, and sink, also the concrete example uses of the verbs containing metaphorical meanings, the researcher conducted content analysis as the research method.

The research discovered two essential findings. The first finding showed the most dominant meaning of the metaphors with drive,fly, and sink. The most dominant meaning of the metaphors withdrive was to influence something or cause it to make progress. The meaning of the metaphor withflywas dominated by the meaning to move or go quickly. Meanwhile, the most dominant meaning of the metaphors withsink was to cause something or someone to fall or move to a lower level. The second finding showed the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings by presenting themetaphorical concepts found in the expressions in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. The metaphorical concepts found in the expressions were LOVE IS MADNESS, ANGER IS INSANITY, LUST IS INSANITY, TIME IS MOVING OBJECT, LIFE IS A STORY, and SAD IS DOWN.

Keywords:metaphor, corpus, BNC, COCA

ABSTRAK

Hananingsih, Agustina. (2014).An Analysis of the Metaphorical Meanings of the Verbs Drive, Fly, and Sink. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Faku ltas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Metafora diwujudkan bukan hanya dalam bahasa tetapi juga dalam pikiran dan tindakan. Meskipun demikian, tidak semua orang menyadariadanyakonsepmetafora. Salah satu ungkapan yang memiliki konsep metafora yang ditemukan diBritish National Corpusadalah“You drive me mad”_.

Meskipun demikian arti metafora drive belum dapat dijelaskan secara spesifik dalam kalimat tersebut. Selain drive, kata kerja fly dan sink juga memuat arti metafora dalam beberapa ungkapan yang ditemukan di British National Corpus (BNC) danCorpus of Contemporary American English(COCA).

Terdapat dua permasalahan dalam penelitian ini. Permasalahan tersebut adalah 1) Apa arti metafora dari drive, fly, dan sink? dan 2) Apa saja contoh ungkapan dari drive, fly, dan sink yang memuat arti secara metafora yang terdapat dalam British National Corpus dan Corpus of Contemporary American English. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dalam penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan arti metafora dari drive, fly, dan sink, serta untuk menemukan contoh ungkapan daridrive, fly,dansinkyang memuatartisecarametafora diBNCdanCOCA.

Dalam penelitian ini, arti metafora dari drive, fly, dan sink berhubungan dengan konteks yang terdapat dalam kalimat. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini termasuk dalam pembelajaran pragmatic karena pragmatic merupakan pembelajaran tentang bagaimana sebuah ungkapan memiliki arti dalam keadaan tertentu. Untuk menganalisa arti metafora yang terdapat pada katadrive, fly,dan sink, serta contoh ungkapan dari kata kerja yang memuat arti secara metafora, peneliti menerapkan metode analisa isi.

Terdapat dua penemuan utama dalam penelitian ini. Penemuan pertama menunjukkan arti metafora yang paling dominan dari drive, fly, dan sink. Arti metafora yang paling dominan dari drive adalah mempengaruhi sesuatu atau menyebabkan sesuatu mengalami kemajuan. Arti metafora yang paling dominan dari fly adalah bergerak atau berlalu dengan cepat. Sedangkan arti metafora yang paling dominan darisinkadalah menyebabkan sesuatu atau seseorang jatuh ketingkat yang lebih rendah. Penemuan kedua menunjukkan contoh ungkapan dari kata kerja drive, fly, dan sink yang memuat arti secara metafora dengan mengemukakan konsep metafora yang terdapat dalam ungkapan tersebut. Konsep metafora tersebut adalah LOVE IS MADNESS, ANGER IS INSANITY, LUST IS INSANITY, TIME IS MOVING OBJECT, LIFE IS A STORY, dan SAD IS DOWN.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE METAPHORICAL MEANINGS

OF THE VERBS DRIVE, FLY, AND SINK

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Agustina Hananingsih Student Number: 091214085

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

2014

i

AN ANALYSIS OFTHE METAPHORICAL MEANINGS

OF THE VERBS DRIVE, FLY, AND SINK

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the SarjanaPendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

AgustinaHananingsih Student Number: 091214085

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

iv

Go confidently in the direction

of your dreams.

Live the life you have imagined.

Henry David Thoreau

This thesis is dedicated to:

Bapak and Ibu

They are the best parents I ever have. I treasure them as the

endless love of my life.

vii ABSTRACT

Hananingsih, Agustina. (2014). An Analysis of the Metaphorical Meanings of the Verbs Drive, Fly, and Sink. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education.Sanata Dharma University.

Metaphor has already manifested not only in language but also in thought and action. However, the concept of metaphoris something people are commonly not aware of. “You drive me mad” metaphorical expression occurred in British National Corpus becomes one of the concrete examples of the metaphor occurrence. However, the meaning of the metaphor withdrivehas not been portrayed specifically in that expression. Besidesdrive, the researcher discovers that the verb fly and sink also contain the meanings of the metaphors through some expressions found in British National Corpus (BNC) and Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).

There are two research problems in the research. The research problems are 1) What are the meanings of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sink? and 2) What are the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English?Thus, the objectives of the research are to discover the meanings of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sink, also to find out the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English.

In the research, the meanings of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sinkdealt with the context of the expressions. Thus, this research was included in pragmatics study since pragmatics is the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. In order to analyze the meanings of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sink, also the concrete example uses of the verbs containing metaphorical meanings, the researcher conducted content analysis as the research method.

The research discovered two essential findings. The first finding showed the most dominant meaning of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sink. The most dominant meaning of the metaphors withdrive was to influence something or cause it to make progress. The meaning of the metaphor withfly was dominated by the meaning to move or go quickly. Meanwhile, the most dominant meaning of the metaphors withsink was to cause something or someone to fall or move to a lower level. The second finding showed the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings by presenting themetaphorical concepts found in the expressions in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. The metaphorical concepts found in the expressions were LOVE IS MADNESS, ANGER IS INSANITY, LUST IS INSANITY, TIME IS MOVING OBJECT, LIFE IS A STORY, and SAD IS DOWN.

viii ABSTRAK

Hananingsih, Agustina. (2014). An Analysis of the Metaphorical Meanings of the Verbs Drive, Fly, and Sink. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Faku ltas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Metafora diwujudkan bukan hanya dalam bahasa tetapi juga dalam pikiran dan tindakan. Meskipun demikian, tidak semua orang menyadariadanyakonsepmetafora. Salah satu ungkapan yang memiliki konsep metafora yang ditemukan di British National Corpus adalah “You drive me mad”. Meskipun demikian arti metafora drive belum dapat dijelaskan secara spesifik dalam kalimat tersebut. Selain drive, kata kerja fly dan sink juga memuat arti metafora dalam beberapa ungkapan yang ditemukan di British National Corpus (BNC) dan Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).

Terdapat dua permasalahan dalam penelitian ini. Permasalahan tersebut adalah 1) Apa arti metafora dari drive, fly, dan sink? dan 2) Apa saja contoh ungkapan dari drive, fly, dan sink yang memuat arti secara metafora yang terdapat dalam British National Corpus dan Corpus of Contemporary American English. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dalam penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan arti metafora dari drive, fly, dan sink, serta untuk menemukan contoh ungkapan dari drive, fly, dan sink yang memuatartisecarametafora diBNCdanCOCA.

Dalam penelitian ini, arti metafora dari drive, fly, dan sink berhubungan dengan konteks yang terdapat dalam kalimat. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini termasuk dalam pembelajaran pragmatic karena pragmatic merupakan pembelajaran tentang bagaimana sebuah ungkapan memiliki arti dalam keadaan tertentu. Untuk menganalisa arti metafora yang terdapat pada kata drive, fly, dan sink, serta contoh ungkapan dari kata kerja yang memuat arti secara metafora, peneliti menerapkan metode analisa isi.

Terdapat dua penemuan utama dalam penelitian ini. Penemuan pertama menunjukkan arti metafora yang paling dominan dari drive, fly, dan sink. Arti metafora yang paling dominan dari drive adalah mempengaruhi sesuatu atau menyebabkan sesuatu mengalami kemajuan. Arti metafora yang paling dominan dari fly adalah bergerak atau berlalu dengan cepat. Sedangkan arti metafora yang paling dominan dari sink adalah menyebabkan sesuatu atau seseorang jatuh ketingkat yang lebih rendah. Penemuan kedua menunjukkan contoh ungkapan dari kata kerja drive, fly, dan sink yang memuat arti secara metafora dengan mengemukakan konsep metafora yang terdapat dalam ungkapan tersebut. Konsep metafora tersebut adalah LOVE IS MADNESS, ANGER IS INSANITY, LUST IS INSANITY, TIME IS MOVING OBJECT, LIFE IS A STORY, dan SAD IS DOWN.

Kata kunci: metaphor, corpus, BNC, COCA

ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to everyone who has given me the courage to achieve my dream. They are the people who have supported the completion of the thesis. I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Allah S.W.Tfor His grace and for the chance to live a blessed life.

This thesis would never be written without support and help from wonderful persons. I would like to send my gratitude to my advisor, Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D for his guidance during the writing process. I thank him for giving advices and encouraging me to finish this thesis. I also thank all of the lecturers, Sanata Dharma University of Yogyakarta and its staff for the experience I got during my study.

My endless gratitude goes tomy parents,ParwataHadiPranata andSumarjilah, for giving me the opportunities to learn about life. Their sincerity, sacrifice, support, and patience affect me to be a determined person. The greatest fortune of my life is when I was born to be their daughter. I thank my beloved sister, LarasatiPuspaningrum, for her companion andfor helping me through harsh moment. You are my guardian angel. I also thank HadiPrawira’s and MitraGiyana’s big families for being a heavenly shelter in my life.

I thank best friend, Amelia Christina, for being my first and forever best friend. I thank her for teaching me the meaning of friend and happiness.

I send my gratitude to my lovely supporters FransiscaGalih, Yasinta R.,and Hans Gabriel for their companion during these university years. They are the reasons I can survive and become a better person. Also, I thankFelicita Devi for her endless support and countless help. Her words have given me the strength and have worked like magic.

I thank my SPD group,ND Corp. (Tari, Hani, Wisnu, Ajeng), for letting me experience the meaning of togetherness and friendship. I thank them for sharing the vision and mission during the class. Also, I thank my wonderful Play Performance group, Elegy, for giving me unforgettable moments. I have learnt a lot from them.

I would like to thank my lovely class B friends. I thank them for every moment we share together. They offer great team-work, sincere friendship and undefeatable support. I also thank my KKN Gadingan friends and PPL SMA Taman Madya Yogyakarta friends for the moment we experienced together.

x

I thank my second family, SDN Tirtoadi’s teachers and students. I have learnt many things from them. They teach me aboutpatience, responsibility, and dedication. I thank my friends inSWIFT English Schoolfor giving me colorful moment there.I thank my boarding house friends, especially MbakEsty Twins and Mas Aris for assisting me there and giving opinion about my work.

Finally, I thankallPBIbatch 2009 friends for giving me the chance to be part of their beautiful friendship. They will always stay in my memory and my heart.

AgustinaHananingsih

xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE……….

APPROVAL PAGES ……… DEDICATION PAGE ……….. STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……….

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ……….

ABSTRACT ………..

ABSTRAK ………..

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………..

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……….. LIST OF TABLES ……… LIST OF FIGURES ……….. LIST OF APPENDICES………

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ………..

A. Research Background ……….. B. Research Problems...……… C. Problem Limitation ………. D. Research Objectives ………

E. Research Benefits ………

F. Definition of Terms ………. CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE………

A. Theoretical Description ……….. 1. Pragmatics………..……...….……… 2. The Definition of metaphor….………... 3. The Occurrence of Metaphor….……….... 4. The Approaches to metaphor………. 5. Metaphor Identification Procedure……… 6. Metaphor and Meaning……….. 7. Metaphor and Metonymy………...

8. Domain Concept………

9. Metaphor and Context……… B. Theoretical Framework ………..….

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……….

A. Research Method ……….

B. Research Setting ………..

C. Data Source…….………….………

D. Data Gathering Technique..………. E. Data Analysis Technique…..………...

i ii iv v vi vii viii ix xi xiii xiv xv 1 1 3 3 4 4 5 7 7 7 8 9 10 13 14 15 16 18 19 21 21 22 22 24 29

xii

F. Research Procedure...………... CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULT AND DISCUSSION………... A. The Meanings of the Metaphors withDrive, Fly, and

Sink………...…

B. The Concrete Example Uses of Drive, Fly, and Sink Containing Metaphorical Meanings in BNC and

COCA………...

1. The Concrete Example Uses of Drive Containing Metaphorical Meanings in BNC and COCA…………. 2. The Concrete Example Uses of fly Containing

Metaphorical Meanings in BNC and COCA…………. 3. The Concrete Example Uses of sink Containing

Metaphorical Meanings in BNC and COCA………….

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS………

A. Conclusions ……….

B. Recommendations ………...

REFERENCES ………. APPENDICES ………..

30 33 33

39 40 46 47 51 51 53 54 57

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 2.1 The Ontological and Epistemic Correspondence……… 16

Table 4.1 The Percentage of the Metaphorical Meaning of Drive... 34

Table 4.2 The Percentage of the Metaphorical Meaning of fly………... 36

Table 4.3 The Percentage of the Metaphorical Meaning of Sink... 37

Table 4.4 The Correspondences between MADNESS and LOVE…………. 42

Table 4.5 The Correspondences between INSANITY and ANGER……….. 44

Table 4.6 The Correspondences between INSANITY and LUST………….. 45

Table 4.7 The Correspondences between MOVING OBJECT and TIME…. 47 Table 4.8 The Correspondences between A STORY and LIFE………. 48

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Figure 3.1 British National Corpus Website……… 26 Figure 3.2 The Result of BNC Cluster Sampling……… 26 Figure 3.3 Corpus of Contemporary American English Website……… 27 Figure 3.4 The Result of COCA Cluster Sampling………. 28

xv

LIST OFAPPENDICES

Appendix Page

Appendix 1 Metaphorical Meanings of Drive: To Force Someone or Something to Go Somewhere or Do Something………. 57 Appendix 2 Metaphorical Meanings of Drive: To make someone extremely

annoyed………... 59

Appendix 3 Metaphorical Meanings of Drive:To make somebody very angry, crazy, etc. or to make them do something……… 60 Appendix 4 Metaphorical Meanings of Drive:To influence something or

cause it to make progress……… 61 Appendix 5 Metaphorical Meanings of Drive: To make you very excited,

especially sexually………... 63 Appendix 6 Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To move or go quickly………. 64 Appendix 7 Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To seem to pass very quickly... 65 Appendix 8 Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To be talk about by many

people………..

66

Appendix 9 Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To be successful………... 67 Appendix 10 Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To cause something or

someone to fall or move to a lower level……… 68 Appendix 11 Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To decrease in amount,

volume, strength……….. 69

Appendix 12 Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To prevent somebody or

somebody’s plans from succeeding………. 70 Appendix 13 Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To drink something quickly

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of six parts. The first part is the research background. The second part is the research problems. The third part is the problem limitation. The fourth part is the research objectives. The fifth part is the research benefit. The sixth part is the definition of terms.

A. Research Background

The phenomenon of metaphor is already manifested in language. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) state that although most people think they can get along well without metaphor, metaphor is persistent in everyday life not only in language but also in thought and action. However, metaphor is commonly seen as poetic language and causes people to not aware of the metaphorical utterance they produce in daily conversation. Being concealed in the meaning, metaphor is oblivious for people who are not used to the language. As a problem, defining the metaphorical meanings of the words or phrases can lead the misconception on the ideas conveyed in the utterance.

Since metaphor and the mental process it entails are the necessary basis of language and thought, the researcher conducts research to get the clearer understanding of its working. In order to understand how metaphorical expressions give insight into the metaphorical nature of the concepts that structure our everyday activities, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) provide the example of the “TIME IS MONEY” metaphorical concept.

You’re wasting my time.

This gadget will save you hours. You don’t use your time profitably. How do you spend your time these days?

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) explain that in the country where work is associated with the time it takes, people are commonly paid by hour, week, or year. The time is quantified so that the people there act as if time is a valuable commodity, even as precious as money. The people in the country conceive of time that way. Time is the kind of thing that can be wasted, saved, used, and spent. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) explain further that metaphor is also tied to culture. The “TIME IS MONEY” metaphorical concept will not apply in the cultures where people do not conceptualize time as money.

Besides the culture, the context of the expressions also gives effect to the metaphorical meaning. Metaphor researchers such as Cameron (1999) and Stern (2000) have affirmed the importance of context in metaphor interpretation. However, Krishnakumaran and Zhu (2007) argue that metaphor identification is complicated by issues including context sensitiveness, emergences of novel metaphoric forms and the need for semantic knowledge about the sentences. Since the meanings of the metaphors deal with the context of the expressions, the pragmatics study will be conducted in this research. Pragmatics study will give insight of how utterances have meanings in situations.

The researcher conducts the research of the metaphor phenomenon occurred in computerized corpus. Cameron and Low (1999) state that a computerized corpus facilitates the researcher to detect patterns of usage faster than either the use of intuition or the analysis of individual texts, as words or

3

expressions are automatically retrieved from the corpus and sorted. The researcher focuses on the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink, also the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. The researcher chooses verbs drive, fly, and sink because those verbs are frequent in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. In British National Corpus, the verbs drive, fly, and sink can be found in more than 1,000 expressions. In Corpus of Contemporary American English, the verbs drive, fly, and sink can be found in more than 10,000 expressions. Moreover, the verbs drive, fly, and sink deal with motion. The verbs drive and fly deal with forth-back motion and the verb sink deals with up-down motion.

B. Research Problems

Based on the background, the researcher formulated the two following main problems.

1. What are the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink?

2. What are the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English?

C. Problem Limitation

The researcher conducts the research on the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink. The researcher chooses verbs drive, fly, and sink because those verbs are frequent in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. In British National Corpus, the verbs drive, fly, and sink can be

found in more than 1,000 expressions. In Corpus of Contemporary American English, the verbs drive, fly, and sink can be found in more than 10,000 expressions. The verbs drive, fly, and sink also deal with motion. The verbs drive and fly deal with forth-back motion and the verb sink deals with up-down motion. The focus of this research will be on the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink, also the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English.

D. Research Objectives

The researcher has formulated two objectives based on the problems mentioned at the previous part. The objectives of this research are:

1. To find out the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink.

2. To find out the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English.

E. Research Benefits

By conducting this research, the researcher expects the results will contribute some benefits to:

1. English Language Learners

Through this research, the English language learners are expected to acknowledge more about metaphor phenomenon, especially the meanings of the metaphors with verbs and the metaphor concept occurred in the expressions. The phenomenon can be studied more in pragmatics since metaphor is one of scopes in

5

pragmatics. Since this research also discusses about the correspondence occurred in the domains which form the metaphor concept, the learners can learn about the ways to find the metaphor concept in the expressions and they can use it in further study or daily communication.

2. Future Researchers

By conducting this research, the researcher aims to provide references for further researchers to conduct another research on the meanings of the metaphors with verbs. Hopefully, this research can inspire other researchers to expand the metaphor research not only the occurrence in the verbs, but also the occurrence in boarder area. The researcher expects that there will be more research about metaphor concept in which will explain the metaphor phenomenon in detail.

F. Definition of Terms

In order to help the readers to understand the research clearly, the researcher provides the definition of the important terms in the research:

1. Metaphor

Since each person has different language sense, the existence of metaphor is difficult to define. Metaphor can be oblivious to the person who is not aware of the metaphor concept. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) state that metaphor is typically viewed as characteristic of language alone and a matter of words rather than thought or action. Smith (1981) defines metaphor as a figure of speech in which the meaning of a term or phrase is transferred from the object it ordinarily designates to another object to provide new insight or perspective on the latter. According to Burke (1945: 503), metaphor is a device for seeing something in

terms of something else. This research will use the definition of the term metaphor in boarder sense, in which the term metaphor can be defined as a process whereby the meanings and relationships of one theory or model may be used to suggest meanings or relationships in another area.

2. British National Corpus

The British National Corpus (BNC) is a 100 million word collection of samples of written and spoken language from a wide range of sources. The British National Corpus is designed to represent a wide cross-section of British English from the later part of the 20th century, both spoken and written. Further information about British National Corpus can be found on http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ site.

3. Corpus of Contemporary American English

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) is a website created by Professor Mark Davies from Brigham Young University. It is designed to provide information about words and phrases and their usage. Corpus of Contemporary American English provides information about definitions, overall frequency, frequency by genre, 20-30 collocates, 200 concordance lines, synonyms, and WordNet entries of the words. Further information about Corpus of Contemporary American English is on http://www.corpus.byu.edu/coca/ site.

7 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter provides the theories related to the research. This chapter consists of two parts. The first part is theoretical description which presents the theories of metaphor. The second part is theoretical framework which provides the main theories to solve the research problems.

A. Theoretical Description

This section discusses the theories dealing with the metaphor and meanings of the metaphors.

1. Pragmatics

Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. Leech (1983) defines pragmatics as the study of meaning in relation to speech situations.Leech (1983) also states that one cannot really understand the nature of language itself unless he understands pragmatics. The problem of distinguishing “language” and “language use” concerns in the differences of semantics and pragmatics. Although semantics and pragmatics concerned with meaning, but Leech (1983) argues that the difference between them can be traced to two different uses of the verb to mean:

(1) What does X mean? (2) What did you mean by X?

In expression (1), the meaning of semantics is defined purely as a property of expressions in a given language, in abstraction from particular situations,

speakers, or hearers. The meaning of pragmatics is defined relative to speaker or user of the language like in expression (2).

2. The Definition of Metaphor

According to Cameron and Low (1999), metaphor is a mental phenomenon which can be manifested in language. The term metaphor comes from Greek word which has literally meaning of “transfer”. Cruse (2000) adds that the transference occurswithin the meaning of one expression to another expression. Other definitions of metaphor come from several researchers. Smith (1981) defines metaphor as a figure of speech in which the meaning of a term or phrase is transferred from the object it ordinarily designates to another object to provide new insight or perspective on the latter. According to Burke (1945:503), metaphor is a device for seeing something in terms of something else. From those definitions, the researcher concludes that the term metaphor can be defined as a process whereby the meanings and relationships of one theory or model may be used to suggest meanings or relationships in another area. However, different person has different ability to understand the metaphor concept. The occurrence of metaphor concept is commonly seen as figurative language only. Besides, an expression can also contain more than one metaphor concepts. Giora (2003) argues that many advertisements, headlines, jokes and stories require the readers to construct a range of non-metaphorical and metaphorical senses for the same words. In this research, the context of the expression can lead the different metaphorical meaning interpretation.According to Fauconnier and Turner (2002), the context may involve predictable sense, but the readers may well have to

9

blendthe source and target concepts together in very different ways to create quite new or developing meanings.

3. The Occurrence of Metaphor

In order to identify the occurrence of metaphor, Richards (1965) makes a distinction between three aspects of metaphor. The first aspect is vehicle, the item(s) used metaphorically. The second aspect is tenor, the metaphorical meaning of the vehicle. The last aspect is ground, the basis for the metaphorical extension. Richards (1965) also provides the example of the aspect distinction. The example is the foot of the mountainphrase. In the phrase, the word foot is the vehicle. The tenor is something like “lower portion” which is the intended meaning of the vehicle. The ground is the spatial parallel between the canonical position of the foot relative to the rest of human body, and the lower parts of a mountain relative to the rest of the mountain. The example provided by Richards focuses the attention on the fact that there must be some essential connection between tenor and vehicle. The example helps the researcher to realize the connections in each metaphorical expression. The different part is that in this research, the researcher only takes the expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors with verb. Being equivalent with Richards’ idea, the researcher rejects the idea that metaphors can be generally translated into literal language, pointing out that there is an interaction between meanings that cannot be reproduced in literal language. A word cannot be used to mean just anything, but the nature of the connection.

4. The Approaches to Metaphor

The researcher summarizes the approaches to metaphor proposed by several researchers.

a) Approach to Metaphor by Haas

Haas (1962) argues that the meaning of a word constitutes a semantic field. The possible contexts of the word are organized in terms of normality. The most normal context forms the “core” region of the field, while the least normal context forms the “periphery”. When two words are brought into interaction, there will be a new semantic field created. The core is formed by the contexts with the highest joint degree of normality for both words. The new semantic field defines a new meaning, the metaphoric one. In order to understand the concept of “core -periphery” clearly, the researcher cites an example provided by Haas (1962). The example refers to the metaphor leg of the table. Haas (1962) explains that the word leg is transferred to new contexts from its normal context “the leg of the man or animal” to the given new context “the leg of the table”. Both “leg” in each context share similar characteristic. Though the leg of the table does not move, stretch, or hurt, they are still found to be long or short, they stand on and support, may be broken or cut. The approaches to metaphor by Haas (1962) can be applied in this research analyzing the terms of semantic features, eliminatingincompatible features from a composite expression, and allowing only compatible features to form part of the resultant meaning of the expression.

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b) Approach to Metaphor by Black

Dealing with the approach to metaphor, Black (1962) pictures the mechanism of metaphor by involving the projection of a set of associative implications derived from one entity or the secondary subject on to another entity or the primary subject. Black (1962) enables the readers to understand his theory by providing the example.

Marriage is a zero-sum game.

In the example given by Black (1962), the primary subject is marriage and the secondary subject is zero-sum game. The relevant associated implications of the secondary subject might be as follows.

(i) A game is a contest (ii)between two opponents

(iii)in which one player can win only at the expense of the other.

The metaphor works by imposing the same implications on to the primary subject as:

(iv) A marriage is a sustained struggle (v) between two contestants

(vi)in which the rewards of one contestant are gained only at the other’s expense. The concept of the implications is not necessarily identical for the primary and secondary subjects. The secondary subject is intended to be the inference for the primary subject. Black and Lakoff have similar views of the workings of metaphor in which Lakoff and Johnson (1980) picture the structure of the metaphor as “source domain” on to a “target domain”.

c) Approach to Metaphor by Sperber and Wilson

Sperber and Wilson (1986) make a distinction between “representative” and “interpretive” uses of language, which is parallel to the “literal or figurative” distinction. In this approach, metaphor is not a special deviant. As the example,the children stood in a circle round the teacher. That expression does not give a feeling of metaphorical meanings, although some people may interpret the expression to have metaphorical meanings. Being contrary to the other researchers, Sperber and Wilson (1986) argue that the presence of metaphor can be found in greater proportion of metaphorical feeling found in expression. Despite the contrary, the researcher still finds that the mechanism of metaphor interpretation is the same for all the approaches, looking for relevant resemblances.

d) Approach to Metaphor by Lakoff

The approach to metaphor by Lakoff will be the foundation in this research. According to Lakoff (1980), metaphors are not merely decorative features of certain styles, but are an essential component of human cognition. Lakoff (1980) explains that metaphor involves three important aspects. The first aspect is a source domain which is concrete and familiar. The second aspect is target domain which usually abstract or less well structured. The last aspect is a set of mapping relations or correspondences. The researcher takes a quite famous metaphor concept from Lakoff’s work as the example to explain the domains concept. The metaphor concept example provided is LIFE IS JOURNEY

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metaphor concept. The metaphor concept borrows structuring ideas from the domain of a journey and applies them to life.

Although there are more approaches to metaphor, the researcher will choose the theory from Lakoff since the theory is widely known. Moreover, Lakoff provides the concrete cases of the metaphor occurrence which are similar with the cases in this research.

5. Metaphor Identification Procedure

In order to differentiate whether an expression contains metaphorical meaning or not, there several steps need to be taken. Stern (2000) discusses about metaphor identification procedure (MIP) within the framework of the metaphor. The procedure involves metaphor annotation at the word level as opposed to identifying metaphorical relations between words or source - target domain mappings between concepts or domains. There are four steps neededin order to discriminate between the words used metaphorically and literally. The first step is to read the entire text-discourse to establish a general understanding of the meaning. The second step is to determine the lexical units in the text-discourse. The third step is establishing the meaning of each lexical unit in the text in context. This step analyzes how it applies to an entity, relation, or attribute in the situation evoked by the text or contextual meaning. There is possibility that the lexical unit has a more basic contemporary meaning in other contexts than the one in the given context. Basic meanings tend to be more concrete. What they evoke is easier to imagine, see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. If the contextual meaning is contrasts with the basic meaning but can be understood in comparison with it, the

lexical unit can be marked as metaphorical. By following the metaphor identification procedure, the researcher can easily predict the expression containing metaphorical meaning. Although the prediction can be done easily, the researcher still consults dictionaries to find the metaphorical meaning found in the expression.

6. Metaphor and meaning

The existence of metaphor is not something that can be easily confined. Although metaphor occurs in the language people use, it needs effort to differentiate the literary and metaphorical meaning of the language. Goatly (1997) argues that the only difference between literal language and metaphorical language is that literal language sticks on conventional criteria for classification, whereas in metaphorical language, the similarities and the criteria for interpretation are relatively unconventional. In this research, the unconventional metaphor deals with indirect use of language.

Goatly (1997:14) explains that the perception and cognition pass the speaker’s thought and not directly accessible to anyone except the speaker. The speaker proceeds the thought to form the proposition, which is the most relevant for conveying the thoughts. In order to communicate the proposition, the speaker has to make it accessible to the hearer by using language code. Then, the hearer can interpret it by guessing what thought of the speaker want to convey. From the idea conveyed by Goatly (1997), the researcher concludes that the larger the gap between proposition expressed and the meaning intended, the more metaphorical the utterance will be.

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According to Cruse (2000), an important aspect of conceptual structure is that concept only makes sense when viewed against the background of certain domain. The extended meaning may be so entrenched and familiar a part of a language that an involved figure of speech such as metaphor cannot be felt at all. That case will be said as naturalized word or expression. Cruse (2000) provides the examples of naturalization.

He’s in love.

It’s hard to put into words.

Those expressions are quite familiar so that the existence of metaphor is no longer felt. The term love in the first expression is considered as a condition where someone can be involved. In the second expression, the term put into word becomes naturalized. Literary, something cannot be put into words since the concept of words is abstract.

7. Metaphor and Metonymy

The occurrence of metaphor is closely related with the occurrence of metonymy. Since an expression can contain more than one meaning, there is possibility that the expression has metaphor and metonymy senses. According to Jakobson and Halle (1956), metaphor is based on resemblance whereas metonymy is based on similarity without too much twist as association. Black (1962) states metaphor involves the use of one domain as an analogical model to structure the conception of another domain. In other words, the occurrence of metaphor involves two distinct conceptual domains. Metonymy, on the other hand, relies on an association between two components within a single domain. In order to

understand the case of metonymy clearly, the researcher takes an example provided by Lakoffand Johnson (1980).

He’s got a Picasso in his den.

The metonymy concept of that expression is PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT. When someone thinks of Picasso, it is not only the work alone that being considered, but also in terms of its relation to the artist such as his conception of art, his technique, and his role in art history.

8. Domain Concept

The domain concept may become the obstacle in interpreting the metaphor concept. Since this research will analyze the data based on the theory of Lakoffand Johnson (1980), the researcher takes the explanation of domain concept based on the Lakoff’swork too. According to Kovecses (1986), there are two kinds of correspondences involved in metaphor. The first kind is ontological which involves entities in the two domains. The second kind is epistemic which involves relations of knowledge about the entities. This can be illustrated using the metaphor concept example of ANGER IS HEAT OF FLUID IN CONTAINER proposed by Kovecses (1986).

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Table 2.1 The Ontological and Epistemic Correspondences (i) Ontological correspondences

Source: HEAT OF FLUID Container

Heat of fluid Heat scale

Pressure in container Agitation of boiling fluid Limit of container’s resistance Explosion Target: ANGER Body Anger Anger scale Experienced pressure Experienced agitation Limit of person’s ability to suppress anger

Loss of control

(ii)Epistemic correspondences Source: HEAT OF FLUID

When fluid in a container is heated beyond a certain limit, pressure increases to the point at which container explodes.

Controlled release of pressure may occur, which reduces danger of explosion. Target: ANGER

When anger increases beyond a certain limit, “pressure” increases to point at which person loses

control.

The research notices that the mapping from source to target domain is partial.In the ANGER IS HEAT OF FLUID IN CONTAINER metaphor concept, there is possibility that some aspects of HEAT OF FLUID IN CONTAINER do not have correspondence with the aspects of ANGER. As an example, HEAT OF FLUID IN CONTAINER may have “cooking” aspect of boiling and simmering inwhich “cooking” aspect has no correspondence in the ANGER domain.The difference in intensity between boil and simmer in a heated liquid carries over to indicate corresponding differences in degree of anger in to boil with anger and to simmer with anger. From the explanation, the researcher concludes that a conceptual metaphor cannot be reduced to a finite set of expressions.

The existence of a conceptual metaphor explains why new and imaginative extensions of the mapping can be understood instantly. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) illustrate the case using a line from a song.

We are driving in the fast lane on the freeway of love.

According to Lakoffand Johnson (1980), the expression contains LOVE IS JOURNEY metaphor concept. In the expression, loversterm is parallel with travelers. The relationship is the vehicle to carry on their love. The shared experience as lovers is the journey that they go through together. When lovers drive in the fast lane, they go a long way and have a lot of shared experiences in a short time. The moment can be exciting and dangerous, as the relationship may not last or the lovers may be hurt emotionally.

There are a lot of metaphors discussed by Lakoff which are fully naturalized in the language or at least established. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue that the success of such a metaphor is a function of the richness of the image-schematic correspondences between the two domains. The researcher assumes that interpreting the naturalized metaphor seems to be a matter of selection of existing readings rather than generation using metaphorical strategies.

9. Metaphor and Context

There are a lot of researchers who believe that the context influences the meanings of the metaphor. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) state that conceptual metaphors represent ways of thinking, in which people typically interpret abstract concept in terms of more easily understood and perceived concrete entities. The example is the interpretation of abstract concepts such as time, emotions, and

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feelings in terms of concrete entities such as places, substances and containers. In the interpretation process, a lack of appropriate background knowledge can lead language learners to misunderstand the associations of the metaphorical meanings contained in the expressions.Stern (2000) adds that requisite condition to apply is necessary for defining the semantic structure or meaning of the metaphorical expression. In this research, the metaphor interpretation will be contextual-issue-based, not just utterance-based. The metaphor interpretation will be guided by specific issues raised by context in a broader sense. As one of many methods in metaphor interpretation, Martin (1949) suggest to detects metaphors by comparing new sentences with an empirically collected metaphor knowledge base and gives some interpretation of metaphorical sentences. The method will prevent fatal misinterpretation since the same word can be used metaphorically to express many different meanings depends on the contexts. Even the word may express different metaphorical meaning in the context of the same sentence as uttered by different speakers on different occasions.

B. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theories used to achieve the findings of this research will be organized in the theoretical framework. The theoretical framework summarizes the theories form certain researchers. There are two basics theories in this section.

1. Meanings of the metaphors with verbs

In order to answer the first research problem dealing with the metaphorical meanings behind the verbs, the researcher conducts two phases. The first phase is collecting the expressions which have metaphorical meanings. The researcher

sorts and determines whether the expression has metaphorical meaning or not. In this phase, the theory of Stern (2000) will be the bases.According to Stern (2000), there are four steps needed in order to discriminate between the words used metaphorically and literally. The first step is to read the entire text-discourse to establish a general understanding of the meaning. The second step is to determine the lexical units in the text-discourse. The third step is establishing the meaning of each lexical unit in the text in context. This step analyzes how it applies to an entity, relation, or attribute in the situation evoked by the text or contextual meaning. In the last step, if the contextual meaning is contrasts with the basic meaning but can be understood in comparison with it, the lexical unit can be marked as metaphorical. In this first phase, the researcher will get the collection of expressions containing metaphorical meanings and can continue the research to the next phase.

The second phase is conducted after the researcher gets the valid data of the expressions containing metaphorical meanings. The researcher will classify the collected expressions based on each metaphorical meaning. In this phase, the researcher interprets the metaphorical meaning into literal meaning. In order to get the precise literal meaning, the researcher consults the dictionaries. In this research, the dictionaries which are consulted are Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary and Cambridge Advanced learner’s Dictionary.

The result of those phases will be the first finding in this research. The collected expressions containing metaphorical meanings will be used to solve the second research problem.

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2. Concrete example uses of the verbs containing metaphorical meanings

In order to answer the second problem dealing with the concrete example uses of the verbs containing metaphorical meaning, the theory of Lakoff and Johnson (1980) will be functioned as the bases. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) state metaphor involves three essential aspects. The aspects are source domain, target domain, and a set of mapping relations or correspondences. The researcher has to find those three aspects in an expression in order to get the metaphor concept.

The other theory will be added to support the finding. Kovecses (1986) proposes the types of domains correspondences, namely ontological which involves entities in the two domains andepistemic which involves relations of knowledge about the entities. The theory of Kovecses (1986) will be used to illustrate the metaphor concept occurred in the expressions.

21 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter is divided into six sections. The first section is research method implemented to conduct the research. The second section is research setting which explains the setting where and when the research was conducted. The third section is data source containing the work analyzed in the research. The fourth section is data gathering techniques. The fifth section is data analysis technique which describes the ways how the findings are analyzed to answer the research questions. The last section is research procedures summarizing the steps in conducting the research.

A. Research Method

According to Leech (1983), pragmatics study is the study of meaning in relation to speech situations. Since the meanings of the metaphors dealt with the context of the expressions, the pragmatics study will be conducted in this research. The metaphor phenomenon can be studied more in pragmatics since metaphor is one of scopes in pragmatics. Pragmatics study will give insight of how utterances have meanings in situations.

Since this research focused not only on the specific numbers of meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink occurred in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English but also on the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English, the researcher used

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content analysis as the research method. According to Berelson (1952), content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication. Krippendorf (2004) states content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts or other meaningful matter to the contexts of their use. Works of art, images, maps, sounds, signs, symbols, and even numerical records may be included as data and may be considered as texts. In this research, British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English became the source of recorded communication of written and spoken language. The results of this research would be presented in the form of description. Thus, the descriptive approach was also applied in this research.

B. Research Setting

The researcher conducted the research from September 2012 until April 2013. The researcher collected the data on-line. There were two corpus sites taken as the sources of data collection. The main sources to collect the data in this research were British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. The place in conducting the research was the library of Sanata Dharma University.

C. Data Source

The data analyzed in this research were the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink. This research also focused on the concrete example uses of the verb drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings found in the British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. The

researcher noticed the occurrence of the meanings of the metaphors with drive through the expression “You drive me mad” found in the British National Corpus. The occurrence encouraged the researcher to conduct further research on the meanings of the metaphors with drive. As the result, the researcher found several expressions containing metaphorical meaning of the verb drive. In addition, the researcher found similar expressions in Corpus of Contemporary American English. Based on the finding, the researcher added the verb fly and sink as the data analyzed.

Since the recorded data in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English might appear too wide, the researcher decided to take restricted data. The researcher took 200 expressions from British National Corpus and 200 expressions from Corpus of Contemporary American English for each verb. Since this research had three verbs namely drive, fly, and sink, the total expressions taken as the data source were 1,200 expressions.

Krippendorf (2004: 113) argued when researchers analyze a sample of texts in place of a larger population of texts, however, the researchers need a sampling plan to ensure that the textual units sampled do not bias the answers to the research question. Thus, the 1,200 expressions were selected and classified based on the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink conveyed in the expressions. The expressions which did not have metaphorical meanings were left since the expressions did not have use in this research. Meanwhile, the expressions containing metaphorical meanings became the valid data to be used in this research.

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D. Data Gathering Technique

In this research, there were two steps in gathering the data in this research. The first step was conducting cluster sampling in gathering the raw data. The researcher collected the data using sampling technique since the numbers of the population are unknown. According to Krippendorf (2004), the probability that a particular unit would be included in an analysis depends on the size of the chosen cluster. Furthermore, every unit had the same chance of being included in the sample. In this research, the numbers of the sample were restricted. The researcher took 200 expressions from British National Corpus and 200 expressions from Corpus of Contemporary American English for each verb as the raw data.

The second step was selecting the data in order to get the expressions containing metaphorical meanings as the settled data. From 1,200 collected expressions, the researcher selected the expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink. The researcher left the expressions which did not have metaphorical meanings since the expressions did not have function for this research. Then, the expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink were classified based on each the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink.

Figure 3.1 British National Corpus Website

The previous figure was the appearance of British National Corpus site. In the window, there was a “look up” column. In order to find expressions collected in British National Corpus library, the researcher typed the keyword. For each typing, there will be 50 expressions randomly appeared which contained the keyword. British National Corpus provided code for each expression in which enables the researcher to track the source of the data. The next figure was the result of the keyword typing.

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Figure 3.2 The Result of BNC Cluster Sampling

In Figure 3.2, there were 50 expressions selected randomly by the computerized system. Although the researcher typed the same keyword, the results would be different every time the keyword was entered in the “look up” column.

The different system would apply to Corpus of Contemporary American English. Each computerized corpus had different strength and weakness. Although British National Corpus provided the code which enabled the researcher to search

the source, the provided data was randomly selected that the researcher could not know whether the expression had been selected before. Meanwhile, Corpus of Contemporary American English provided 100 expressions in each keyword typing and eliminated the expression which had been selected before. The weakness was Corpus of Contemporary American English did not provide the code for each expression.

Figure 3.3 Corpus of Contemporary American English Website

Figure 3.3 showed the appearance of Corpus of Contemporary American English site. There was “word” column where the keyword should be typed. There were some features to restrict the results of the keyword typing. The example of keyword typing results was presented in the next figure.

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Figure 3.4 The Result of COCA Cluster Sampling

Figure 3.4 showed the example of keyword typing result. Corpus of Contemporary American English provided pages in order to keep the data organized. Each page consisted of 100 expressions. The existence of the same recorded expression could be prevented since the data was kept in organized way.

E. Data Analysis Technique

The data analysis technique was conducted after the settled data had been collected. The data analysis started at the collection steps. There were four steps applied in the data analysis namely collecting the data, reducing, inferring, and narrating. Those steps adopted the idea of Krippendorff (2004), who proposed that the appropriate components in conceptualize the data in content analysis design consisted of unitizing, sampling, recording, reducing, inferring, and narrating. 1. Collecting the data

In this step, the researcher collected 1,200 expressions by conducting cluster sampling. The researcher took 200 expressions from British National Corpus and 200 expressions from Corpus of Contemporary American English. 2. Reducing

The researcher eliminated the collected expressions which did not have metaphorical meanings. The expressions containing metaphorical meanings were classified based on the metaphorical meaning of the verb drive, fly, and sink. 3. Inferring

Since inferring step relied on analytical construct or models, the researcher consulted theory of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), also the theory of Lakoff and Kovecses (1987) in order to find the most appropriate metaphor concept occurred in each expression.

4. Narrating

This was the last step of data analysis technique. In this step, the researcher presented the result of data analysis in the form of in-depth description.

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This step was conducted to answer the research problems. By narrating the result of the data analysis, the researcher made the findings comprehensible to the readers.

F. Research Procedure

In this section, the researcher described the steps taken as the research procedure. There were six steps taken in conducting this research.

1. Selecting the research problems

The researcher was interested to conduct this research after finding an expression containing metaphorical meaning in British National Corpus. The researcher found that the phenomenon of metaphor was quite oblivious since the phenomenon blended naturally in everyday language. Thus, the researcher selected two research problems in this research. The research problems are research problems are 1) What are the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink? and 2) What are the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English?

2. Selecting and classifying the data

The researcher collected the data from British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. The raw data was collected through cluster sampling in which each expression contained the verb drive, fly, and sink. The researcher sorted the expressions based on the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink conveyed in the expressions. The researcher took the expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink as

the settled data. The researcher interpreted the metaphorical meanings occurred in each expression based on Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary and Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. After the settled data found, the researcher classified the expressions based on the metaphorical meanings. The expressions which had the same metaphorical meaning were assigned into one group.

3. Identifying the metaphor concept

In this step, the researcher analyzed the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English using the theories of Lakoff and Johnson (1980). This step aimed to discover the metaphor concept in the expressions. The expressions which were made as the examples were restricted. The examples functioned to give a picture how the metaphor concept was formed in an expression.

4. Presenting the result

The results of the research were presented in the form of in-depth description. There were two results found in this research. The first result dealt with the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink. Meanwhile, the second result dealt with the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English

5. Making conclusion

The last step taken in this research was drawing the conclusion. The conclusion summarized the findings of the research. The conclusion dealt with the

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meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink, also the concrete example uses of the verb containing metaphorical meanings. In this section, the research also provided recommendations in conducting further research related with metaphor phenomenon.

33 CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter consists of two parts. The first part is the discussion of the meanings of the metaphors with drive, fly, and sink. The second part is the discussion of the concrete example uses of drive, fly, and sink containing metaphorical meanings in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English.

A. The Meanings of the Metaphors withDrive, Fly, and Sink

This section was conducted to answer first research objective which isthe meanings of the metaphors withdrive, fly, and sink by applying two phases. The first phase was collecting the expressions which have metaphorical meanings. The researcher sorted and determined whether the expression had metaphorical meaning or not. In this phase, the theory of Stern (2000) would be the bases.According to Stern (2000), there were four steps needed in order to discriminate between the words used metaphorically and literally. The steps were to read the entire text-discourse to establish a general understanding of the meaning, to determine the lexical units in the text-discourse, to establish the meaning of each lexical unit in the text in context, and to mark the expressions as metaphorical or not.

The second phase was conducted after the researcher obtained the valid data of the expressions containing metaphorical meanings. The researcher classified the collected expressions based on each metaphorical meaning. In this

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phase, the researcher interpreted the metaphorical meaning into literal meaning by consulting Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary and Cambridge Advanced learner‟s Dictionary.The results of those phases would be the first finding in this research.The following tables summarized the findings of the research.

Table 4.1 The Percentage of the Metaphorical Meaning of the Verb Drive

No. Meaning of Verb Drive BNC COCA Total Percentage

1. To influence something or cause it to make progress

- 20 20 46.5%

2. To force someone or something to go somewhere or do something

4 4 8 18.6%

3. To force somebody or something to move in a particular direction

6 - 6 14%

4. To make someone extremely annoyed

3 1 4 9.3%

5. To force someone or something into a particular state

1 2 3 7%

6. To make somebody very angry, crazy, etc. or to make them do something extreme

- 1 1 2.3%

7. To make somebody very excited, especially sexually

1 - 1 2.3%

8. To force somebody to act in a particular way

- - - 0 %

9. To force something to go in a particular direction or into particular position by pushing or hitting it

- - - 0 %

10. To make an opening in or through something by using force

- - - 0 %

11. To carry something along - - - 0 %

12. To fall or move rapidly and with great force

- - - 0 %

GRAND TOTAL 43 100%

Table 4.1 presented the meanings of the metaphors with drive occurred in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English, also the frequency of the metaphorical meanings found in the occurrence. The researcher

found 43 expressions containing metaphorical meanings of the verb drive in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. There were seven meanings of the metaphors withdrive found in BNC and COCA. The meanings of the metaphorsdrive were to force someone or something to go somewhere or do something, to force someone or something into a particular state, to make someone extremely annoyed, to make somebody very angry, crazy, etc. or to make them do something extreme, to force somebody or something to move in a particular direction,to influence something or cause it to make progress, and to make somebody very excited especially sexually. In this research, there were five metaphorical meanings which were not found in the expressions. Those metaphorical meanings were to force somebody to act in a particular way, to force something to go in a particular direction or into particular position by pushing or hitting it, to make an opening in or through something by using force, and to fall or move rapidly and with great force.

Based on the table, to influence something or cause it to make progress became the most dominant metaphorical meaning with 46.5% percentage. To force someone or something to go somewhere or do something became the second dominant metaphorical meaning with 18.6% percentage. The third position, to force somebody or something to move in a particular direction followed with 14% percentage. Then, to make someone extremely annoyed occupied the fourth position with 9.3% percentage. The fifth position was to force someone or something into a particular state with 7% percentage. The sixth position was to make somebody very angry, crazy, etc. or to make them do something extreme

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with 2.3% percentage. Having the same 2.3% percentage as the sixth position, to make you very excited especially sexually took the seventh position. The meanings of the metaphors to force somebody to act in a particular way, to force something to go in a particular direction or into particular position by pushing or hitting it, to make an opening in or through something by using force, and to fall or move rapidly and with great force had 0 % of occurrence in the expressions.

Table 4.2 The Percentage of the Metaphorical Meaning of the verb Fly

No. Meaning of Verb Fly BNC COCA Total Percentage

1. To move or go quickly 3 6 9 56.25%

2. To seem to pass very quickly 1 2 3 18.75%

3. To be successful 1 2 3 18.75%

4. To be talked about by many people 1 - 1 6.25% 5. To move suddenly and with

force

- - - 0 %

6. To move around freely - - - 0 %

7. To escape from somebody or something

- - - 0 %

GRAND TOTAL 16 100%

Table 4.2 presented the meanings of the metaphors withfly occurred in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English, also the frequency of the metaphorical meanings found in the occurrence. The researcher found 16 expressions containing meanings of the metaphors withfly in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. From those expressions, there were four categorized meanings of the metaphors withfly found in the occurrence. The metaphorical meanings of the verb fly were to move or go quickly, to seem to pass very quickly, to be talked about by many people, and to be successful. There were three meanings of the metaphors with fly which were not found in the expressions. The meanings of the metaphors which were not

found in the expressions were to move suddenly and with force, to move around freely, and to escape from somebody or something.

Based on the data, the metaphorical meaning of to move or go quickly leaded with 56.25% percentage and becomes the dominant metaphorical meaning of the verb fly. The second was placed by to seem to pass very quickly with 18.75% percentage. The meaning of to be successful took the third position with the same 18.75% percentage as the second position. The fourth position was to be talked about by many people with 6.25% percentage. The meanings of the metaphors to move suddenly and with force, to move around freely, and to escape from somebody or something had 0 % occurrence in the expressions.

Table 4.3 The Percentage of the Metaphorical Meaning of the Verb Sink

No. Meaning of Verb Sink BNC COCA Total Percentage

1. To cause something or someone to fall or move to a lower level

7 7 14 46.7%

2. To prevent somebody or

somebody’s plans from succeeding

5 4 9 30%

3. To decrease in amount, volume, strength

5 1 6 20%

4. To drink something quickly especially a large amount of alcohol

1 - 1 3.3%

5. To cause something to fail or be in trouble

- - - 0 %

6. To become quieter - - - 0 %

GRAND TOTAL 30 100%

Table 4.3 presented the meanings of the metaphors withsink occurred in British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English, also the frequency of the metaphorical meanings found in the occurrence. The researcher found 30 expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors withsink in

38

British National Corpus and Corpus of Contemporary American English. Furthermore, there were four categorized metaphorical meanings of the verb sink found in the occurrence. The metaphorical meanings of the verb sink were to cause something or someone to fall or move to a lower level, to decrease in amount, volume or strength, to prevent somebody or somebody’s plans from succeeding, and to drink something quickly especially a large amount of alcohol. There were two meanings of the metaphors with sink which were not found in the expressions. Those meanings of the metaphors were to cause something to fail or be in trouble and to become quieter.

Based on the data, the metaphorical meaning of to cause something or someone to fall or move to a lower level became the dominant metaphorical meaning of the verb sink with 46.7% percentage. The second dominant metaphorical meaning was to prevent somebody or somebody’s plans from succeeding with 30% percentage. To decrease in amount, volume or strength took the third position with 20% percentage. The last position was placed by to drink something quickly especially a large amount of alcohol with 3.3% percentage. The meanings of the metaphors with sink to cause something to fail or be in trouble and to become quieter had 0 % occurrence in the expressions.

From the results, the researcher found that there were 43 expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors withdrive, 16 expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors withfly, and 30 expressions containing the meanings of the metaphors withsink found. The researcher categorized the metaphorical meanings of the verbs and discovered sevenmeanings of the

Table B.3. Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To be talk about by many people

No Expressions Source

1. CKF 2319 And Neil, for his part, knew that if anyone on Moila heard of his, Neil Hamilton's, return, the news would fly around and certainly reach Ewen Mackay.

BNC Appendix 8: Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To be talk about by many people

Table B.4. Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To be successful

No Expressions Source

1. CAD 3317 But surely it is the duty of an influential paper like yours to point out to your readers the facts that marriage and „scoring‟ babies are the cause of more nervous breakdowns, violence and jumping off tall buildings under the impression that you can fly than any other form of domestic arrangement.

BNC

2. ……...basketball team wants to be known simply as Ohio. Ohio University won't fly. Neither Ohio U nor OU will work. It's a touchy subject……..

COCA

3. ………puts all this together”, Davidson said. But that argument doesn't flywith activists, who say there are ways for the clerks to change their systems……..

COCA Appendix 9: Metaphorical Meanings of Fly: To be successful

Table C.1. Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To cause something or someone to fall or move to a lower level

No Expressions Source

1. ANK 1842 Dudley tried to sink into obscurity. BNC 2. CLN 1020 At a time of „awful crisis, when constitutions of

kingdoms are on the point of dissolution the stain of the blood of Africa is no longer upon us‟ thus removing „a mill-stone about our necks, ready to sink us to perdition‟.

BNC

3. H8R 2971 New moons sink into the heather BNC 4. HA6 1192 You were quite happy to sink yourself in the role

I gave you. BNC

5. HH0 1394 I sink a little lower in the bed hoping for some

sleep. BNC

6. JXX 2199 Gazing idly over the rolling green lawns, she watched the red glow of the sun, slowly beginning to sink down over the horizon.

BNC

7. K8R 2700 He believed that he got up and felt his feet sink through the floor while the music from down below came up like vapour and was breathed rather than heard.

BNC

8. The angle may not look like much, but as the sun starts to sinkdeeper in the autumn sky, those few extra degrees of slope translate into extra…….

COCA

9. School Specialstyle talk about responsibility. I wanted to let this whole nightmare backyard landscape sinkinto hell, to no longer hear Liza howling like the damned….

COCA

10. She took off her coat and went to the woodstove, letting the

heat sinkpainfully into her hands and feet. COCA 11. His eyes were starting to sinkinto their sockets. If this was

the pre-rigor mortis state. COCA

12. …….me and I wanted to crawl back against him -- sans the

box -- and sink into those arms. COCA

Appendix 10: Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To cause something or someone to fall or move to a lower level

Table C.2. Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To decrease in amount, volume, strength

No Expressions Source

1. A89 728 Its grey buildings, mainly guest houses displaying „Vacancies‟ at netted windows, looked bad enough but with a leaden sky and a seafront virtually devoid of life, apart from one or two hopefuls trying to find shelter from driving rain, it was almost guaranteed to sink one's spirits.

BNC

2. B1D 1179 In the event, Palmerston and Russell agreed to sink their differences and with a united opposition the Conservatives' days were numbered.

BNC

3. B1D 740 With those facts staring us in the face, it was monstrous and absurd to propose to sink a large outlay of money in the purchase of ground in this neighbourhood, and in the erection of new Government buildings.

BNC

4. BMB 2481 Why does Guinness sink money into an elephant reserve in Kenya and J. Sainsbury splash out on a dolphin patrol in the Far East?

BNC

5. EC8 794 For those who sell themselves into a like dominion, paying down the price of their own honour, and throwing their soul into the balance to sink the scale to the level of their lusts, must win deliverance hardly.

BNC

6. ………unknowns too many, to call it an investment. If you're going to sinkmoney into the company, recognize that much at least.

COCA Appendix 11: Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To decrease in amount, volume,

Table C.3. Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To prevent somebody or somebody’s plans from succeeding

No Expressions Source

1. ABA 1274 Macmillan played on Kennedy's political instincts by suggesting that a failure to honour Eisenhower's Polaris pledge could sink the Macmillan Government and lead to the election of an anti-American alternative, either Conservative or Labour — anti-Americanism not being confined to one party.

BNC

2. CBV 998 The board decided to embark on aggressive overseas expansion and committed the bank to the biggest gamble it had ever taken, one that would eventually sink it.

BNC

3. CER 711 There is little doubt that some of the 700 million dollars would be at the expense of others and some practitioners of „small‟ science, whose projects can sink or swim on fluctuations of tens of thousands of dollars, see calls for 700 million with less than total enthusiasm.

BNC

4. J2T 138 Boreholes may sinkZambian capital. BNC 5. K1G 1532Swindonsinks Pompey in the race for promotion. BNC 6. ………is that the very qualities that made it so successful as a

private firm could sink it as a public one. Facebook says in its IPO papers that it…….

COCA

7. ………but its bond rating is cut. Sept. 22: With markets continuing to sink, U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner demands that the EU establish a financial……..

COCA

8. Democrats remain convinced that the Ryan Medicare changes can be used to sinkRepublican congressional candidates across the country, such as when Democrat Kathy Hochul won a……….

COCA

9. Scores at the five elementary schools had dipped low enough

by 2008 and 2009 to sinkbelow federal requirements. We're COCA Appendix 12: Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To prevent somebody or

Table C.4. Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To drink something quickly especially a large amount of alcohol

No Expressions Source

1. HJ4 4625 Yet most of the people who sink huge quantities of beer wine and spirits in their own living rooms give hardly a thought to the damage it causes their health.

BNC Appendix 13: Metaphorical Meanings of Sink: To drink something quickly