KONSTRUKSI BANGUNAN SIPIL Slab dan Girde
KBS
GIRDER AND SLAB AT FLYOVER
BY:
DEASY MONICA P
131111003
YEDIE CHAHYADIE
131111028
KG-3A
KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
PREFACE
Thank to Almighty God who has given His bless to the writer for finishing the English
paper assignment entitled “Gider and Slab at Fly Over”.
The writer also wish to express his deep and sincere gratitude for those who have
guided in completing this paper. This paper contains about girder and slab at fly over. There
are six point that we explain about girder and slab at fly over.
Our paper also can be used as the guidance for those who want to learn more about
slab and girder at fly over. Hopefully, this paper can help the readers to expand their
knowledge about fly over.
Bandung, March 25th, 2016
Authors
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
i
KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE..........................................................................................................................
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................
ii
TABLE OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................
iii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................
1
1.1 Issue Background............................ .................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Indentification.......................................................................
1
1.3 Objectives of This Write...................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II. OVERVIEW .............................................................................................. 2
2.1 Definition............................................................................................
2
2.2 Basic Guide to Choose the Structure..................................................
3
2.3 Types of Girder...................................... ............................................
4
2.4 Types of Slab......................................................................................
7
2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages Using
Girder..................................................................................................
8
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages Using
Slab.....................................................................................................
9
CHAPTER III. DISCUSSION PROBLEM......................................................................... 11
3.1 Case 1 ................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Case 2 ................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Case 3. Girder Failure ........................................................................... 13
3.4 Case 4. Slab Failure............................................................................... 14
CHAPTER IV. FINAL ...................................................................................................... 16
5.1 Conclusion ..........................................................................................
16
5.2 Suggestion............................................................................................ 16
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figures 2.1
The Golden Gate Bridge.............................................................................. 2
Figures 2.2
JJ Fly Over................................................................................................... 2
Figures 2.3
Girder and Beam.......................................................................................... 3
Figures 2.4
I-Girder........................................................................................................ 4
Figures 2.5
T-Beam........................................................................................................ 4
Figures 2.6
Segmental concrete girder box form............................................................ 5
Figures 2.7
Rolled steel girder........................................................................................ 5
Figures 2.8
Anatomy of plate girder............................................................................... 6
Figures 2.9
Surviving section of Chepstow Railway Bridge girder, now at
Brunel University, Uxbridge....................................................................... 6
Figures 2.10
Brunel's bridges over the entrance locks to theCumberland Basin,
Bristol Harbour........................................................................................... 7
Figures 2.11
Solid slab....................................................................................................
7
Figures 2.12
Void slab....................................................................................................
7
Figures 3.1
Corrosion at concrete reinforcement..........................................................
11
Figures 3.2
Crack at girder............................................................................................
12
Figures 3.3
Tay Rail Bridge..........................................................................................
13
Figures 3.4
Inverythan Rail bridge...............................................................................
13
Figures 3.5
Seong su bridge..........................................................................................
14
Figures 3.6
The car.......................................................................................................
14
Figures 3.7
Bridge and slab failure...............................................................................
15
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Issue Background
Transportation is one of our most basic human needs. Transportation is the act of
moving something from one place to another. If we do not have a mode of
transportation we will not be able to go to our job or to social functions as much as we
want.
To move from one place to another, we can use land-transportation, airtransportation or water-transportation. For land-transportation, we can use road or
railway for connection. For air-transportation we can use plane for connection. For
water-transportation, we can use sailorship.
Fly over is one of alternative way for land-transportation which is the different
construction from usual road. Fly over can passing the road or passing the river. Fly
over itself has many kind of construction, like girder, pylon, abutment, slab and etc.
This kind of construction can determine the strengthness of fly over. So, the choosing
good material and design is a must for making fly over.
Slab and girder is one of construction that have to well-designed. Because the slab
and girder is one of construction which is directly used by user. It based on the srength
and comfort.
The problem that explained above made the writers interested to analize about
construction of slab and girder at fly over. It based on choosing material, kind of the
construction and etc.
1.2 Problem Identification
What the definition about fly over, slab and girder.
What is basic guide to choose the structure.
What kind of classification about slab and girder for fly over.
What the Advantages and Disadvantages with using slab and girder for fly over.
What kind of issues or problems that always happen at slab and girder for fly over.
1.3 Objectives of This Write
To know the definition about fly over, slab and girder.
To know the basic guide to choose the structure.
To know kind of classification about slab and girder for fly over.
To know the Advantages and Disadvantages with using slab and girder for fly over.
To know kind of issues or problems that always happen at slab and girder for fly
over.
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
CHAPTER II
OVERVIEW
2.1 Definition
Fly Over
Fly over is a structure which joints two or more points which are separated by
an accessible route/s or a man made structure to cut the traffic for faster mode of
travelling. Reason behind going for a flyover is the traffic on the road goes on
increasing and it’s don’t have any space left in both the dimensions, then the only
option left will be to go to the third dimension and that is done through flyover
construction.
The differences between fly over and bridge are:
Bridge
Fly Over
Bridges are built to connect two points It is a structure which joints two or
separated by a naturally occuring region more points which are separated by an
like valley, river, sea or any other water accessible route/s or a man made
bodies, etc.
structure to cut the traffic for faster
mode of travelling.
They are usually lengthy depending upon They are usually made over road
the width of the valley or river.
junctions, roads, streets, etc.
Construction over river is tedious since The name itself suggests that you are
foundation has to be carried out on the flying over a traffic zone.
river bed.
Bridges are usually built for trains, buses They are usually built for road vehicles.
and cars.
Figure 2.1 The Golden Gate Bridge
Figure 2.2 JJ Fly Over
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9k2z6
Source: http://bit.ly/1WbDa3U
Slab
A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings.
Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches (100
and 500 millimeters) thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings,
while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
Suspended slabs are slabs that are not in direct contact with the ground. They form
roofs or floors above ground level. Suspended slabsare grouped into two types: one
way slabs which are supported on two sides.
Girder
A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is the main horizontal
support of a structure which supports smaller beams. Girders often have an I-beam
cross section composed of two load-bearing flanges separated by a stabilizing web,
but may also have a box shape, Z shape and other forms.
Figure 2.3 Girder and Beam
Source: http://bit.ly/1SCiseH
2.2 Basic guide to choose the structure
Based on the function
The function of fly over which is on the middle of city to avoid the traffic jam
must be different with the function of fly over which is to connect one village to
another village. It means, based on the function is important to choose what kind of
structure that we need.
Based on strength and stability
Load factor give the affect of choosing the structure. If the load factor more
than the carrying capacity of slab, so the slab has posibillity to collapse, because it
can’t resist with the load factor.
Based on the economy
The availabilities of fees give the affect of choosing the structure. If we don’t
have much money, we can push the fees from choosing shape or structure.
Based on the implementation
The implementiation factor and location is closely related. Because literally the
location can determine the choosing of structure.
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
2.3 Types of Girder
a. Types of Girder Based on The Shape
o I-Girder Bridge
This girder can made of composite material or non-composite material. For
choosing kind of material, we have to consider strength or cost for this
construction. An I-Girder is very simple to design and build and works very well
in most cases, but more prone to torque/twisting forces. Box girders, being more
stable are also able to span greater distances and are often used for longer spans,
where I-beams would not be sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design
and fabrication of box girders is more difficult than that of I beams.
Figure 2.4 I-Girder
Source: http://bit.ly/225EsRE
o T-Beams
A reinforced-concrete bridge consisting of a floor
slab monolithic with the supporting beams so that a cross
section resembles a series of T beams. T-Beams is very
economic for length 40-60 ft. But for tilt bridge structure,
designing T-Beam need more complicated way. The
comparison between length and width at T-Beam is
recommended about 0.07 for simple T-Beams and 0.065
for continous T-Beams
Figure 2.5 T-Beam
Source: Ilmutekniksipil.com
o Box Girder
A box girder or "tub girder" is, as the name suggests, a box shape. They
consist of two vertical webs, short top flanges on top of each web, and a wide
bottom flange connecting the webs together. A box girder is particularly resistant
to torsion and, while expensive, are utilized in situations where a standard girder
might succumb to torsion or toppling effects.
Types of box girder
a. Steel box girder
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
Rectangular steel box girder
Trapezoidal steel box girder
b. Concrete box girder
Rectangular concrete box girder
Trapezoidal concrete box girder
Figure 2.6 Segmental concrete box girder forms
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9pAcU
b. Another Types of Girder
o Rolled Steel Girder
A rolled steel girder is a girder that has been fabricated by rolling a blank
cylinder of steel through a series of dies to create the desired shape. These create
standardized I-beam and wide flange beam shapes up to 100 feet in length.
Figure 2.7 Rolled Steel Girder
Source: http://bit.ly/225EdRE
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o Plate Girder
Figure 2.8 Anatomy of Plate Girder
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9bVcd
A plate girder is a girder that has been fabricated by welding plates together
to create the desired shape. The fabricator receives large plates of steel in the
desired thickness, then cuts the flanges and web from the plate in the desired
length and shape. Plate girders can have a greater height than rolled steel girders
and are not limited to standardized shapes. The ability to customize a girder to the
exact load conditions allows the bridge design to be more efficient. Plate girder
can be used for spans between 10 metres and more than 100 metres (33 feet to
more than 330 feet). Stiffeners are occasionally welded between the compression
flange and the web to increase the strength of the girder.
o Ballon Flange Girder
Figure 2.9 Surviving section of Chepstow Railway Bridge girder, now at Brunel University, Uxbridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1UfwPHs
A balloon flange girder is a form of vertical I-beam wrought iron plate
girder, where the top flange, instead of being a simple flat plate, is extended into a
hollow tube. This type of girder was rarely used, its only common user
being Isambard Kingdom Brunel in the 1840s and 1850s.
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
Figure 2.10 Brunel's bridges over the entrance locks to theCumberland Basin, Bristol Harbour.
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9oVbp
c. Types of Girder Based on Construction method
o Cast in Situ
Cast in situ is one of conventional method. Because, the making of concrete is
in the location of slab construction.
o Precast
Precast is one of slab construction method with fabrication in factory. Standard
beam can be pre or post tension.
2.4 Types of Slab
a. Based on forms.
Solid Slab
Solid slab is the most simple thing of slab. Usually solid slab using the
concrete reinforcement conventional.
Figure 2.11 Solid Slab
Source: http://bit.ly/1Wqqm9T
Void Slab
Void slab is modification from solid slab. The function is for to reduce the
load which isn’t be required near the neutral axis when the deflection happen
Figure 2.12 void Slab
Source: http://bit.ly/1M7ALqA
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
b. Based on structures.
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray.
This improves strength and prevents the slab from bending under its own
weight. The corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions and it looks hollow
from bottom.
c. Based on length and width.
A one-way slab needs movement resisting reinforcement only in its shortdirection because the movement along long axes is so small that it can be
neglected. When the ratio of the length of long direction to short direction of a
slab is greater than 2 it can be considered as a one way slab.
Long direction = ly Short direction = lx
One way slab IF ly/lx > 2
A two-way slab needs movement resisting reinforcement in both directions. If
the ratio of the lengths of long and short side is less than two then movement
in both direction should be considered in design.
Two way slab IF ly/lx < 2
d. Based on construction.
Cast in Situ
Cast in situ is one of conventional method. Because, the making of concrete is
in the location of slab construction.
Precast
Precast is one of slab construction method with fabrication in factory. So, if the
slab fabrication in factory is done, slab taken on the location of construction
afterthat the slab is directly errected.
2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages using girder
o I-Girder
Advantages
Disadvantages
Cheap
Limited in length (lateral torsional
buckling)
Simple to errect
Less efficient
o Plate Girder
Advantages
Disadvantages
Designer has greater freedom to vary Compared with trusses they are
the section to correspond with changes heavier,more difficult to transport and
in the applied forces.
have larger wind resistance.
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
Plate girders are aesthetically more The provision of openings for services
pleasing than trusses and are easier to is also more difficult. The low torsional
transport and erect than box girders.
stiffness of plate girders makes them
difficult to use in bridges having small
plan radius.
Plate girders can sometimes pose
problems during erection because of
concern for the stability of compression
flanges.
o Box Girder
Advantages
The very large Torsional rigidity
Disadvantages
Difficult to cast in-situ due to the
inaccessibility of the bottom slab and
the need to extract the internal shutter
Interiors of box girder bridges can be
used to accommodate service such as
gas pipes, water mains etc.
For large spans, bottom flange could
be used as another deck accommodates
traffic also.
The maintenance of box girder is
easier in interior space is directly
accessible without use of scaffolding.
It has high structural efficiency which
minimizes the prestessing force
required to resist a given bending
moment, and its great Torsional
strength with the capacity this gives to
re-centre eccentric live loads,
minimizing the prestress required to
carry them.
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages using slab
Based on the forms
o Solid slab
Advantages
Disadvantages
Easy to construct with solid slab.
The load is heavier than void slab type
Because of with conventional method and it will make the load of building
itself more heavy
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
The function is for to reduce the load which isn’t be required near the
neutral axis when the deflection happen
o Void slab
Advantages
The load of building itself can be
reduce
Based on the length and width
o A One Way Slab
Advantages
It’s suitable for a long span
o A Two Way Slab
Advantages
It’s suitable for short span
Based on the construction
o Precast
Advantages
The duration of construction is
efficient
It’s not depend on the wheater
It’s very efficient in terms of
economy if the building is big scale
Disadvantages
Usually void slab is one of precast
method and using precast is not
suggested for high rise building.
Because it’s not good when there is
earthquake
Disadvantages
It’s not effective if used in short span
Disadvantages
It’s not too effective if used in long
span
Disadvantages
Need big invesment
The controlling of material isn’t
optimum
o Cast in situ
Advantages
The fees of making the concrete can
be pushed
The connection each segmen can
more homogen
The material can be controlled well
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
Disadvantages
The making of the concrete depen on
wheater
Have to made the framework within
the duration of working
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
CHAPTER III
DISCUSSION PROBLEM
3.1 Case 1. Corrosion at concrete reinforcement
Figure 3.1 Corrosion at concrete reinforcement
Cause
The corrosion was caused by Carbonation from the air, Chlorides from sea
water, Magnesium salts, Sulphate attacks from sea water and etc.
Source: http://1.usa.gov/1XweVxL
Impact
1. The structure slowly but surely become crack.
2. The capability of load resistance is decreasing.
3. The cost will be higher for paying the maintenance service.
4. Dangerous for safety bridge’s user
Prevention
1. Do a protection for reinforcment that we use. Like if we see the redness at
reinforcement, we can clean the surface. Afterthat, we paint the surface of
reinforcement.
2. Do a protection for concrete with waterproof paint.
3. Monitoring.
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
3.2 Case 2. Crack at Girder
Figure 3.2 Crack at girder
Cause
There are factors that caused crack at girder before the construction
1. Temperature.
2. Corrosion at reinforcement.
3. Bad construction method.
4. Using bad material.
5. Arrange the reinforcement with not properly.
Source: http://1.usa.gov/1XweVxL
There are factors that caused crack at girder after the construction
1. Wheather.
2. Load.
Impact
The strengthness of girder will be dicreasing and solwy but surely it will be
dangerous for the structure and bridge’s user.
Prevention
Do a pundit test. To know density of the girder and depth of the crack. If the
result of concrete density under 3.00, it should be give another maintenance. Give a
extra column to sustain the load. If girder doesn’t have possibility to give a extra
column, we have to do injection with exposy to the girder afterthat, make a larger
shape of girder with another external cultivation.
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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3.3 Case 3. Girder failure.
1. Tay Rail bridge
Figure 3.3 Tay Rail bridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1XwfcAV
Location
Country
Date
Construction type
Reason
Casualities
Damage
: Dundee
: Scotland
: 28 December 1879
: Continous girder bride, wrought iron framework on cast iron
columns, rail way.
: Faulty design, construction and maintenance, structural
deterioration and wind load.
: 75 killed and no survivors.
: Bridge unusable, girders partly reused and train damaged.
2. Inverythan Rail Bridge
Figure 3.4 Inverythan Rail bridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1WrTeyC
Location
Country
Date
Construction type
Reason
: Aberdeenshire
: Scotland
: 27 November 1882
: Cast iron girder rail
: Hidden defects in cast iron caused collapse as train passed
over
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Casualities
Damage
: 5 killed, 17 injured
: Bridge rebuilt
3.4 Case 4. Slab failure and case
1. Seong su bridge
Figure 3.5 Seong su bridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1XwhWhs
Location
Country
Date
Construction type
Reason
steel
Casualities
Damage
: Seoul
: South Korea
: 21 October 1994
: Cantilever bridge crossing Han River
: Structural failure was caused by improper welding of the
Trusses of the suspension structure beneath the concrete slab
Roadway.
: 32 killed, 17 injured
: 48-metre slab between the fifth and the sixth pier collapsed
2. Couple cheats death after flyover slab falls on car
Figure 3.6 The car
Source: http://bit.ly/1RPHz8S
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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Location
Country
Date
Reason
Casualities
Damage
: Delhi
: India
: 15 Februari 2015
: The concrete slab reportedly loosened from the crane hoist
while the labourers were trying to install it
: A husband and wife and a labourer were death
: 48-metre slab between the fifth and the sixth pier collapsed
3. Bridge and slab failure after earthquake
Figure 3.7 Bridge and slab failure
Source: http://bit.ly/1PcZ1lP
Location
Country
Date
Reason
Casualities
Damage
: Wenchuan
: China
: 12 May 2008
: Earthquake with 7.9 magnitude
: Killed 69.197 people and left 18.222 missing because of
earthquake
: Bridge and slab failure
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
CHAPTER IV
FINAL
4.1 Conclusion
From the explaining above, we can conclude that
1. Basic guide to choose the structure are based on the function, strength and stability,
economy and implementation.
2. Types of girder are I-Girder, T-Beams and box girder. On the other hand, there are
another types of girder, like rolled steel girder, plate girder and ballon flange girder.
3. Types of slab are based on forms, structures, length and width and constructions.
4.2 Suggestion
1. For slab, We have to choose kind of slab wisely. Because so many types of slab
based on forms, structures, length and width and constructions. We have to choose
the structure based on the function, strength and stability, economy and
implementation.
2. For girder, if you need for short span, you can use I-Girder. If you need for long span
and easy for errection, you can use plate girder. If you need for long span, high
torsional and easy to maintenance, you can use box girder. Last but not least,choose
the structure it’s still based on the function, strength and stability, economy and
implementation for itself.
3. Maintenance service for slab and girder are very important. Because with
maintenance can extend the life of the structure itself.
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
16
GIRDER AND SLAB AT FLYOVER
BY:
DEASY MONICA P
131111003
YEDIE CHAHYADIE
131111028
KG-3A
KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
PREFACE
Thank to Almighty God who has given His bless to the writer for finishing the English
paper assignment entitled “Gider and Slab at Fly Over”.
The writer also wish to express his deep and sincere gratitude for those who have
guided in completing this paper. This paper contains about girder and slab at fly over. There
are six point that we explain about girder and slab at fly over.
Our paper also can be used as the guidance for those who want to learn more about
slab and girder at fly over. Hopefully, this paper can help the readers to expand their
knowledge about fly over.
Bandung, March 25th, 2016
Authors
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
i
KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE..........................................................................................................................
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................
ii
TABLE OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................
iii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................
1
1.1 Issue Background............................ .................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Indentification.......................................................................
1
1.3 Objectives of This Write...................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II. OVERVIEW .............................................................................................. 2
2.1 Definition............................................................................................
2
2.2 Basic Guide to Choose the Structure..................................................
3
2.3 Types of Girder...................................... ............................................
4
2.4 Types of Slab......................................................................................
7
2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages Using
Girder..................................................................................................
8
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages Using
Slab.....................................................................................................
9
CHAPTER III. DISCUSSION PROBLEM......................................................................... 11
3.1 Case 1 ................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Case 2 ................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Case 3. Girder Failure ........................................................................... 13
3.4 Case 4. Slab Failure............................................................................... 14
CHAPTER IV. FINAL ...................................................................................................... 16
5.1 Conclusion ..........................................................................................
16
5.2 Suggestion............................................................................................ 16
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figures 2.1
The Golden Gate Bridge.............................................................................. 2
Figures 2.2
JJ Fly Over................................................................................................... 2
Figures 2.3
Girder and Beam.......................................................................................... 3
Figures 2.4
I-Girder........................................................................................................ 4
Figures 2.5
T-Beam........................................................................................................ 4
Figures 2.6
Segmental concrete girder box form............................................................ 5
Figures 2.7
Rolled steel girder........................................................................................ 5
Figures 2.8
Anatomy of plate girder............................................................................... 6
Figures 2.9
Surviving section of Chepstow Railway Bridge girder, now at
Brunel University, Uxbridge....................................................................... 6
Figures 2.10
Brunel's bridges over the entrance locks to theCumberland Basin,
Bristol Harbour........................................................................................... 7
Figures 2.11
Solid slab....................................................................................................
7
Figures 2.12
Void slab....................................................................................................
7
Figures 3.1
Corrosion at concrete reinforcement..........................................................
11
Figures 3.2
Crack at girder............................................................................................
12
Figures 3.3
Tay Rail Bridge..........................................................................................
13
Figures 3.4
Inverythan Rail bridge...............................................................................
13
Figures 3.5
Seong su bridge..........................................................................................
14
Figures 3.6
The car.......................................................................................................
14
Figures 3.7
Bridge and slab failure...............................................................................
15
Deasy Monica P | Yedie Chahyadie
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KBS || Girder and Slab at Fly Over
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Issue Background
Transportation is one of our most basic human needs. Transportation is the act of
moving something from one place to another. If we do not have a mode of
transportation we will not be able to go to our job or to social functions as much as we
want.
To move from one place to another, we can use land-transportation, airtransportation or water-transportation. For land-transportation, we can use road or
railway for connection. For air-transportation we can use plane for connection. For
water-transportation, we can use sailorship.
Fly over is one of alternative way for land-transportation which is the different
construction from usual road. Fly over can passing the road or passing the river. Fly
over itself has many kind of construction, like girder, pylon, abutment, slab and etc.
This kind of construction can determine the strengthness of fly over. So, the choosing
good material and design is a must for making fly over.
Slab and girder is one of construction that have to well-designed. Because the slab
and girder is one of construction which is directly used by user. It based on the srength
and comfort.
The problem that explained above made the writers interested to analize about
construction of slab and girder at fly over. It based on choosing material, kind of the
construction and etc.
1.2 Problem Identification
What the definition about fly over, slab and girder.
What is basic guide to choose the structure.
What kind of classification about slab and girder for fly over.
What the Advantages and Disadvantages with using slab and girder for fly over.
What kind of issues or problems that always happen at slab and girder for fly over.
1.3 Objectives of This Write
To know the definition about fly over, slab and girder.
To know the basic guide to choose the structure.
To know kind of classification about slab and girder for fly over.
To know the Advantages and Disadvantages with using slab and girder for fly over.
To know kind of issues or problems that always happen at slab and girder for fly
over.
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CHAPTER II
OVERVIEW
2.1 Definition
Fly Over
Fly over is a structure which joints two or more points which are separated by
an accessible route/s or a man made structure to cut the traffic for faster mode of
travelling. Reason behind going for a flyover is the traffic on the road goes on
increasing and it’s don’t have any space left in both the dimensions, then the only
option left will be to go to the third dimension and that is done through flyover
construction.
The differences between fly over and bridge are:
Bridge
Fly Over
Bridges are built to connect two points It is a structure which joints two or
separated by a naturally occuring region more points which are separated by an
like valley, river, sea or any other water accessible route/s or a man made
bodies, etc.
structure to cut the traffic for faster
mode of travelling.
They are usually lengthy depending upon They are usually made over road
the width of the valley or river.
junctions, roads, streets, etc.
Construction over river is tedious since The name itself suggests that you are
foundation has to be carried out on the flying over a traffic zone.
river bed.
Bridges are usually built for trains, buses They are usually built for road vehicles.
and cars.
Figure 2.1 The Golden Gate Bridge
Figure 2.2 JJ Fly Over
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9k2z6
Source: http://bit.ly/1WbDa3U
Slab
A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings.
Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches (100
and 500 millimeters) thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings,
while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving.
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Suspended slabs are slabs that are not in direct contact with the ground. They form
roofs or floors above ground level. Suspended slabsare grouped into two types: one
way slabs which are supported on two sides.
Girder
A girder is a support beam used in construction. It is the main horizontal
support of a structure which supports smaller beams. Girders often have an I-beam
cross section composed of two load-bearing flanges separated by a stabilizing web,
but may also have a box shape, Z shape and other forms.
Figure 2.3 Girder and Beam
Source: http://bit.ly/1SCiseH
2.2 Basic guide to choose the structure
Based on the function
The function of fly over which is on the middle of city to avoid the traffic jam
must be different with the function of fly over which is to connect one village to
another village. It means, based on the function is important to choose what kind of
structure that we need.
Based on strength and stability
Load factor give the affect of choosing the structure. If the load factor more
than the carrying capacity of slab, so the slab has posibillity to collapse, because it
can’t resist with the load factor.
Based on the economy
The availabilities of fees give the affect of choosing the structure. If we don’t
have much money, we can push the fees from choosing shape or structure.
Based on the implementation
The implementiation factor and location is closely related. Because literally the
location can determine the choosing of structure.
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2.3 Types of Girder
a. Types of Girder Based on The Shape
o I-Girder Bridge
This girder can made of composite material or non-composite material. For
choosing kind of material, we have to consider strength or cost for this
construction. An I-Girder is very simple to design and build and works very well
in most cases, but more prone to torque/twisting forces. Box girders, being more
stable are also able to span greater distances and are often used for longer spans,
where I-beams would not be sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design
and fabrication of box girders is more difficult than that of I beams.
Figure 2.4 I-Girder
Source: http://bit.ly/225EsRE
o T-Beams
A reinforced-concrete bridge consisting of a floor
slab monolithic with the supporting beams so that a cross
section resembles a series of T beams. T-Beams is very
economic for length 40-60 ft. But for tilt bridge structure,
designing T-Beam need more complicated way. The
comparison between length and width at T-Beam is
recommended about 0.07 for simple T-Beams and 0.065
for continous T-Beams
Figure 2.5 T-Beam
Source: Ilmutekniksipil.com
o Box Girder
A box girder or "tub girder" is, as the name suggests, a box shape. They
consist of two vertical webs, short top flanges on top of each web, and a wide
bottom flange connecting the webs together. A box girder is particularly resistant
to torsion and, while expensive, are utilized in situations where a standard girder
might succumb to torsion or toppling effects.
Types of box girder
a. Steel box girder
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Rectangular steel box girder
Trapezoidal steel box girder
b. Concrete box girder
Rectangular concrete box girder
Trapezoidal concrete box girder
Figure 2.6 Segmental concrete box girder forms
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9pAcU
b. Another Types of Girder
o Rolled Steel Girder
A rolled steel girder is a girder that has been fabricated by rolling a blank
cylinder of steel through a series of dies to create the desired shape. These create
standardized I-beam and wide flange beam shapes up to 100 feet in length.
Figure 2.7 Rolled Steel Girder
Source: http://bit.ly/225EdRE
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o Plate Girder
Figure 2.8 Anatomy of Plate Girder
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9bVcd
A plate girder is a girder that has been fabricated by welding plates together
to create the desired shape. The fabricator receives large plates of steel in the
desired thickness, then cuts the flanges and web from the plate in the desired
length and shape. Plate girders can have a greater height than rolled steel girders
and are not limited to standardized shapes. The ability to customize a girder to the
exact load conditions allows the bridge design to be more efficient. Plate girder
can be used for spans between 10 metres and more than 100 metres (33 feet to
more than 330 feet). Stiffeners are occasionally welded between the compression
flange and the web to increase the strength of the girder.
o Ballon Flange Girder
Figure 2.9 Surviving section of Chepstow Railway Bridge girder, now at Brunel University, Uxbridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1UfwPHs
A balloon flange girder is a form of vertical I-beam wrought iron plate
girder, where the top flange, instead of being a simple flat plate, is extended into a
hollow tube. This type of girder was rarely used, its only common user
being Isambard Kingdom Brunel in the 1840s and 1850s.
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Figure 2.10 Brunel's bridges over the entrance locks to theCumberland Basin, Bristol Harbour.
Source: http://bit.ly/1R9oVbp
c. Types of Girder Based on Construction method
o Cast in Situ
Cast in situ is one of conventional method. Because, the making of concrete is
in the location of slab construction.
o Precast
Precast is one of slab construction method with fabrication in factory. Standard
beam can be pre or post tension.
2.4 Types of Slab
a. Based on forms.
Solid Slab
Solid slab is the most simple thing of slab. Usually solid slab using the
concrete reinforcement conventional.
Figure 2.11 Solid Slab
Source: http://bit.ly/1Wqqm9T
Void Slab
Void slab is modification from solid slab. The function is for to reduce the
load which isn’t be required near the neutral axis when the deflection happen
Figure 2.12 void Slab
Source: http://bit.ly/1M7ALqA
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b. Based on structures.
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray.
This improves strength and prevents the slab from bending under its own
weight. The corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions and it looks hollow
from bottom.
c. Based on length and width.
A one-way slab needs movement resisting reinforcement only in its shortdirection because the movement along long axes is so small that it can be
neglected. When the ratio of the length of long direction to short direction of a
slab is greater than 2 it can be considered as a one way slab.
Long direction = ly Short direction = lx
One way slab IF ly/lx > 2
A two-way slab needs movement resisting reinforcement in both directions. If
the ratio of the lengths of long and short side is less than two then movement
in both direction should be considered in design.
Two way slab IF ly/lx < 2
d. Based on construction.
Cast in Situ
Cast in situ is one of conventional method. Because, the making of concrete is
in the location of slab construction.
Precast
Precast is one of slab construction method with fabrication in factory. So, if the
slab fabrication in factory is done, slab taken on the location of construction
afterthat the slab is directly errected.
2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages using girder
o I-Girder
Advantages
Disadvantages
Cheap
Limited in length (lateral torsional
buckling)
Simple to errect
Less efficient
o Plate Girder
Advantages
Disadvantages
Designer has greater freedom to vary Compared with trusses they are
the section to correspond with changes heavier,more difficult to transport and
in the applied forces.
have larger wind resistance.
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Plate girders are aesthetically more The provision of openings for services
pleasing than trusses and are easier to is also more difficult. The low torsional
transport and erect than box girders.
stiffness of plate girders makes them
difficult to use in bridges having small
plan radius.
Plate girders can sometimes pose
problems during erection because of
concern for the stability of compression
flanges.
o Box Girder
Advantages
The very large Torsional rigidity
Disadvantages
Difficult to cast in-situ due to the
inaccessibility of the bottom slab and
the need to extract the internal shutter
Interiors of box girder bridges can be
used to accommodate service such as
gas pipes, water mains etc.
For large spans, bottom flange could
be used as another deck accommodates
traffic also.
The maintenance of box girder is
easier in interior space is directly
accessible without use of scaffolding.
It has high structural efficiency which
minimizes the prestessing force
required to resist a given bending
moment, and its great Torsional
strength with the capacity this gives to
re-centre eccentric live loads,
minimizing the prestress required to
carry them.
2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages using slab
Based on the forms
o Solid slab
Advantages
Disadvantages
Easy to construct with solid slab.
The load is heavier than void slab type
Because of with conventional method and it will make the load of building
itself more heavy
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The function is for to reduce the load which isn’t be required near the
neutral axis when the deflection happen
o Void slab
Advantages
The load of building itself can be
reduce
Based on the length and width
o A One Way Slab
Advantages
It’s suitable for a long span
o A Two Way Slab
Advantages
It’s suitable for short span
Based on the construction
o Precast
Advantages
The duration of construction is
efficient
It’s not depend on the wheater
It’s very efficient in terms of
economy if the building is big scale
Disadvantages
Usually void slab is one of precast
method and using precast is not
suggested for high rise building.
Because it’s not good when there is
earthquake
Disadvantages
It’s not effective if used in short span
Disadvantages
It’s not too effective if used in long
span
Disadvantages
Need big invesment
The controlling of material isn’t
optimum
o Cast in situ
Advantages
The fees of making the concrete can
be pushed
The connection each segmen can
more homogen
The material can be controlled well
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Disadvantages
The making of the concrete depen on
wheater
Have to made the framework within
the duration of working
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CHAPTER III
DISCUSSION PROBLEM
3.1 Case 1. Corrosion at concrete reinforcement
Figure 3.1 Corrosion at concrete reinforcement
Cause
The corrosion was caused by Carbonation from the air, Chlorides from sea
water, Magnesium salts, Sulphate attacks from sea water and etc.
Source: http://1.usa.gov/1XweVxL
Impact
1. The structure slowly but surely become crack.
2. The capability of load resistance is decreasing.
3. The cost will be higher for paying the maintenance service.
4. Dangerous for safety bridge’s user
Prevention
1. Do a protection for reinforcment that we use. Like if we see the redness at
reinforcement, we can clean the surface. Afterthat, we paint the surface of
reinforcement.
2. Do a protection for concrete with waterproof paint.
3. Monitoring.
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3.2 Case 2. Crack at Girder
Figure 3.2 Crack at girder
Cause
There are factors that caused crack at girder before the construction
1. Temperature.
2. Corrosion at reinforcement.
3. Bad construction method.
4. Using bad material.
5. Arrange the reinforcement with not properly.
Source: http://1.usa.gov/1XweVxL
There are factors that caused crack at girder after the construction
1. Wheather.
2. Load.
Impact
The strengthness of girder will be dicreasing and solwy but surely it will be
dangerous for the structure and bridge’s user.
Prevention
Do a pundit test. To know density of the girder and depth of the crack. If the
result of concrete density under 3.00, it should be give another maintenance. Give a
extra column to sustain the load. If girder doesn’t have possibility to give a extra
column, we have to do injection with exposy to the girder afterthat, make a larger
shape of girder with another external cultivation.
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3.3 Case 3. Girder failure.
1. Tay Rail bridge
Figure 3.3 Tay Rail bridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1XwfcAV
Location
Country
Date
Construction type
Reason
Casualities
Damage
: Dundee
: Scotland
: 28 December 1879
: Continous girder bride, wrought iron framework on cast iron
columns, rail way.
: Faulty design, construction and maintenance, structural
deterioration and wind load.
: 75 killed and no survivors.
: Bridge unusable, girders partly reused and train damaged.
2. Inverythan Rail Bridge
Figure 3.4 Inverythan Rail bridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1WrTeyC
Location
Country
Date
Construction type
Reason
: Aberdeenshire
: Scotland
: 27 November 1882
: Cast iron girder rail
: Hidden defects in cast iron caused collapse as train passed
over
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Casualities
Damage
: 5 killed, 17 injured
: Bridge rebuilt
3.4 Case 4. Slab failure and case
1. Seong su bridge
Figure 3.5 Seong su bridge
Source: http://bit.ly/1XwhWhs
Location
Country
Date
Construction type
Reason
steel
Casualities
Damage
: Seoul
: South Korea
: 21 October 1994
: Cantilever bridge crossing Han River
: Structural failure was caused by improper welding of the
Trusses of the suspension structure beneath the concrete slab
Roadway.
: 32 killed, 17 injured
: 48-metre slab between the fifth and the sixth pier collapsed
2. Couple cheats death after flyover slab falls on car
Figure 3.6 The car
Source: http://bit.ly/1RPHz8S
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Location
Country
Date
Reason
Casualities
Damage
: Delhi
: India
: 15 Februari 2015
: The concrete slab reportedly loosened from the crane hoist
while the labourers were trying to install it
: A husband and wife and a labourer were death
: 48-metre slab between the fifth and the sixth pier collapsed
3. Bridge and slab failure after earthquake
Figure 3.7 Bridge and slab failure
Source: http://bit.ly/1PcZ1lP
Location
Country
Date
Reason
Casualities
Damage
: Wenchuan
: China
: 12 May 2008
: Earthquake with 7.9 magnitude
: Killed 69.197 people and left 18.222 missing because of
earthquake
: Bridge and slab failure
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CHAPTER IV
FINAL
4.1 Conclusion
From the explaining above, we can conclude that
1. Basic guide to choose the structure are based on the function, strength and stability,
economy and implementation.
2. Types of girder are I-Girder, T-Beams and box girder. On the other hand, there are
another types of girder, like rolled steel girder, plate girder and ballon flange girder.
3. Types of slab are based on forms, structures, length and width and constructions.
4.2 Suggestion
1. For slab, We have to choose kind of slab wisely. Because so many types of slab
based on forms, structures, length and width and constructions. We have to choose
the structure based on the function, strength and stability, economy and
implementation.
2. For girder, if you need for short span, you can use I-Girder. If you need for long span
and easy for errection, you can use plate girder. If you need for long span, high
torsional and easy to maintenance, you can use box girder. Last but not least,choose
the structure it’s still based on the function, strength and stability, economy and
implementation for itself.
3. Maintenance service for slab and girder are very important. Because with
maintenance can extend the life of the structure itself.
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