A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF SPEECH ACTS OF THE DIALOGUES IN AN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK ENTITLED PATHWAY TO ENGLISH FOR ENGLISH SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE X: GENERAL PROGRAMME.

A. Background of the Research

Language is a crucial thing we need as a social human-being. We cannot deny that as social beings, people have a primary need to communicate with each other. In order to communicate and interact with their social environment, they need to use language. Through language, they cooperate and express their feelings and thoughts with others. Hence, in communication, it is very important for someone to understand what other people say. It means that he has to understand their language in order to avoid misunderstandings. That is why understanding someone’s language becomes an important part in communication.

This phenomenon also happens in English teaching and learning in classrooms. Students are obliged to understand not only the teacher’s utterances and explanations but also the language in textbooks. In order to understand the materials contained in the textbooks, they need to understand what directions and explanations in the book. In the English textbooks, there are some dialogues that represent the language expressions in their real-life that they have to understand before they practice the language. That is why, understanding the dialogues in the English textbooks is important for the students in order to improve their language skills.

The dialogues provided in the English textbooks represent the acts that varied and depended on the context. The understanding of the utterances depends on the actual contexts and the pragmatic knowledge, especially speech acts. Through speech acts, various types of actions can be done such as apologizing, thanking, promising, requesting and the like. In fact, students are frequently not given the background of the pragmatic knowledge to recognize and understand the language and the acts in particular contexts. Thus, learners tend to have difficulty to understand the intended meanings carried by speech acts. Thus, misconceptions or misunderstanding in interpreting the intended meaning may occur.

In addition, since this knowledge not only studies the acts uttered by the speakers but also studies the meaning of words in context, such as analyzing the parts of meaning that can be explained by knowledge of the physical and social world as well as the knowledge of the time and place in which the words are uttered or written, analyzing a language contained in the dialogues of English textbooks through pragmatics is comprehensive in this case. Therefore, pragmatic analysis of linguistic does not only involve the analysis of linguistic form, but also the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said.

People use a different language in a different situation. There are some factors influencing how people use language. It depends on what circumstances they are talking to. Moreover, the context cannot be

separated for understanding the meaning of an utterance. The context covers where the communication is taking place and what is going on.

As mentioned earlier, speech acts are not only found in the direct spoken language, but also manifested in the written spoken language, such as dialogues in the English textbook. Even though the dialogues that performed speech acts are not directly spoken but it has conversations that indicate a communication. The writer uses different language in a different situation uttered by each character. The context affects the language the writer use in each dialogue. Also, the social status between characters will make a different language use in the dialogue as well. Besides, there are also character qualities implemented in the textbook.

Then, it is also important for the material in the textbook to conform to the core competencies and basic competencies that already meet with the students’ needs. Hence, when the students learn the dialogues in the textbook, they can accomplish the language skill standardized by the government.

It is important to combine the materials in the textbook with the character qualities because the textbook contains character qualities can help the students to develop their personality and character. In communicating, people are obliged to say something in a polite way. When he says something in a polite way, then he is regarded as an educated people. That’s why the implementation of character qualities in a textbook is highly needed. Additionally, the character qualities

integrated in the textbook aim to make the students get the good message. Thus, they are able to decode the message and practice it in their real life.

However, not all the textbooks integrated with the character qualities are good for students. The teachers have to select the textbook in which its character qualities are appropriate for the Indonesian cultures and moral qualities. In addition, the writers should integrate the materials with the character qualities by considering The Ministry of National Education (Kemendiknas) eighteen character qualities.

Therefore, it is assumed that it is very necessary to hold this research in order to avoid the misunderstandings and improve the students’ language skill. The teachers will also acknowledge the context that covered in the dialogues of the textbook. So, they can explain the materials more clearly to their students. Besides, the character qualities found in the textbook will help the teachers to give their students the example of good characters inserted in the book as well.

As people know that the way people use the language reflects the personality or character they have. That is why it is very important to integrate the character qualities into the textbook in order to not only improve their language skill but also enhance their character.

An English textbook entitled Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme has the dialogues that represent speech acts. This book is written by Th. M. Sudarwati, and Eudia Grace. It is also published by Penerbit Erlangga in 2014. This book allows the

learners to practice the four-skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing which eventually help them develop their discourse competence.

Below is the example of dialogues in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme

Old woman : Excuse me, young lady, but could you help me fill this form, please? I forgot to bring my glasses.

Girl : Of course, ma’am. Let me fill it for you. Through this utterance, the illocutionary force can be revealed. The old woman asks the girl for helps to fill the form because she forgot to bring her glasses. Also, there are character qualities implied in that dialogue which is helping people. By relating the dialogues, context and using the Kemendiknas’ eighteen character qualities, this research tries to analyze the relation between the dialogues, the context and character qualities integrated in the textbook.

The choice of the textbook is also based on some consideration. First, this book is published by a well-known publisher in Indonesia, which is Erlangga. It means that before published, this book has to go trough a strict selection. So the materials served in this textbook must be reliable to use in a class. Second, this book consists of a number of utterances that represent various functions. Hence, the kinds of speech acts provided in the textbook determined. Furthermore, the variation of the topic and the context provide the learners with a lot of examples so they can understand better towards the use of speech acts in different situations.

B. Research Focus

There are many ways in producing language. It means that people may say something in oral or written way. Some kinds of language can also be defined as an “oral to written” language such as presentation, speech, etc; and “written to oral” language such as conversation or dialogues in the English textbook. Students may find some difficulties when learning the English textbook. It happens because of many factors.

The first problem found is the difficulties to identify speech acts. Speech act is an action that can be performed via utterances. Speech act is the basic unit of a language level that can give an effective communication since it is covered with the specific labels such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise or request. The phenomenon of speech acts happen everywhere, including in the English textbook. The dialogues contained in the textbook can be defined as speech acts as well. However, sometimes the students find it difficult to understand the dialogues uttered by the characters and it often causes misleading interpretation.

The second problem deals with the context of situation covered in the dialogues in the textbook. Every communication happened needs a context as a background. They need to understand the context in order to achieve the purpose of the communication and avoid misunderstandings. Context affects how people use and understand the language. Therefore, understanding the context of situation of the dialogues in the English textbook is very important as well. When learning the dialogues, the

students need to apprehend the context of the dialogues first in order to understand its meaning. Moreover, the contexts contained in the dialogues need to relate to the students’ everyday life, whether it is the topic, the function, etc. Hence, they can understand the language easily.

The third problem is the quality of the material of the textbook especially the dialogues. The government has formulated two competencies which have to be accomplished by the students. They are core competencies and basic competencies. The textbooks in Indonesia are developed based on these two competencies. Unfortunately, not all the material provided in the textbook is qualified with the consideration of those two competencies.

Lastly, the fourth problem is the character qualities. It is important to teach character qualities to the students whether it is implicitly or explicitly implemented in teaching and learning activities. Hence, the students can learn and subconsciously apply it well in their real life activities. The teacher can use many ways to teach character qualities to the students. One of them is by using the dialogues of the textbook integrated with the character qualities. Thus, the teacher needs to evaluate whether the character qualities integrated in the materials of the textbook is appropriate for the students or not. He needs also to relate it to the students’ social background, needs and cultures.

1. What types of speech acts proposed by Searle are performed by the characters in the dialogues contained in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme?

2. What are the contexts of situations of speech acts in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme?

3. How do the illocutionary forces found in the dialogues in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme reveal the two competencies formulated by The Ministry of National Education?

4. What are the character qualities integrated in the dialogues in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme? C. Objectives of the Research

In concord with the formulation of the problems above, the objectives of the study are elaborated as the following

1. to identify the types of speech acts proposed by Searle performed by the characters in the dialogues contained in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme

2. to explore the context of situations of the dialogues in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme

3. to reveal the relation between the illocutionary forces found in the dialogues in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme and the two competencies formulated by The Ministry of National Education

4. to find out the character qualities integrated in the dialogues in Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme

D. Significance of the Research

This research is expected to give some benefits both theoretically and practically as follows

1. Theoretically, the findings of this research can enrich the study in linguistics. Also, it can help the development of the material used in language learning in the classroom

2. Practically, the findings may be useful for the following parties a. The Textbook Developers

For the textbook developers, this study will provide consideration to which degree the textbook developers should include pragmatic dimension in the textbook. Also, the context of situation and the character qualities related to the students’ real life, so that they can put it into practice.

b. The English Teachers

The English teachers will understand the presentation of speech acts in the textbook. Hence, the teachers can teach the students implicitly about the use of speech acts by giving the example of how they use it in the real practice and it will help them to practice the speech act and minimize the misunderstandings. Then, they will understand the context of situations happen in the

dialogues so that they can explain to their students more clearly since the context can help the students to learn the language by relating it to their everyday life, and then the character qualities exposed in this research can ease the teachers to teach the character implicitly.

c. The Students Majoring Linguistics in English Language Education Department

This study is expected to give some contributions to the pragmatics study. The students will be inspired to develop another research focused on the relation between pragmatic study and education.

This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part is theoretical background. It consists of the description of the literature in this research, e.g. pragmatics, scope of pragmatics, speech acts, context, character qualities, and textbook. The second part is the previous research. It explains about the previous research having a similar topic and inspiring the research. The third part is conceptual framework and analytical construct. It shows the concept which are referred in conducting this research and draw how the research is conducted. A. Theoretical Background

1. Pragmatics

Pragmatics is one of the important studies that discusses meanings of a language. According to Yule (1996:3), pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted a listener (or reader). It means that this study is concerned on how the speaker or reader conveys the message and how the listener or reader interprets the speaker’s message.

Moreover, Bloomer et al. (2005:78) say that pragmatics focuses on how speakers and writers use their knowledge to convey meanings. In short, pragmatics studies how language is used in the interpretation of actual utterances.

Another definition is exposed by Griffiths (2006:1). He says that pragmatics is concerned with the use of these tools in meaningful

communication. Pragmatics is about the interaction of semantic knowledge with our knowledge of the world, taking into account contexts of use.

This means that people who study pragmatics are interested in when language is used, where it is used, who it is used by, how it is used, what it is used for, and, perhaps most importantly, how it gets interpreted as doing the things it is used for by the people who use it when they do so.

2. The Scope of Pragmatics

Pragmatics which deals with the utterances has some divisions based on aspect of language which are discussed in this study.

a. Deixis

According to Yule (1996:9), deictic means pointing via language. When someone notice a strange object and he said “what is that?”, we can say that he is using deictic expression “that” to indicate something in immediate context. Deixis is clearly a form of referring that is tied to the speaker’s context.

Moreover, with the most basic distinction between deictic expressions being ‘near’ speaker versus ‘away from’ speaker, Yule (1996) also states that there are three types of deixis, which are person deixis, spatial deixis, and temporal deixis. Those three types of deixis will be explained more below. 1) Person Deixis

Person deixis clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified by the pronouns for first person (‘I’), second person (‘you’), and third person (‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’). In many languages these deictic categories of speaker, addressee, and other(s) area elaborated with markers of relative social status.

2) Spatial Deixis

Spatial deixis signifies where the relative location of people and things is being indicated. Contemporary English makes use of only two adverbs ‘here’ and ‘there’, for the basic distinction. Some verbs indicated a movement also can be identified as a spatial deixis, such as come and go, for example when they are used to mark movement toward the speaker (Come to my house next time!) or away from the speaker (Go to my house!).

3) Temporal Deixis

This kind of deixis indicates the time conciding with the speaker’s utterance and the time of the speaker’s voice being heard (the hearer’s ‘now’). In contrast to ‘now’, the distal expression ‘then’ applies to both past and future time relative to the speaker’s present time. The expressions commonly used are now, today, tonight, etc. (proximal form) and then, yesterday, last week, etc. (distal expression). Beside the temporal deictic expressions, people also tend to use non-temporal deictic expressions such as calendar time (dates and clock time).

b. Implicature

Horn in Horn & Ward (2006:1) states that implicature is a component of speaker meaning that constitutes an aspect of what is meant in a speaker’s utterance without being part of what is said. What a speaker intends to communicate is characteristically richer than what she directly expresses; linguistic meaning radically underdetermines the message conveyed and understood. Furthermore, Griffiths (2006:134) adds that conversational

implicatures are inferences that depend on the existence of norms for the use of language, such as the widespread agreement that communicators should aim to tell the truth. Moreover, based on Mey (1994:45), a conversational implicature is something which is implied in conversation, that is, something which is left implicit in actual language use.

In order to know what people mean, you have to interpret what they say. But interpretation is a tricky affair; misunderstandings are always possible and sometimes seem to be the rule rather than the exception. As cited in Mey (1994:47), Leech remarks ‘Interpreting an utterance is ultimately a matter of guesswork or (to use more dignified term) hypothesis formation’.

Grice in (in Levinson; 1983) divides implicature into two categories. Those are conventional implicature and conversational implicature.

1) Conventional Implicature

Grice states that conventional implicatures are non-truth-conditional interferences that are not derived from superordinate pragmatic principles like the maxims, but are simply attached by convention to particular lexial items or expressions. In addition, Yule (1996:45) describes that conventional implicature is not based on the cooperative principle or the maxims and does not have any relation to the context. So, this kind of implicature does not have to occur in conversation. Conventional implicatures are indicated with the specific words that communicate additional conveyed meaning. It is also signified by English conjunctions ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘yet’.

(2) Conversational Implicature

Different from conventional implicatures, conversational implicatures depend on the context and have to occur in conversation. According to Mey (1993:46), conversational implicatures concern the way we understand an utterance in conversation in accordance with what we expect to hear.

According to Yule (1996), this implicature is divided into two categories; they are generalized and particularized conversational implicature.

a) Generalized Conversational Implicature

It happens when the hearer doesn’t need to have background knowledge of any particular context to convey the speaker’s message. For example;

Doobie : Did you invite Bella and Cathy? Mary : I invited Bella.

That conversation obviously carries the implicature that Mary only invited Bella and did not invite Cathy. Doobie, as a hearer, is not required to have background knowledge to interpret Mary’s utterance. b) Particularized Conversational Implicature

This conversational implicature requires the hearer to make some inferences in order to convey the meaning. It happens because of most of the conversations take place in very specific contexts in which locally recognized inferences are assumed. The example is:

Rick : Hey, coming to the wild party tonight? Tom : My parents are visiting.

From the conversation above, it seems that Tom’s response does not relevant with Rick questions. Hence, Rick has to draw some assumed knowledge that one college student in this setting expects another to have. Rick makes some inferences that Tom will be spending time at home with his parents tonight.

c. Cooperative Principle

The philosopher H. Paul Grice, in Meyer (2009:55) proposed the cooperative principle to explain how conversation involves a certain level of “cooperation” among communicants:

Our talk exchanges do not normally consist of succession of disconnected remarks, and would not be rational if they did. They are characteristically, to some degree at least, cooperative efforts; and each participant recognizes in them, to some extent, a common purpose or set of purposes, or at least a mutually accepted direction.

In order for them to be interpreted, some basic cooperative principle must first be assumed to be in operation. Grice develops cooperative principles into four sub-principles called maxims. The four maxims that follow from the cooperative principle: quantity, quality, relation, and manner (in Meyer, 2009; Wardhaugh, 2006; Cutting, 2002; Yule, 1996)

1) The Maxim of Quantity

The maxim of quantity deals with the amount of information that delivered by the speaker. This kind of maxim is about make your contribution as informative as is required and don’t make it more informative than is required.

It means that a speaker should be informative as is required and that they should give neither too little information nor too much. All communicants must strike a balance between providing too much and too little information when they speak or write.

Some speakers like to point to the fact that they know how much information the hearer requires or can be bothered with and say something like ‘Well, to cut a long story short she didn’t get home till two.’ People who give too little information risk their hearer not being able to identify what they are talking about because they are not explicit enough; those who give more information than what the hearer needs risk to bore them.

2) The Maxim of Quality

In the maxim of quality, a speaker should try to make your contribution one that is true. It requires you not to say what you believe to be false or that for which you lack adequate evidence. Speakers are expected to be sincere, to be saying something that they believe corresponds to reality. They are assumed not to say anything that believe to be false or anything for which they lack evidence. Some speakers like to draw their hearer’s attention to the fact that they are only saying what they believe to be true and they lack adequate evidence.

3) The Maxim of Relation

In the maxim of relation, speakers’ utterances should be relevant. The speakers are assumed to be saying something that is relevant to what has been said before. Some speakers like to indicate how their comment has relevance

to their conversation. It requires the speakers’ statement relevant with the topic.

4) The Maxim of Manner

In the maxim of manner, speakers should be brief and orderly, speaker points to the fact that he is observing the maxim. Manner requires you to avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity, and to be brief and orderly. Speakers are required to make sure what you say is clear and unambiguous. d. Presupposition

In several conditions, when communicating, speakers assume that certain information is already known and understood by the listeners. They think that the information is generally known without mentioning it and then the listeners will comprehend that information correctly. Such condition in communication is called presupposition. According to Griffiths (2006:143), presupposition is the shared background assumptions that are taken for granted when people communicate. Shared background presuppositions are also the obvious starting point for a reader or listener wondering what the author of a message might regard as relevant.

Yule (1996:25) says that a presupposition is something that the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers typically express their assumptions by using many ways of expressions; hence there are six types of presupposition.

1) Potential Presupposition

The linguistic forms (a large number of words, phrases, and structures, expressed by the speakers) which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers.

2) Existential Presupposition

It is associated with a presupposition of existence. It is not only assumed to be present in possessive constructions, but more generally in any definite noun phrase.

3) Lexical Presupposition

The use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.

4) Structural Presupposition

In this case, certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conventionally and regularly presupposing that part of the structure is already assumed to be true.

5) Non-factive Presupposition

It is the one that is assumed not to be true. 6) Counterfactual Presupposition

It means that what s presupposed is not only true, but is the opposite of what is true, or ‘contrary to facts.

e. Speech Acts

Yule (1996:47) says that speech acts are actions performed via utterances. It is covered with more specific labels such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise or request. McCharty (2000:9) also states that when we say that a particular bit of speech or writing is a request or an instruction or an exemplification we are concentrating on what that piece of language is doing, or how the listener or reader is supposed to react; for this reason such entities are also called speech acts. The more explanation about speech act will be discussed in the next subchapter.

3. Speech Acts

a. Definition of Speech Acts

The phenomenon of speech acts happened everywhere. When people communicate, there will be exactly a speech act happens in it. Many experts have discussed the notion of speech act. Nunnan (1993:65) states that speech acts are simply things people do through language. Austin in Cutting (2002:16) defines speech act as the actions performing something. Griffiths (2006:148) says that the basic units of linguistics interaction, such as give warning to; greet; apply for; tell what; confirm appointment, are called speech acts.

In addition, Austin in Griffiths (2006:148) founds the modern study of speech act and reckons that sort of list could be extended to several hundred

1. Statement “I lived in Edinburgh for five years” 2. Order “Pay this bill immediately”

3. Question “Where are you from?” 4. Prohibition “Noright turn”

5. Greeting “Hello”

6. Invitation “Help yourself” 7. Felicitation “Happy New Year”

8. Apology “I hereby apologize as required by the magister" He also adds that speech acts can be done in writing not only in the speaking; the New Year wish in (7) would be equally appropriate printed in a card or spoken.

b. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

There is a relation between a structure and a function in speech acts. That kind of relationship is called direct and indirect speech acts. Yule (1996:55) states that whenever there is a direct relationship between the structure and the function, we have a direct speech act. In contrast, whenever there is an indirect relationship between the structure and the function, we have an indirect speech act. In addition, Searle in Brown and Yule (1988:232) also introduces a distinction between direct and indirect speech act which depends on the recognition of the intended perlocutionary acts of an utterance in particular occasion. The more explanations about direct and indirect speech act will be discussed below.

1) Direct Speech Acts

Searle in Cutting (2002:19) says that a speaker using a direct speech act wants to communicate the literal meaning that the words conventionally express; there is a direct relationship between the form and the function. Thus, Yule (1996) says that in a direct speech act, a declarative used to make a statement is direct speech act. For example, “It’s very hot” has a function as a

statement; an interrogative form such as “Do you want to buy a pair of shoes or clothes?” has a function of a question, etc.

2) Indirect Speech Acts

Otherwise, according to Searle in Cutting (2002:19), this phenomenon happens because someone using an indirect speech act wants to communicate a different meaning from the apparent surface meaning; the form and function are not directly related. Thus a declarative form such as ‘Could you get me a tuna and sweet corn on please?’ or ‘Would you mind getting me one?’ has the function of a request or order, and ‘Come for a wall with me after the lunch’ serves as an invitation. Yule (1996: 55) states that in an indirect speech act, a declarative can be used to make a request. Moreover, he also adds that indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct speech acts.

c. Speech Acts Classification

1) Austin’s Classification of Speech Acts

Austin (1962:101) proposes three dimensions that usually consists in speech act, they are:

a) Locutionary Acts

Locutionary act is roughly equivalent to meaning in the traditional sense (Austin, 1962:108). This act performs the acts of saying something. It is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression (Yule, 1996:48). In line with Yule, Cutting (2002:16) states that locutionary act is the first level of analysis of the words themselves, for example ‘Would you like to

open the door, please?’ and so on. That utterance is the locution, or ‘what is said’, the form of the words uttered; the act of saying something. There are three patterns of locutionary act based on the construction of English sentence. They are declarative (it tells something), imperative (it gives an actor), and interrogative (it asks a question).

b) Illocutionary Acts

Illocutionary act refers to informing, warning, undertaking, ordering, etc. Austin (1962:108) defines it as an utterance which has a certain (conventional force). It can be also said that illocutionary act refers to what one does in saying something. Yule (1996:48) says that people make a statement, an offer, an explanation, or for some other communicative purpose. This is generally known as illocutionary force. Cutting (2002:16) adds that illocutionary force is what is done in uttering the words, the function of the words, the specific purpose that the students have in mind. Other examples are the speech acts ‘inviting’, advising’, ‘promising’, ‘ordering’, ‘excusing’, and ‘apologizing’. Austin (1962:150) distinguishes five classes of illocutionary force. They are: (1) Verdictives

Verdictives are typified by the giving of verdict, as the name implies, by a jury, arbitrator, or umpire. However, the need not be final, the may be, for example an estimation, reckoning, or appraisal. It is essential to give a finding to something – fact or qualities – which is for different reasons hard to be certain about.

(2) Exercitives

Exercitives are exercise of power, right or influence. The examples are appointing, voting, ordering, urging, and advising.

(3) Commisives

Commisives are typified by promising or otherwise under taking; they commit the hearer to do something, but include also declaration or announcement of intention, which are not promise, and also rather vague things which can be called espousal, as for example siding with.

(4) Behabitives

Behabitives are very miscellaneous group, and have to do with attitudes and social behaviour, for example apologizing, congratulating, cursing and challenging.

(5) Expositives

Expositives are difficult to define. They make pain how utterances fit into the course of an argument or conversation, how words are use or in general are expository. The examples are ‘I reply’, ‘I concede’, ‘I illustrate’, ‘I assume’, and ‘I postulate’.

c) Perlocutionary Acts

People definitely do not produce an utterance without intending it to have an effect. Perlocutionary act is the effect of an utterance. It is what people bring about or achieve by saying something such as to get h to know, get h to do something, get h to expect something, show pleasant feeling and praise (Austin, 1962:108). For example, if someone shouts “Earthquake!” and causes

people to get out from the building in order to save their life. Cutting (2002) also declares that the last level of analysis is the result of the words, for example the hearer gets up, and opens the door for the speaker. This is known as the perlocutionary effect, ‘what is done by uttering the words’; it is the effect on the hearer or the hearer’s reaction.

2) Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts

Searle in Sadock in Horn and Ward (2006:59) finds the lack of Austin’s classification of speech acts. Searle argues that such an account is incomplete because (1) it fails to distinguish communication that proceeds by using meanings of the kind that only natural languages make available, and (2) it fails to distinguish between acts that succeed solely by means of getting the addressee to recognize the speaker’s intention to achieve a certain effect and those for which that recognition is in virtue of hearer’s knowledge of the rules governing the elements of the uttered sentence.

Considering the incompleteness and the inconsistency of Austin’s classification of speech acts, Searle renewed and developed the classification of speech acts. The five categories established by Searle are representatives, directives, commissives, expressive and declarations (Searle, 2005; Cutting, 2002; Yule, 1996, Mey, 1993).

a) Assertives

Assertions, descriptions and conclusions are examples of representatives. The point or purpose of the members of the assertive class is to commit the speaker (in varying degrees) to something's being the case, to the truth of the

expressed proposition. These types of speech acts represent the speaker’s belief and carry the true or false qualities. Representative is very subjective as it is based on speaker’s belief. Kreidler (1998:183) adds that assertive language is concerned with the fact. Its purpose is to inform. For example:

(1) Example 1

John : It is a warm sunny day. Let’s go out!

Randy : You’re right. Let’s go swimming. It must be great. (2) Example 2

Ms. Ani : Students, now I’m going to give you some questions related to the last meeting. Andi, who is the first President of Indonesia?

Andi : Mr. Soekarno is the first President of Indonesia. From the example 1, by saying so, John believes that today’s weather is great. He is also certain that it is the best day to go out with Randy. Then, the example 2 shows that, Andi undoubtedly answers Ms. Ani’s question. He convinces that Mr. Soekarno is the first president of Indonesia. In using the assertives, the speaker makes the words fit his belief.

b) Directives

These speech acts are performed by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit via the words. The range of directives can be commands, orders, requests, suggestions, etc. These types of speech acts can be perceived negative or positive. Verbs denoting members of this class are ask, order, command, request, beg, plead, pray, entreat, and also invite, permit, and advise. The examples below are such kinds of directives

(1) Example 1

Mr. Tarno : Iman, could you turn on the AC, please? It is very hot here

Iman : Okay, Sir. (2) Example 2

Mrs. Ani : Nia, please help me to pack this stuff. We need to go early tomorrow.

Nia : Wait a minute, Mom.

The example 1 is a directive in the form of a request in which the speaker, Mr. Tarno, asks the hearer, Iman, to turn on the AC. The example 2 is a directive in the form of command. Mrs. Ani commands her daughter, Nia, to help her pack the stuff because they need to go early tomorrow.

c) Commisives

Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to future actions. The acts of promises, threats, refusals, offers, vowes, and pledges are such examples of commisives. In addition, Kreidler (1998:192) states that a commissive predicate is one that can be used to commit oneself (or refuse to commit oneself) to some future action. The examples are:

(1) Example 1

Sinta : Rani, have you checked what movie you want to watch? Rani : Sinta, I’m sorry I can’t make it today. I need to accompany my sister today. Let’s reschedule it. I promise I’ll make it next time.

(2) Example 2

Nino : Wulan, those books look so heavy. Do you need any help?

Wulan : Oh, yes Nino. Please help me to bring these books to Mr. Satriyo. Thank you so much.

The example 1 represents commisive in which Rani promises that she will watch a movie with Sinta next time. Then, example 2 shows that by saying so, Nino commits himself to help Wulan bring those books to their teacher.

d) Expressives

Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. It can be apologizing, thanking, statement of like, dislike, anger and so on. In using an expressive, people also makes words which match with their utterances. The paradigms of expressive verbs are "thank", "congratulate", "apologize", "condole", "deplore", and "welcome". For example:

(1) Example 1

Indah : What a cute shoes! Is it new?

Mela : Thank you. Yes, my mom bought it for me yesterday. (2) Example 2

Ajeng : Nina, I heard you won the speech competition yesterday. Congratulations! I’m so proud of you.

Nina : Thank you so much for saying so.

The example 1 indicates that Indah’s utterance expresses her feeling about Mela’s new shoes. Moreover, the example 2 implies that Ajeng feels happy and sincerely congrats Nina on her win yesterday.

e) Declarations

Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterances. In a specific context, the speaker has to have a special institutional role or has to meet certain conditions, namely, felicity conditions in order to perform a declaration appropriately. If the speaker doesn’t meet the felicity conditions, her or his utterance is infelicitous or inappropriate. For example:

(1) Example 1

Prosecutor : This court sentences you to twelve years imprisonment

(2) Example 2

The Priest : I hereby pronounce you a man and wife.

Those utterances can only be appropriate if it is said by the prosecutor (1) and the priest (2). Thus, the utterances have an effect in which it turns the suspect into a prisoner and a spouse.

In addition, people utter all the illocutionary acts proposed by Searle for some communication purpose. The purpose and the function of the utterance is called illocutionary force. Each type of the classification of speech acts above has its illocutionary force. The illocutionary forces are explained below (Leech, 1983; Yule, 1996; Finch, 2000; Cutting, 2008)

1. Assertives

This type of speech acts is divided into some illocutionary forces. They are ‘stating’, ‘suggesting’, ‘boasting’, ‘complaining’, ‘claiming’, ‘announcing’, ‘describing’, ‘hypothesizing’, etc.

2. Directives

Directives have some illocutionary forces which are divided into some classification. The example is ‘commanding’, ‘requesting’, ‘suggesting’, ‘inviting’, ‘questioning’, ‘warning’, etc.

3. Commisives

This kind of speech acts is divided into some category of illocutionary forces which are ‘promising’, ‘vowing’, ‘offering’, ‘threatening’, and ‘refusing’.

4. Expressives

The illocutionary forces of expressive are ‘greeting’, ‘thanking’, ‘apologizing’, ‘complimenting’, ‘stating pleasure’, ‘stating pain’, ‘stating doubt’, ‘stating confusion’, ‘stating surprise’, ‘stating panic’, ‘stating anger’, ‘stating dislike’, etc.

5. Declarations

This type of speech acts develops some illocutionary forces which are ‘excommunicating’, ‘declaring war’, ‘christening’, ‘marrying’, ‘firing’, etc.

3) Leech’s Classification of Speech Act

a) Competitive: the illocutionary goal competes with the social goal; e.g. ordering, asking, demanding and begging.

b) Convivial: the illocutionary goal coincides with the social goal: e.g. offering, inviting, greeting, thanking and congratulating.

c) Collaborative: : the illocutionary goal is indifferent to the social goal; e.g. asserting, reporting, announcing, instructing.

d) Conflictive: the illocutionary goal conflicts with the social goal; e.g. threatening, accusing, cursing, reprimanding.

The researcher decides to use Searle’s classification because it is actually a modification of Austin’s general theory of Speech Acts. Searle’s classification is

based on what the speaker wants to imply in his or her utterances. In addition, this classification is more specific and detail than the other classification.

4. Context

Context plays an important role in communication. An utterance will be only an utterance when there is no context on it. Yule (1996:21) affirms that the physical environment or, ‘context’, is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted.

In addition, according to Sidnell (2010:29), context is clearly crucial to understanding even the seemingly most straightforward utterances. For instance, the utterance “can I walk?” will be understood in very different ways if it is asked of a doctor by a patient after he has undergone surgery or, alternatively, of a local by a tourist who is looking for the Eiffel tower. Context can be divided into two kinds, i.e. context of situation and cultural context.

a. Context of Situation

According to Cutting (2002:4) the situational context is immediate physical co-presence, the situation where the interaction is taking place at the moment of speaking. Situational context is very important for the people to understand the text. Based on Widdowson (2004:36) people can identify a stretch of language as text, when they recognized that it is intended to be related the context.

Malinwoski in Widdowson (2004:36-37) assumes that language functioned as “a mode of action”. But it could only do that if what was said

was made meaningful by being keyed into a particular ‘context of situation’ familiar to the participants concerned. He simplifies it by saying that the utterance has no meaning except in the context of situation.

Context is covered by some elements that underlie the occurrence of a context. Hymes proposes an ethnographic framework which takes into account the various factors that are involved in speaking. An Ethnography of a communicative event is a description of all the factors that are relevant in understanding how that particular communicative event achieves its objectives. Hymes states that speech events have a set of ‘components’ which analyst needs to look at in order to produce a satisfactory description of any particular speech event. Those components are named and listed in the descriptive framework and then he simplifies those components by using acronym S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G. (Cameron, 2001; Wardaugh, 2006)

1) SPEAKING

a) The Setting and Scene (S)

Setting refers to the time and place, for instance the concrete physical circumstances in which speech takes place. Scene refers to the abstract psychological setting, or the cultural definition of the occasion.

b) The Participants (P)

This includes various combinations of speaker-listener, addressor-adressee or sender-receiver. They generally fill certain socially specified roles. A two-person conversation involves a speaker and hearer whose roles change, e.g. a

political speech involves an addressor and addressees (the audience); and a telephone message involves a sender and a receiver.

c) Ends (E)

Ends (E) refers to the conventionally recognized and expected outcomes of an exchange as well as to the personal goal that participants seek to accomplish on particular occasions. A trial in courtroom has a recognizable social end in view, but the various participants, i.e., the judge, jury, prosecution, defense, accused, and witnesses, have different personal goals. d) Act Sequence (A)

This refers to the actual form and content of what is said: the precise word used, how they are used, and the relationship of what is said to the actual topic at hand, e.g. public lectures, casual conversations, and cocktail party chatter are all different forms of speaking; with each go different kinds of language and things talked about.

e) Key (K)

Key refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed: light-hearted, serious, precise, pedantic, mocking, sarcastic, pompous, and so on. It may also be marked nonverbally by certain kinds of behavior, gesture, posture, or even deportment. When there is a lack of fit between what a person is actually saying and the key that the person is using, listeners are likely to pay more attention to the key than to the actual content, e.g., to the burlesque of a ritual rather than to the ritual itself.

f) Instrumentalities (I)

Instrumentalities (I) refers to the choice of channel, e.g., oral, written, or telegraphic, and to the actual forms of speech employed, such as the language, dialect, code, or register that is chosen. You may employ different instrumentalities in the course of a single verbal exchange of some length: first read something, and then tell a dialect joke, then quote Shakespeare, then use an expression from another language, and so on. You also need not necessarily change topic to do any of these.

g) Norms of Interaction and Interpretation

Norms of interaction and interpretation (N) refers to the specific behaviors and properties that attach to speaking and also to how these may be viewed by someone who does not share them, e.g., loudness, silence, gaze return, and so on. For example, there are certain norms of interaction with regard to church services and conversing with strangers. However, these norms may vary from social group to social group.

h) Genre (G)

Genre(G), the final term, refers to clearly demarcated types of utterance; such things as poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers, lectures, and editorials. These are all marked in specific ways in contrast to casual speech. Of course, in the middle of a prayer, a casual aside would be marked too. While particular genres seem more appropriate on certain occasions than on others, e.g., sermons inserted into church services, they can be independent: we can ask someone to stop ‘sermonizing’; that is, we can recognize a genre

of sermons when an instance of it, or something closely resembling an instance, occurs outside its usual setting.

In addition, Holmes (2001:8) states that in any situation, linguistic choices will generally reflect the influence of one or more of the following components:

1) The Participants: who is speaking and whom he is speaking to.

2) The Setting or Social Context of Interaction: where they are (physical setting) and what psychological situation in which they are speaking. 3) The Topic: what is being talked about.

4) The Function: why they are speaking.

Those are basic components in pragmatic explanation of why people do not all speak in the same way all of the time.

b. Context of Socio-Cultural

Neuliep (2014:48) says that the cultural context in which human communication occurs is perhaps the most defining influence on human interaction. Culture provides the overall framework wherein humans learn to organize their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in relation to their environment. Cutting (2002:6) believes that it is the cultural context and shared attitude of a group that can make the humour of one country difficult to understand for people of another country and the humor of one generation incomprehensible to another generation.

This research decides to analyze the context of situation of the dialogues by using the theory of context of situation proposed by Holmes because this theory is

more simple and understandable. In addition, though the four elements classified by Holmes are defined simply, it has accomplished the requirement of the explanations in this study. Since this study is addressed to the students and the English teachers, the explanations must be easy to be understood and comprehensive as well. So, they are able to comprehend the context discussed in this study.

5. Speech Event

According to Yule (1996:57), speech event is the set of utterances produced in particular situation. In this case, speech event is an activity in which the participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. It may include an obvious central speech act, such as “Are you sure?” is a speech event of ‘questioning’, but it will also include other utterances leading up to that central action. Yule also believes that, mostly, a ‘request’ is not made by means of a single speech act suddenly uttered. The example of speech event which is typically signified by requesting is illustrated below

Rani : Hi, Ton. I’m glad you’re here. Tono : What’s the matter Rani?

Rani : My mobile phone is in trouble. I can’t operate this application.

Tono : Let me see. Well, I think you need to upgrade your operating system.

Rani : Do you have a minute? Tono : Sure.

Rani : Oh, thank you.

The conversation happened above is called requesting speech event without a central speech act of request. Even though there is no actual request from Rani to Tono to do anything, the question ‘Do you have a minute?’ is still characterized as

a request because it indicates a ‘pre-request’ which is allowing Tono to say that he is busy or that he has to be somewhere else. In this context, Tono’s response of saying ‘Sure’ is taken to be acknowledgement not only of having time available, but also willingness to help that is not stated in the conversation. From the example above, it can be clearly seen that speech event has a purpose to get and infer the deep meaning of utterances.

6. Core Competence and Basic Competence

Based on Permendiknas No. 68 Th. 2013, there are two competencies that the senior high school students grade x need to accomplish. They are core competency and basic competency. The further explanation is shown below. a. Core Competence

1. Comprehending and applying religious values

2. Comprehending and applying the values of honesty, self-discipline, responsibility, care (mutual aid, cooperation, tolerance, peace), polite, responsive and proactive; demonstrating such attitudes in solving various problems in interacting effectively with the social and natural environment as well as in being a model in the global society.

3. Understanding, applying, analyzing factual, conceptual and procedure knowledge based on the interest in science, technology, arts, culture and humanistic, nationalistic, and civilized insights in relation to the causes of phenomena and events; applying procedural knowledge in desired specific field of studies in solving problems.

4. Processing, analyzing and presenting developments of the concrete and abstract domains of the learned materials; being able to apply various methods according to scientific principles.

b. Basic Competence

1.1.Be grateful for the chance to learn English as an international language which is realized in the spirit of learning

2.1. Demonstrating polite and caring attitudes in interpersonal communication with teachers

2.2. Demonstrating honest, disciplined, confident, and responsible attitudes in transactional communication

2.3. Demonstrating responsible, caring, cooperative and peaceful attitudes in functional communication

3.1.Analyzing the social functions, the structure and language features of self-introduction, according to the contexts.

3.2.Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of expressing and responding to compliment according to the contexts

3.3.Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of expressing and responding to care according to the contexts

3.4.Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of expressing and asking about intentions/plans according to the contexts 3.5.Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of

expressing and responding to extended congratulation according to the contexts

3.6.Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of telling and asking about past experiences/activities/events when it happened and afterwards, according to the contexts

3.7.Analyzing the social function, text structure, and language features os simple descriptive tests about people, tourism destinations and famous historical buildings according to the contexts

3.8.Analyzing the social function, text structure, and language features of announcements according to the contexts

3.9.Analyzing the social function, text structure and language features of recount texts about experiences/activities/events according to the contexts 3.10. Analyzing the social function, the structure and language features

of simple narrative texts in the form of legends, according to the contexts 3.11. Analyzing the social function and language features of simple

songs according to the contexts

4.1.Understanding spoken and written self-introduction texts according to the contexts

4.2.Constructing spoken and written texts to deliver, ask for and respond to self-introductions, according to the appropriate social function, text structure and language features as well as the contents

4.3.Constructing spoken and written texts to express and respond to extended compliments, according to the appropriate social function, text structure and language features as well as the contexts

4.4.Constructing spoken and written text to express care and respond to it, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts

4.5.Constructing spoken and written text to express and ask about the intentions/plans of actions/activities, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts 4.6.Constructing spoken and written text to express and respond to extended

congratulations, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts

4.7.Constructing spoken and written text to express and ask about past experiences/activities/events when it happened and afterwards, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts

4.8.Understanding simple spoken and written descriptive texts about people, tourism destinations and famous historical buildings

4.9.Editing simple spoken and written descriptive texts about people, tourism destinations and famous historical buildings, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts

4.10. Constructing simple spoken and written descriptive texts about people, tourism destinations and famous historical buildings, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts

4.11. Understanding announcements

4.12. Constructing simple spoken and written announcements, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts

4.13. Understanding simple spoken and written recount texts about experiences/ activities/events

4.14. Constructing simple spoken and written recount texts about experiences/ activities/events, according to the appropriate social function, text structure, and language features as well as the contexts

4.15. Understanding simple spoken and written narrative texts in the form of simple short stories

4.16. Understanding the meaning behind songs

This research decides to analyze the six points of the core competencies, which are (3.1.), (3.2.), (3.3.) (3.4.), (3.5), (3.6.) because those points are the competencies need to be considered in the learning materials, especially the dialogues.

7. Character Qualities

a. The Definition of Character

Saptono (2011:18) says that conceptually, the term ‘character’ is divided into two definitions. The first definition is deterministic. Deterministic character means that the character is understood as a set of mental condition on ourselves that already exists or naturally given. It is a person’s character that is fixed and distinguishing people from one and another. Then, the second

definition is non deterministic or dynamic character. It means that the character is seen as a person’s level of strength to overcome the mental condition that is given. This level of strength is a kind of process of how someone is willing to enhance his/her humanity.

In line with Saptono, Abidin (2012) states that a word ‘character’ comes from the Greek kasairo. It means blueprints or basic formatting. He adds the character is considered as a collection of one's own condition. This condition may be congenital or notching. This sort of formed condition will eventually become the underlying premise about how the characters can actually be established in one way through education.

Then, according to Simon Philips in Mu’in (2011:160), the character is a collection of value that lead into a system, which underlies signified thinking, attitudes, and behaviors. He also states that the term character has two meanings. First, it shows a person’s behavior. Second, it shows a person’s personality.

b. The Elements of Character

Lickona in Abidin (2012:54-56) shows that a person already has a good character if s/he has shown the three elements of character, they are:

1) Moral knowing a) Moral awareness

b) Knowing moral value

The person knows the kind of moral value e.g. honest, tolerant, fair, respect the discipline, good-natured, responsible, independence, hard work, curiosity, etc.

c) Perspective Taking

The person is able to take another person's perspective just like how the other perceives, imagines, thinks, reacts and feels.

d) Moral Reasoning

The person understands why something can be called as immoral, and what moral exactly is. In practice, a person must realize for example what the importance of keeping promises, hard working, helping people etc. e) Decision Making

The person is able to make a decision appropriately and wisely. f) Self-knowledge

The person is able to know, evaluate and review her/his behavior and personality.

2) Moral feeling a) Conscience

The person will be aware of something right or wrong; either it comes from his mind or his feeling.

b) Self-esteem

The person has got the confidence to be independent and to not rely on other people.

c) Empathy

The person concerns and cares about other people. d) Loving the good

The person loves, fights for, and acts under the name of the truth. e) Self-control

The person is able to control his temper well. f) Humility

The person is able to accept the truth and expiate the wrong thing he has done.

3) Moral Action a) Competence

The person is able to use both mind and feeling in every of his action. b) Will

The person is able to do everything based on the moral value existing in his environment.

c) Habit

The person habitually does everything in line with the value and norms which are accepted universally and based on local wisdom.

c. Types of Character Value

The Ministry of National Education (Kemendiknas) in Abidin (2012:67-68) formulates the eighteen character qualities which should be developed by children, they are:

1) Religious

The person obeys all the religion’s rules and norms but not necessarily means to be intolerant in regard to the other’s religion believer.

2) Honest

The person behaves based on an attempt to make himself as the one who can always be trusted in words, actions, and employment.

3) Tolerant

The person respects the differences of religion, race, ethnicity, opinions, attitudes, and actions of others who are different from themselves.

4) Disciplined

The person is obedient in various rules and regulations. 5) Hard-working

The person’s behavior indicates an earnest effort to overcome barriers to learning and assignments as well as completing the task.

6) Creative

The person thinks and does something in order to generate new method or result of something that has been created.

7) Independent

The person’s behavior shows that he is not easy to depend on others to complete tasks.

8) Democratic

The person’s way of thinking, behaving and acting assess the same rights and obligations of himself and others.

9) Curious

The person always tries to find out more in depth of his understanding about something he learned, seen and heard.

10)Nationalist

The person puts the interests of the nation above the self-interest and group interest.

11)Patriotic

The person shows loyalty, caring, and high appreciation of the language, environmental, physical, social, cultural, economic and political nation.

12)Appreciative

The person encourages himself to produce something useful for society, and respects others' success.

13)Friendly / communicative

The person shows pleasure to speak, associate and cooperate with others. 14)Peace Loving

The person intends to make other people feel happy and safe over the presence of him.

15)Fond of reading

The person habituates himself to always take time to read the various readings.

16)Environmentally Caring

The person has an effort to prevent damage to the surrounding natural environment and to repair the environmental damage that has occurred.

17)Socially Caring

The person is always helpful for other people and society in need. 18)Responsible

The person’s attitude carries out the duties and obligations that he should do to himself, society, environment (natural, social, and cultural), the state and the Almighty God.

In addition, Aqib and Sujak (2011:7-8) identifies five main qualities of character. They are

1) Character qualities in relation of human to God: religious;

2) Character qualities in relation of human to themselves: honest, responsible, healthy lifestyle, discipline, hard work, self-confident, entrepreneurial, logical thinking, critical, creative, innovative, independent, curious, and love of science;

3) Character qualities in relation of human to others: be aware of the rights and responsibilities of self and others, abide by social rules, appreciate the work and achievements of others, polite, democratic;

4) Character qualities in relation of human to the environment: social care and care for the environment; and

5) Character qualities in relation of human to the nation: nationalist and respect for diversity.

This research chooses to employ the eigheen character qualities formulated by The Ministry of National Education (Kemendiknas). Then, those character

qualities are categorized into five classifications of character qualities proposed by Aqib and Sujak.

d. Techniques of Delivering Character Value

Zuchdi, et al. (2008:5) defines the two techniques of delivering character value. They are the explicit (direct) and emplicit (indirect). The explicit delivery technique intends to make the students more easily understand the character value contained in the English textbooks. Meanwhile, implicit delivery technique has a purpose to train the students’ logical reason and imagination. This technique tends to make the students find and infer the messages delivered in the English textbook.

8. The Textbook

a. The Definition of The Textbook

According to Nemati (2009), the term ‘textbook’ means, a textbook of which the teacher and each student has a copy and which is in principle to be followed systematically as the basis for a language course. Therefore, from the above definition one can get that a textbook must have at least being available in the hand of students and teachers, and used systematically in a course of study, and a course of study in this article refers to an English course of study.

Then, Brown (2001: 136) says that textbooks are one type of text, a book for use in an educational curriculum. He also adds that the most obvious and most common form of material support for language instruction comes through textbooks or coursebook. Moreover, Suharta (1997) adds that textbook is a book that is used both by students and teachers in learning

activities. The material in textbooks is a realization of the materials listed in the curriculum.

b. The Advantages of The Textbook

There are many advantages that the students and the teachers can take from using a textbook. Harmer (2001:304) states that textbook is reassuring. It allows the students to look forward and back, giving them a chance to prepare for what is coming and review what they have done. In addition, good textbooks have a range of reading and listening material and workbooks, for example, to back them up. So, the teachers have dependable teaching sequences and, at the very least they offer teachers something to fall back on when they run out of ideas of their own.

Woodward (2001:146) also says that using textbook can give some advantages for both students and teachers. A good textbook can give a sense of clarity, direction, and progress to a student. It also can save a teacher wondering what to teach, how to teach it and with what materials. Written by experienced teachers, it can provide a balanced syllabus and ready-made materials in a reasonably cheap, portable form that teachers and students can use alone or in class. It contributes to learner independence as the learners can use it to review, look ahead and learn their own.

B. A Previous Research Finding

A research on pragmatic especially in speech act analysis has been conducted by Ratih Santi Mianawati entitled A Pragmatic Analysis of Speech Act to Reveal Nine Teen Sicties African American Women’s obstacles in Tate

Taylor’s The Help in 2013. This research aims to identify the types of speech act in terms of locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts found in the three African American characters and two white woman characters’ utterances in Tate Taylor’s The Help. The result reveals that in term of locutionary acts, the character employs the phatic acts, phonetic acts, and rhetic acts. Next, in illocutionary acts, five types of speech act classification are found. Then, regarding with the perlocutionary act, twelve effects are found in the character’s utterances.

However, there are some differences between Ratih’s research with this research regarding to the aims of the research. Ratih’s first aim is to find the three kinds of speech acts which are locutionary acts, illocutionary acts and perlocutionary acts. Then, the other Ratih’s aim is to describe African American women’s obstacles in 1960s through the speech act of the three African American women characters and two white woman characters portrayed in the film. Meanwhile, this research has three aims developed in this study. The first aim is to find the Searle’s classification of speech acts performed by the characters in the textbook. Then, the second aim deal with the context of situation proposed by Holmes which is contained in the dialogues of Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade XI: General Programme. Understanding the context of situation is very necessary to do since the meaning of the dialogues in the textbook will change if the context is different. This research also finds the relation between the illocutionary forces found in the dialogues and the two competencies, especially the core

competencies. Lastly, this research purposely studies the character qualities integrated in the course book formulated by Aqib and Sujak. The character qualities found in the dialogues and the context is expected to give advantageous insight to the English teacher about the character qualities implicitly put in the dialogues in the textbook.

C. Conceptual Framework

In this research, pragmatics becomes the appropriate approach to use since considering the context in the process of analyzing the speech act in English textbook is very important. Context in this research consists of situational context, since the context controls the way people speak and interpret utterances. The context proposed by Holmes is used to analyze the context, which are:

a. The Participants: who is speaking and whom he is speaking to.

b. The Setting or Social Context of Interaction: where they are (physical setting) and what psychological situation in which they are speaking. c. The Topic: what is being talked about.

d. The Function: why they are speaking

Further, this study comes up to employ the speech act theory suggested by Searle to analyze the types of speech act employed by the characters in the dialogue of the course book. Then, the speech act suggested by Searle is employed to analyze the illocutionary act’s functions. They are:

1. Assertives: The type of speech acts represent the speaker’s belief and carry the true or false qualities

2. Directives: These speech acts are performed by the speaker to get the hearer to do something

3. Commisives: Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to future actions

4. Expressives: Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels

5. Declarations: Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.

The illocutionary act of an utterance is sometimes different from what the speaker literally says. For example when A says “It’s hot here”, A seems stating information. However, if the hearer infers and relates that statement with the context, it can be interpreted as the speaker’s command to the hearer to turn on the air conditioner. In addition, the research also tries to find out the character qualities integrated in the English textbook entitled Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme

This research also tries to find the relation between the illocutionary forces found in the dialogues and the six points of core competencies. They are 1. Analyzing the social functions, the structure and language features of

self-introduction, according to the contexts.

2. Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of expressing and responding to compliment according to the contexts

3. Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of expressing and responding to care according to the contexts

4. Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of expressing and asking about intentions/plans according to the contexts 5. Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of

expressing and responding to extended congratulation according to the contexts

6. Analyzing the social functions, the structure, and language features of telling and asking about past experiences/activities/events when it happened and afterwards, according to the contexts

Moreover, this research also aims to find the character qualities integrated in the textbook entitled Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme. The classification of character qualities proposed by Aqib and Sujak is used as a reference in finding the character qualities integrated in the textbook. They are:

1. Character qualities in relation of human to God: religious.

2. Character qualities in relation of human to themselves: fond of reading, honest, responsible, discipline, hard-working, creative, independent and curious.

3. Character qualities in relation of human to others: responsible, tolerant, appreciative, friendly/communicative, peace-loving, democratic and socially caring

4. Character qualities in relation of human to the environment: environmentally caring

5. Character qualities in relation of human to the nation: nationalist and patriotic.

D. Analytical Construct

Figure 1.

A Pragmatic Analysis of Speech Acts of the Dialogues

in an English Textbook entitled Pathway to English for

Senior High School Grade X: General Programme.

Pathway to English for Senior High School Grade X: General Programme.

Dialogues

Pragmatics

Context

Character Qualities

Deixis Cooperative Principle

Speech Acts Implicature Presupposition

Illocutionary Act

Locutionary Act Perlocutionary Act

Searle’s Classification Declaratives

Representatives

Expressives

Directives

Commisives Declarative

Interrogative

Imperative

Get H to know something

Get H to do something

Get H to expect something

Get H to show pleasant/unpleasant feeling

Get H to praise

Speech Event Basic Competence and

B. Implications

Based on the four conclusions above, some implications can be derived as three descriptions. First, dealing with the first conclusion, it shows that it is very important to do a detail analysis of speech acts. Understanding speech acts means understanding how the language is being used and practiced. Thus, the misunderstandings and misconceptions can be minimized. Through this process, the readers can comprehend the significance of pragmatics related to the educational topic.

Related to the second conclusion, it shows that the context of situation has a significant role in the interpretation of the utterances. Therefore, it is important to identify and analyze the context of situation to successfully interpret the meanings of the utterances.

Regarding with the third conclusion, it shows that the basic and core competencies is very important to be considered by the teacher when selecting and making the learning materials. The good learning materials is qualified if it has the two competencies in it. These two competencies can help the students master the language skill based on their needs.

Concerning to the third conclusion, it implies how necessary for the developers of the English textbooks to integrate the character value whether it is in the dialogues or the texts. Since, the students can implicitly and subconsciously learn the value exemplified in the material and practice it in their real life. Moreover, the character value integrated in the learning material

is more meaningful and powerful related to the context contained in the textbook.

C. Suggestions

Based on the conclusions and the implications, the researcher proposes some suggestions as follows.

1. The Students in English Language Education Department

It is expected that this research can provide additional references in conducting research in linguistic study especially pragmatics. Moreover, by learning this research, the students will be more aware of how the language is actually being used related to the speech acts study and its context surrounding. Hence, the students can avoid misunderstanding or misconceptions in interpreting the speakers’ messages.

2. The Teachers

This research is expected to give contribution in language teaching especially on the language phenomena related to speech acts contained in the dialogues in the textbook. The teacher is also suggested to implicitly teach the students the linguistic knowledge, especially pragmatics. So that the students are aware of how actually language is being used. Moreover, it is also expected that the character qualities discussed in this research can ease the teachers to teach character qualities implicitly trough material in the textbook.

3. Textbook Developers

For the textbook developers, it is suggested that they include pragmatic elements especially speech acts when developing the materials contained in the textbook. They also need to consider the two competencies formulated by The Ministry of National Education. So that, those materials will be more meaningful and understandable for the students.

4. Other Researchers

The objective of this research is limited only to identify the types of speech acts proposed by Searle with focus on illocutionary acts, the context of situation proposed by Holmes, and five classifications of character value classified by Aqib and Sujak. It is suggested that the limitation of this research will encourage other researchers to explore more about pragmatics especially related to the education subject.

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