PREDICTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP. pdf
RESEARCH NOTE
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis
2001, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 272–280
PREDICTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR AMONG MEXICAN
RETAIL SALESPEOPLE
Matthew S. O’Connell
Select International, Inc.
Dennis Doverspike
Christina Norris-Watts
University of Akron
Keith Hattrup
San Diego State University
The present study examined multiple antecedents of organizational
citizenship behaviors (OCB) in a Mexican sample of retail salespeople.
Although a quota based measure of sales performance was correlated
with OCB, the correlation was relatively low. However, personality and
attitude measures, with conscientiousness having the cleanest
relationship, were significantly correlated with OCB. A situational
judgment measure was significantly correlated with sales performance.
These findings indicate that individual personality facets may be stable
predictors of OCB in Mexican samples.
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has received a great deal of
attention in scholarly journals over the past several years (Becker & Randall, 1994;
George, 1990; Organ, 1997). OCBs can be defined as those behaviors that
“contribute to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological
context that supports task performance” (Organ, 1997, p. 91). It is, therefore, a
separate construct from task performance in that it involves those behaviors that are
not required of the job, but are performed by the employee in order to enhance the
job environment and contribute indirectly to organizational effectiveness (Smith,
Organ, & Near, 1983).
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
273
The present study attempts to examine the relationship between personality
facets and OCB. While past research has typically studied OCB solely from an
Anglo-American point of view, this study attempts to examine the correlates of
OCB in a Mexican sample. Relationships between OCBs, personality variables,
supervisor ratings, and objective work criteria considered in this Mexican sample to
examine whether or not the relationships between these predictors and OCB are
similar to the relationships evident in prior research. This study also examines
current OCB research by examining this behavior within a retail sales context.
OCBs directed at the employer or co-workers may or may not influence customer
service and hence, sales. It is therefore unclear from past research exactly how
OCBs will be related to sales performance.
The quest to identify individual personality traits or abilities that predict OCB
has often been met with small or contradictory relationships (Organ & Ryan, 1995).
Those dispositional predictors of OCB that do prove significant are often attributed
to common method bias as OCBs are usually measured using self-report techniques
(Organ & Ryan, 1995). However, when measuring performance rated by another
source, personality ratings were found to explain significant incremental variance in
these ratings (Mount, Barrick, & Strauss, 1994). Also, OCBs have been found to
correlate with six different personality dimensions while task performance
correlated only with two different personality dimensions (Motowidlo & Van
Scotter, 1994).
Specific personality variables that may yield a more consistent relationship
with OCB include negative affectivity and conscientiousness. George (1990) found
that negative affectivity was related to levels of OCB. A negative correlation of r =
–.51 was found between negative affectivity, as defined through obnoxious
behaviors, and a contextual performance variable (Borman, White, & Dorsey,
1995). Other personality variables, such as conscientiousness, should also be
strongly related to OCB since a growing body of research has found that among the
Big Five personality variables, conscientiousness is consistently related to
supervisor ratings of performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Tett, Jackson, &
Rothstein, 1991). Also, conceptually, the aspects of personality which are usually
considered to constitute the second order conscientiousness factors, such as being
orderly, punctual, hardworking, having a strong work ethic, etc. (Digman, 1990)
overlap well with OCB.
Another major class of predictors of OCB in the workplace appears to be
attitudes toward one’s work or job (Organ, 1997). Job satisfaction, leader
supportiveness, organizational commitment, job involvement and perceived
fairness have all been found to predict OCB (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Farh,
Podsakoff, & Organ, 1990; Organ & Konovksy, 1989; Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). An underlying “morale” factor that predicts OCB is
often the justification used to explain these findings (Organ, 1997). Attitudes
toward customers in a sales setting, however, have not been examined as often with
respect to OCB. It is expected here that more positive attitudes toward customers,
as helping to generate a more positive “morale” perception, may lead to more
OCBs.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
274
PREDICTORS OF OCB
This study extends previous research by adding a cross-cultural component to
OCB prediction in that the study was conducted with a Mexican sample. Mexican
culture, while examined in cross culture research (i.e., Hofstede, 1980), is not often
empirically examined with respect to the culture’s impact on work behaviors or
outcomes. Mexican culture has been classified as a culture high in masculinity, low
in individuality, high in uncertainty avoidance, and very high in power distance
(Hofstede, 1980). However, more important to the study of OCB is the aspect of
Mexican culture that views work as a means to an end rather than an end in and of
itself (Pelled & Xin, 1997). While the Protestant Work Ethic may drive workers in
the United States, Mexican workers may see work as something that needs to be
done, but that should not be overly enjoyed (Pelled & Xin, 1997).
Research with samples from the United States has found that the highest
correlations between personality factors and contextual performance were found for
work orientation (r = .36), dependability (r = .31), internal control (r = .26) and
cooperativeness (r = .22) (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmidt, 1997). Since work
orientation is not as central to Mexican culture, and these other personality
difference variables take a different role in Mexico as well, it is unclear how
personality variables will relate to OCBs in Mexico.
The current study attempts to identify individual difference variables (i.e.,
personality, ability, and attitude) that may be predictive of OCB for a sample of
retail salespeople. Retail salespeople were viewed as an appropriate group for
studying OCB because salespeople are compensated for sales and not for OCBs.
Therefore, engaging in OCB is a volitional act that may or may not improve actual
sales performance. OCBs performed by sales personnel could actually hinder actual
sales performance, because these behaviors would be directed toward improving
the organization, rather than improving the chance of successfully completing a
sale. The relationship between OCB and sales performance then is expected to be
low to moderate at best. A stronger relationship is proposed between attitudes
toward productive sales behavior and actual sales performance.
If the predictors of OCBs are indeed stable across cultures and if OCBs do
lead to improved performance in a sales context, it seems like these predictors
would be of great interest to those selecting to fill sales positions within any
organization. By using dispositional factors in selection, an organization could
secure more OCBs within their organization. Proving that these dispositional
factors do indeed predict OCBs in a Mexican sample as well as a sales context is a
necessary first step to demonstrating the consistency of the predictors of OCB, and
hence proving the usefulness in using these predictors in a selection context across
international organizations.
Based upon this previous research, it was hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 1: There would be a low to moderate correlation between
supervisor ratings of OCB and actual task performance (i.e.,
sales performance);
Hypothesis 2: The personality variable of conscientiousness would be
positively correlated with OCB;
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
275
Hypothesis 3: The personality variable of negative affectivity would be
negatively correlated with OCB;
Hypothesis 4: An attitude measure of customer service would be positively
correlated with OCB; and
Hypothesis 5: The attitude measure of sales judgment would be positively
correlated with actual sales performance.
Method
Participants
As part of a concurrent validation study, 112 retail salespeople from 3 stores
within a large, metropolitan, Mexican city took part in the study. The stores were
large retail department stores. There were 83 females and 39 males. The average
age of the group was 24 years, with an average of 2.8 years of experience on the
job.
Measures
All measures were developed or adapted for the Mexican sample. Instruments
were translated into Spanish and then back-translated.
Conscientiousness Scale. A 23–item conscientiousness scale was developed
for the Mexican sample. The 23 statements were rated using a 5–point Likert-type
scale. Based upon previous studies, the estimated internal consistency reliability
(coefficient alpha) of the scale was .74 (O´Connell, Hattrup, Doverspike, &
Blumental, 2000). This scale has been shown to be a valid predictor of performance
in both Mexico and the U.S. (O’Connell, 1998). The score on this scale was the
average score on the items.
Negative Affectivity. An 11–item negative affectivity, which was based on
the 21–item scaled developed by Levin and Stokes (1989; George, 1990), was
adapted for administration to a Mexican sample. Each item was rated on a 5–point
scale. A total score was calculated based upon the average score across the 11
items. Based on previous work with the longer version of the scale, internal
consistencies in the mid .80s have been reported (Levin & Stokes, 1989).
Customer Service Attitudes. A 14–item scale was used to measure attitudes
towards effective customer service. Each item was rated on a 5–point scale and the
total score was based on the average across items. This scale has been shown to be
a reliable, with reliabilities ranging from .62 to .71, and a valid predictor of
performance in both sales and customer service positions in the U.S. and Mexico
(O’Connell, 1998).
Sales Judgment. A 10–item situational judgment measure of effective sales
behavior was administered. This scale was developed using a methodology similar
to that described in Motowidlo, Dunnette, and Carter (1990). Participants selected
the best and worst response from four options for five scenarios describing
situations encountered by retail sales people. Candidates received one point each
for correctly selecting the best and worst alternatives, respectively.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
276
PREDICTORS OF OCB
Criteria
OCB. Supervisors evaluated the OCB of the individual salespeople using a
10–item scale that was based upon Becker and Randall (1994). This measure was
designed to measure two dimensions of OCB, altruism and conscientiousness.
Altruism refers to the process of helping co-workers complete job related tasks,
while conscientiousness refers to those behaviors that aid organizational
functioning in general. Some of the behaviors associated with conscientiousness
include working late on a big project, using time efficiently while at work, and not
wasting company resources. Factor analyses based on a sample of over 300
restaurant employees revealed that this two-factor structure was effectively assessed
by this measure (Becker & Randall, 1994).
Actual Sales. Information was gathered on the actual sales performance for
each of the salespeople. Each salesperson was assigned a monthly goal by the
organization. This goal took into account the store and department in which the
salesperson was working. Actual sales for a 3 month time period were compared to
the salesperson’s goal for those months. A ratio of actual sales versus sale’s goal
was calculated for each individual, and an average ratio over the 3 months was used
as a measure of sales performance. Previous research (O´Connell et al., 2000) with
this index suggested that the estimated reliability was = .59, which is consistent
with the level of reliability found in a meta-analysis of sales data (Hunter, Schmidt,
& Judiesch, 1990).
Procedure
The measures or scales were included in a computerized assessment battery
administered to the salespeople. The full assessment process took approximately
two hours.
Results
The results of the correlational analysis can be seen in Table 1, which presents
the means, standard deviations and correlations for all variables used in the study.
The personality variable of Conscientiousness clearly had the strongest correlation
with OCB, followed by Customer Service Attitudes, and then Negative Affectivity
scale. The Sales Situational Judgment measure was not significantly related to
ratings of OCB. Only the Sales Situational Judgment measure, however, was
significantly related to the criterion of Sales Performance.
In terms of specific hypotheses, Hypothesis 1 predicted a low to moderate
correlation between supervisor ratings of OCB and actual sales performance. This
hypothesis was supported with a relationship between OCB and sales performance
of r = .21, p < .05. While significant, this correlation is relatively low. Hypothesis 2
predicted that the personality variable of conscientiousness would be positively
correlated with OCB. This was confirmed as the two had a significant relationship
of r = .35, p < .01. Hypothesis 3 examined the relationship of negative affectivity
with OCB, and as predicted, a significant negative correlation was found, r = –.24,
p < .01. Hypothesis 4 looked at the relationship between customer service and OCB
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
277
and again, as predicted, a positive correlation was found, r = .27, p < .01. Finally,
Hypothesis 5 predicted a positive relationship between sales judgment and actual
sales performance which was confirmed, r = .18, p < .05. In sum, all predicted
hypotheses were supported.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for All Variables Used in the Study
Mean
SD
1
2
3
1.
CO
4.00
.60
2.
NA
4.14
.72
.33** (.68)
3.
CSA
4.47
.95
.51** –.25** (.63)
4.
SJ
4.00
2.36
5.
OCB
3.57
.58
6.
SP
1.02
.31
4
5
6
(.83)
.08
.06
.05
(.67)
.35** –.24** .27** .06
–.02
–.03
.15
.18*
(.79)
.21* (.63)
Note: N = 112. CO = Conscientiousness scale; NA = Negative affectivity; CSA =
Customer service attitudes; SJ = Sales judgment; SP = Sales performance. Reliabilities
(alpha) appear in the diagonal. Correlations were not adjusted for attenuation or range
restriction.
*p < .05. **p < .01. (two-tailed)
Discussion
This study attempted to examine the relationship between personality
variables, customer service attitudes, sales performance and OCBs with a Mexican
sample of retail salespeople. The results indicate that OCB and objective sales
performance are relatively independent constructs for this sample of retail
salespeople, although there is a relationship between the two. This indicates that
managers distinguish between these two criteria, and that sales people engage in
both types of behaviors. The relationship between the two is moderate, as expected
since OCBs may actually interfere with a salesperson's ability to complete sales. In
addition to the relatively low correlation between the two variables, different
predictor variables emerged as significant predictors of the two constructs. While
situational sales judgments were correlated with actual sales performance, they
were not correlated with OCBs. Therefore it seems that while sales judgment may
predict sales performance, OCBs are predicted more strongly by personality
measures.
The hypothesis that OCB would be related to conscientiousness, negative
affectivity, and attitudes was supported. This finding is consistent with previous
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
278
PREDICTORS OF OCB
findings that OCB is affected by mood and job satisfaction (Smith et al., 1983;
Organ, 1997) and that personality variables are more predictive for contextual
variables than for task performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997; Motowidlo &
Van Scotter, 1994). Hence the predictors of OCB appear to be stable crossculturally, even in a culture with low work centrality values. Although the
antecedents of OCB are no doubt numerous and multifaceted, it does appear that
stable individual differences in personality, affectivity and attitudes are valid
predictors of OCB, and these antecedents consistently predict OCB within a
Mexican sample.
This consistency with past research between personality factors and OCB is
also important given the sales context of the current study. As hypothesized, an
attitude measure of customer service was positively related to OCBs. Therefore, a
salesperson’s positive view of customers may lead him/her to engage in more
OCBs. The small relationship between OCBs and actual sales performance is also
interesting as one could argue that time spent engaging in OCBs may lead to less
time spent focusing on making a sale. While OCBs apparently do not hinder sales
performance, they are not strong predictors of it either. A much stronger predictor
of actual sales performance appears to be an individual’s sales judgment ability.
It should be kept in mind that the conceptualization of OCB used in the
current study is not the only conceptualization available at present (e.g., Podsakoff,
MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). What is described here as OCB refers only
to consciousness and altruistic behaviors, and the results should thus be interpreted
with this limitation in mind. Perhaps other types of OCBs would function
differently and relate differently to the other variables studied here. More research
is clearly needed to assess how different aspects of OCBs affect performance in an
international retail setting.
The selection process employed by managers, then, should take into account
these personality measures that predict OCBs in a cross-cultural context. At least
for retail salespeople, the personality measures of conscientiousness and negative
affectivity are both important in the prediction of future OCBs. Therefore, as well
as helping to improve the social-psychological environment of the workplace,
OCBs are correlated with customer service performance and hence they are
important behaviors for managers to encourage, and select for, in their employees.
References
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1996). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to
the organization: An examination of construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behavior ,
49, 252–276.
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five Personality dimensions and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–26.
Becker, T. E., & Randall, D. M. (1994). Validation of a measure of organizational
citizenship behavior against an objective behavioral criterion. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 54, 160–167.
Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1997). Task performance and contextual performance:
The meaning for personnel selection research. Human Performance, 10, 99–109.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
279
Borman, W. C., White, L. A., & Dorsey, D. W. (1995). Effects of ratee task performance
and interpersonal factors on supervisor and peer performance ratings. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 80, 168–177.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual
Review of Personality, 57, 195–214.
Farh, J., Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1990). Accounting for organizational
citizenship behavior: Leader fairness and task scope versus satisfaction. Journal of
Management, 16, 705–721.
George, J. M. (1990). Personality, affect, and behavior in groups. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 75, 107–116.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Motivation, leadership, and organization: Do American theories apply
abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 9 (Need issue #), 42–63.
Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Judiesch, M. K. (1990). Individual differences in output
variability as a function of job complexity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 28–42.
Levin, I., & Stokes, J. P. (1989). Dispositional approach to job satisfaction: Role of negative
affectivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 752–758.
Motowidlo, S. J., Borman, W. C., & Schmit, M. J. (1997). A theory of individual
differences in task and contextual performance. Human Performance, 10, 71–83.
Motowidlo, S. J., Dunnette, M. D., & Carter, G. W. (1990). An alternative selection
procedure: The low fidelity simulation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 640–647.
Motowidlo, S. J., & Van Scotter, J. R. (1994). Evidence that task performance should be
distinguished from contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 475–
480.
Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Strauss, J. P. (1994). Validity of observer ratings of the
Big Five Personality factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 272–280.
O’Connell, M. S. (1998). Development and validation of a scale to measure beliefs about
effective customer service (Technical report). Pittsburgh, PA: Select International.
O’Connell, M. S., Hattrup, K., Doverspike, D., & Blumental, A. J. (2000) Predicting sales
performance using "mini" simulations: A concurrent validation study with Mexican
retail salespeople. Unpublished manuscript, University of Akron, OH.
Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It’s construct clean-up time.
Human Performance, 10, 85–97.
Organ, D. W., & Konovsky, M. (1989). Cognitive versus affective determinants of
organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 157–164.
Organ, D. W., & Ryan, K. (1995). A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional
predictors of organizational citizenship behaviors. Personnel Psychology, 48, 775–802.
Pelled, L. H., & Xin, K. (1997). Work values and their human resource management
implications: A theoretical comparison of China, Mexico and the United States. Journal
of Applied Management Studies, 6, 185–198.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational
leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and
organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107–142.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. J. (2000). Organizational
citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and
suggestion for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 513–563.
Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its
nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 653–663.
Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., & Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as predictors of
job performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703–742.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
280
PREDICTORS OF OCB
Biographical Note
Christina Norris-Watts
University of Akron
Department of Psychology
Polsky Building, 3rd Floor
225 South Main St
Akron, OH 44325–4301
Phone/Fax: 330–972–7280/5174
Email: cnn@akron.edu
Christina Norris-Watts is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Psychology at
the University of Akron. Her research interests include performance management, extra-role
behaviors, and the effects of generational differences at work.
Matthew S. O'Connell is the co-founder and Director of Research and Development at
Select International, Inc. His research includes personnel selection procedures, leadership
assessment and theory, computer-based assessment, and cross-cultural psychology.
Dennis Doverspike is Professor of Psychology at the University of Akron. Currently, his
major research interests include safety issues, recruiting, compensation, diversity, and
testing and assessment issues.
Keith Hattrup is currently Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Applied Psychology
Program in the Department of Psychology at San Diego State University. His research
interests include job performance theory, personnel selection procedures, adverse impact
and fairness in hiring, and cross-cultural psychology.
Received: February 12, 2001
Accepted by Daniel J. Svyantek after two revisions: February 1, 2002
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
281
ignore this taable
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for All Variables Used in the Study
Mean SD
1
2
3
4
Conscient NA Cust Serv (P)Sales (SJ)
1
4.00
.60
2
4.14
.72
.33**
3
4.47
.95
.51** –.25**
4
4.00 2.36
.08
5
3.57
.58
.35** –.24**
6
1.02
.31
5
OCB
6
Sales Perf.
(.83)
–.02
(.68)
.06
–.03
(.63)
.05
(.67)
.27**
.06
(.79)
.15
.18*
.21*
(.63)
Note: Reliabilities (alpha) appear in the diagonal. All correlations are based on a sample
size of 112. Correlations were not adjusted for attenuation or range restriction.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis
2001, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 272–280
PREDICTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR AMONG MEXICAN
RETAIL SALESPEOPLE
Matthew S. O’Connell
Select International, Inc.
Dennis Doverspike
Christina Norris-Watts
University of Akron
Keith Hattrup
San Diego State University
The present study examined multiple antecedents of organizational
citizenship behaviors (OCB) in a Mexican sample of retail salespeople.
Although a quota based measure of sales performance was correlated
with OCB, the correlation was relatively low. However, personality and
attitude measures, with conscientiousness having the cleanest
relationship, were significantly correlated with OCB. A situational
judgment measure was significantly correlated with sales performance.
These findings indicate that individual personality facets may be stable
predictors of OCB in Mexican samples.
Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has received a great deal of
attention in scholarly journals over the past several years (Becker & Randall, 1994;
George, 1990; Organ, 1997). OCBs can be defined as those behaviors that
“contribute to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological
context that supports task performance” (Organ, 1997, p. 91). It is, therefore, a
separate construct from task performance in that it involves those behaviors that are
not required of the job, but are performed by the employee in order to enhance the
job environment and contribute indirectly to organizational effectiveness (Smith,
Organ, & Near, 1983).
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
273
The present study attempts to examine the relationship between personality
facets and OCB. While past research has typically studied OCB solely from an
Anglo-American point of view, this study attempts to examine the correlates of
OCB in a Mexican sample. Relationships between OCBs, personality variables,
supervisor ratings, and objective work criteria considered in this Mexican sample to
examine whether or not the relationships between these predictors and OCB are
similar to the relationships evident in prior research. This study also examines
current OCB research by examining this behavior within a retail sales context.
OCBs directed at the employer or co-workers may or may not influence customer
service and hence, sales. It is therefore unclear from past research exactly how
OCBs will be related to sales performance.
The quest to identify individual personality traits or abilities that predict OCB
has often been met with small or contradictory relationships (Organ & Ryan, 1995).
Those dispositional predictors of OCB that do prove significant are often attributed
to common method bias as OCBs are usually measured using self-report techniques
(Organ & Ryan, 1995). However, when measuring performance rated by another
source, personality ratings were found to explain significant incremental variance in
these ratings (Mount, Barrick, & Strauss, 1994). Also, OCBs have been found to
correlate with six different personality dimensions while task performance
correlated only with two different personality dimensions (Motowidlo & Van
Scotter, 1994).
Specific personality variables that may yield a more consistent relationship
with OCB include negative affectivity and conscientiousness. George (1990) found
that negative affectivity was related to levels of OCB. A negative correlation of r =
–.51 was found between negative affectivity, as defined through obnoxious
behaviors, and a contextual performance variable (Borman, White, & Dorsey,
1995). Other personality variables, such as conscientiousness, should also be
strongly related to OCB since a growing body of research has found that among the
Big Five personality variables, conscientiousness is consistently related to
supervisor ratings of performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Tett, Jackson, &
Rothstein, 1991). Also, conceptually, the aspects of personality which are usually
considered to constitute the second order conscientiousness factors, such as being
orderly, punctual, hardworking, having a strong work ethic, etc. (Digman, 1990)
overlap well with OCB.
Another major class of predictors of OCB in the workplace appears to be
attitudes toward one’s work or job (Organ, 1997). Job satisfaction, leader
supportiveness, organizational commitment, job involvement and perceived
fairness have all been found to predict OCB (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Farh,
Podsakoff, & Organ, 1990; Organ & Konovksy, 1989; Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). An underlying “morale” factor that predicts OCB is
often the justification used to explain these findings (Organ, 1997). Attitudes
toward customers in a sales setting, however, have not been examined as often with
respect to OCB. It is expected here that more positive attitudes toward customers,
as helping to generate a more positive “morale” perception, may lead to more
OCBs.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
274
PREDICTORS OF OCB
This study extends previous research by adding a cross-cultural component to
OCB prediction in that the study was conducted with a Mexican sample. Mexican
culture, while examined in cross culture research (i.e., Hofstede, 1980), is not often
empirically examined with respect to the culture’s impact on work behaviors or
outcomes. Mexican culture has been classified as a culture high in masculinity, low
in individuality, high in uncertainty avoidance, and very high in power distance
(Hofstede, 1980). However, more important to the study of OCB is the aspect of
Mexican culture that views work as a means to an end rather than an end in and of
itself (Pelled & Xin, 1997). While the Protestant Work Ethic may drive workers in
the United States, Mexican workers may see work as something that needs to be
done, but that should not be overly enjoyed (Pelled & Xin, 1997).
Research with samples from the United States has found that the highest
correlations between personality factors and contextual performance were found for
work orientation (r = .36), dependability (r = .31), internal control (r = .26) and
cooperativeness (r = .22) (Motowidlo, Borman, & Schmidt, 1997). Since work
orientation is not as central to Mexican culture, and these other personality
difference variables take a different role in Mexico as well, it is unclear how
personality variables will relate to OCBs in Mexico.
The current study attempts to identify individual difference variables (i.e.,
personality, ability, and attitude) that may be predictive of OCB for a sample of
retail salespeople. Retail salespeople were viewed as an appropriate group for
studying OCB because salespeople are compensated for sales and not for OCBs.
Therefore, engaging in OCB is a volitional act that may or may not improve actual
sales performance. OCBs performed by sales personnel could actually hinder actual
sales performance, because these behaviors would be directed toward improving
the organization, rather than improving the chance of successfully completing a
sale. The relationship between OCB and sales performance then is expected to be
low to moderate at best. A stronger relationship is proposed between attitudes
toward productive sales behavior and actual sales performance.
If the predictors of OCBs are indeed stable across cultures and if OCBs do
lead to improved performance in a sales context, it seems like these predictors
would be of great interest to those selecting to fill sales positions within any
organization. By using dispositional factors in selection, an organization could
secure more OCBs within their organization. Proving that these dispositional
factors do indeed predict OCBs in a Mexican sample as well as a sales context is a
necessary first step to demonstrating the consistency of the predictors of OCB, and
hence proving the usefulness in using these predictors in a selection context across
international organizations.
Based upon this previous research, it was hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 1: There would be a low to moderate correlation between
supervisor ratings of OCB and actual task performance (i.e.,
sales performance);
Hypothesis 2: The personality variable of conscientiousness would be
positively correlated with OCB;
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
275
Hypothesis 3: The personality variable of negative affectivity would be
negatively correlated with OCB;
Hypothesis 4: An attitude measure of customer service would be positively
correlated with OCB; and
Hypothesis 5: The attitude measure of sales judgment would be positively
correlated with actual sales performance.
Method
Participants
As part of a concurrent validation study, 112 retail salespeople from 3 stores
within a large, metropolitan, Mexican city took part in the study. The stores were
large retail department stores. There were 83 females and 39 males. The average
age of the group was 24 years, with an average of 2.8 years of experience on the
job.
Measures
All measures were developed or adapted for the Mexican sample. Instruments
were translated into Spanish and then back-translated.
Conscientiousness Scale. A 23–item conscientiousness scale was developed
for the Mexican sample. The 23 statements were rated using a 5–point Likert-type
scale. Based upon previous studies, the estimated internal consistency reliability
(coefficient alpha) of the scale was .74 (O´Connell, Hattrup, Doverspike, &
Blumental, 2000). This scale has been shown to be a valid predictor of performance
in both Mexico and the U.S. (O’Connell, 1998). The score on this scale was the
average score on the items.
Negative Affectivity. An 11–item negative affectivity, which was based on
the 21–item scaled developed by Levin and Stokes (1989; George, 1990), was
adapted for administration to a Mexican sample. Each item was rated on a 5–point
scale. A total score was calculated based upon the average score across the 11
items. Based on previous work with the longer version of the scale, internal
consistencies in the mid .80s have been reported (Levin & Stokes, 1989).
Customer Service Attitudes. A 14–item scale was used to measure attitudes
towards effective customer service. Each item was rated on a 5–point scale and the
total score was based on the average across items. This scale has been shown to be
a reliable, with reliabilities ranging from .62 to .71, and a valid predictor of
performance in both sales and customer service positions in the U.S. and Mexico
(O’Connell, 1998).
Sales Judgment. A 10–item situational judgment measure of effective sales
behavior was administered. This scale was developed using a methodology similar
to that described in Motowidlo, Dunnette, and Carter (1990). Participants selected
the best and worst response from four options for five scenarios describing
situations encountered by retail sales people. Candidates received one point each
for correctly selecting the best and worst alternatives, respectively.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
276
PREDICTORS OF OCB
Criteria
OCB. Supervisors evaluated the OCB of the individual salespeople using a
10–item scale that was based upon Becker and Randall (1994). This measure was
designed to measure two dimensions of OCB, altruism and conscientiousness.
Altruism refers to the process of helping co-workers complete job related tasks,
while conscientiousness refers to those behaviors that aid organizational
functioning in general. Some of the behaviors associated with conscientiousness
include working late on a big project, using time efficiently while at work, and not
wasting company resources. Factor analyses based on a sample of over 300
restaurant employees revealed that this two-factor structure was effectively assessed
by this measure (Becker & Randall, 1994).
Actual Sales. Information was gathered on the actual sales performance for
each of the salespeople. Each salesperson was assigned a monthly goal by the
organization. This goal took into account the store and department in which the
salesperson was working. Actual sales for a 3 month time period were compared to
the salesperson’s goal for those months. A ratio of actual sales versus sale’s goal
was calculated for each individual, and an average ratio over the 3 months was used
as a measure of sales performance. Previous research (O´Connell et al., 2000) with
this index suggested that the estimated reliability was = .59, which is consistent
with the level of reliability found in a meta-analysis of sales data (Hunter, Schmidt,
& Judiesch, 1990).
Procedure
The measures or scales were included in a computerized assessment battery
administered to the salespeople. The full assessment process took approximately
two hours.
Results
The results of the correlational analysis can be seen in Table 1, which presents
the means, standard deviations and correlations for all variables used in the study.
The personality variable of Conscientiousness clearly had the strongest correlation
with OCB, followed by Customer Service Attitudes, and then Negative Affectivity
scale. The Sales Situational Judgment measure was not significantly related to
ratings of OCB. Only the Sales Situational Judgment measure, however, was
significantly related to the criterion of Sales Performance.
In terms of specific hypotheses, Hypothesis 1 predicted a low to moderate
correlation between supervisor ratings of OCB and actual sales performance. This
hypothesis was supported with a relationship between OCB and sales performance
of r = .21, p < .05. While significant, this correlation is relatively low. Hypothesis 2
predicted that the personality variable of conscientiousness would be positively
correlated with OCB. This was confirmed as the two had a significant relationship
of r = .35, p < .01. Hypothesis 3 examined the relationship of negative affectivity
with OCB, and as predicted, a significant negative correlation was found, r = –.24,
p < .01. Hypothesis 4 looked at the relationship between customer service and OCB
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
277
and again, as predicted, a positive correlation was found, r = .27, p < .01. Finally,
Hypothesis 5 predicted a positive relationship between sales judgment and actual
sales performance which was confirmed, r = .18, p < .05. In sum, all predicted
hypotheses were supported.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for All Variables Used in the Study
Mean
SD
1
2
3
1.
CO
4.00
.60
2.
NA
4.14
.72
.33** (.68)
3.
CSA
4.47
.95
.51** –.25** (.63)
4.
SJ
4.00
2.36
5.
OCB
3.57
.58
6.
SP
1.02
.31
4
5
6
(.83)
.08
.06
.05
(.67)
.35** –.24** .27** .06
–.02
–.03
.15
.18*
(.79)
.21* (.63)
Note: N = 112. CO = Conscientiousness scale; NA = Negative affectivity; CSA =
Customer service attitudes; SJ = Sales judgment; SP = Sales performance. Reliabilities
(alpha) appear in the diagonal. Correlations were not adjusted for attenuation or range
restriction.
*p < .05. **p < .01. (two-tailed)
Discussion
This study attempted to examine the relationship between personality
variables, customer service attitudes, sales performance and OCBs with a Mexican
sample of retail salespeople. The results indicate that OCB and objective sales
performance are relatively independent constructs for this sample of retail
salespeople, although there is a relationship between the two. This indicates that
managers distinguish between these two criteria, and that sales people engage in
both types of behaviors. The relationship between the two is moderate, as expected
since OCBs may actually interfere with a salesperson's ability to complete sales. In
addition to the relatively low correlation between the two variables, different
predictor variables emerged as significant predictors of the two constructs. While
situational sales judgments were correlated with actual sales performance, they
were not correlated with OCBs. Therefore it seems that while sales judgment may
predict sales performance, OCBs are predicted more strongly by personality
measures.
The hypothesis that OCB would be related to conscientiousness, negative
affectivity, and attitudes was supported. This finding is consistent with previous
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
278
PREDICTORS OF OCB
findings that OCB is affected by mood and job satisfaction (Smith et al., 1983;
Organ, 1997) and that personality variables are more predictive for contextual
variables than for task performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997; Motowidlo &
Van Scotter, 1994). Hence the predictors of OCB appear to be stable crossculturally, even in a culture with low work centrality values. Although the
antecedents of OCB are no doubt numerous and multifaceted, it does appear that
stable individual differences in personality, affectivity and attitudes are valid
predictors of OCB, and these antecedents consistently predict OCB within a
Mexican sample.
This consistency with past research between personality factors and OCB is
also important given the sales context of the current study. As hypothesized, an
attitude measure of customer service was positively related to OCBs. Therefore, a
salesperson’s positive view of customers may lead him/her to engage in more
OCBs. The small relationship between OCBs and actual sales performance is also
interesting as one could argue that time spent engaging in OCBs may lead to less
time spent focusing on making a sale. While OCBs apparently do not hinder sales
performance, they are not strong predictors of it either. A much stronger predictor
of actual sales performance appears to be an individual’s sales judgment ability.
It should be kept in mind that the conceptualization of OCB used in the
current study is not the only conceptualization available at present (e.g., Podsakoff,
MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). What is described here as OCB refers only
to consciousness and altruistic behaviors, and the results should thus be interpreted
with this limitation in mind. Perhaps other types of OCBs would function
differently and relate differently to the other variables studied here. More research
is clearly needed to assess how different aspects of OCBs affect performance in an
international retail setting.
The selection process employed by managers, then, should take into account
these personality measures that predict OCBs in a cross-cultural context. At least
for retail salespeople, the personality measures of conscientiousness and negative
affectivity are both important in the prediction of future OCBs. Therefore, as well
as helping to improve the social-psychological environment of the workplace,
OCBs are correlated with customer service performance and hence they are
important behaviors for managers to encourage, and select for, in their employees.
References
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1996). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to
the organization: An examination of construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behavior ,
49, 252–276.
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The Big Five Personality dimensions and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–26.
Becker, T. E., & Randall, D. M. (1994). Validation of a measure of organizational
citizenship behavior against an objective behavioral criterion. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 54, 160–167.
Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1997). Task performance and contextual performance:
The meaning for personnel selection research. Human Performance, 10, 99–109.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
279
Borman, W. C., White, L. A., & Dorsey, D. W. (1995). Effects of ratee task performance
and interpersonal factors on supervisor and peer performance ratings. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 80, 168–177.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual
Review of Personality, 57, 195–214.
Farh, J., Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1990). Accounting for organizational
citizenship behavior: Leader fairness and task scope versus satisfaction. Journal of
Management, 16, 705–721.
George, J. M. (1990). Personality, affect, and behavior in groups. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 75, 107–116.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Motivation, leadership, and organization: Do American theories apply
abroad? Organizational Dynamics, 9 (Need issue #), 42–63.
Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Judiesch, M. K. (1990). Individual differences in output
variability as a function of job complexity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 28–42.
Levin, I., & Stokes, J. P. (1989). Dispositional approach to job satisfaction: Role of negative
affectivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 752–758.
Motowidlo, S. J., Borman, W. C., & Schmit, M. J. (1997). A theory of individual
differences in task and contextual performance. Human Performance, 10, 71–83.
Motowidlo, S. J., Dunnette, M. D., & Carter, G. W. (1990). An alternative selection
procedure: The low fidelity simulation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 640–647.
Motowidlo, S. J., & Van Scotter, J. R. (1994). Evidence that task performance should be
distinguished from contextual performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 475–
480.
Mount, M. K., Barrick, M. R., & Strauss, J. P. (1994). Validity of observer ratings of the
Big Five Personality factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 272–280.
O’Connell, M. S. (1998). Development and validation of a scale to measure beliefs about
effective customer service (Technical report). Pittsburgh, PA: Select International.
O’Connell, M. S., Hattrup, K., Doverspike, D., & Blumental, A. J. (2000) Predicting sales
performance using "mini" simulations: A concurrent validation study with Mexican
retail salespeople. Unpublished manuscript, University of Akron, OH.
Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It’s construct clean-up time.
Human Performance, 10, 85–97.
Organ, D. W., & Konovsky, M. (1989). Cognitive versus affective determinants of
organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 157–164.
Organ, D. W., & Ryan, K. (1995). A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional
predictors of organizational citizenship behaviors. Personnel Psychology, 48, 775–802.
Pelled, L. H., & Xin, K. (1997). Work values and their human resource management
implications: A theoretical comparison of China, Mexico and the United States. Journal
of Applied Management Studies, 6, 185–198.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational
leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and
organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107–142.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. J. (2000). Organizational
citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and
suggestion for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 513–563.
Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its
nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 653–663.
Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., & Rothstein, M. (1991). Personality measures as predictors of
job performance: A meta-analytic review. Personnel Psychology, 44, 703–742.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
280
PREDICTORS OF OCB
Biographical Note
Christina Norris-Watts
University of Akron
Department of Psychology
Polsky Building, 3rd Floor
225 South Main St
Akron, OH 44325–4301
Phone/Fax: 330–972–7280/5174
Email: cnn@akron.edu
Christina Norris-Watts is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Psychology at
the University of Akron. Her research interests include performance management, extra-role
behaviors, and the effects of generational differences at work.
Matthew S. O'Connell is the co-founder and Director of Research and Development at
Select International, Inc. His research includes personnel selection procedures, leadership
assessment and theory, computer-based assessment, and cross-cultural psychology.
Dennis Doverspike is Professor of Psychology at the University of Akron. Currently, his
major research interests include safety issues, recruiting, compensation, diversity, and
testing and assessment issues.
Keith Hattrup is currently Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Applied Psychology
Program in the Department of Psychology at San Diego State University. His research
interests include job performance theory, personnel selection procedures, adverse impact
and fairness in hiring, and cross-cultural psychology.
Received: February 12, 2001
Accepted by Daniel J. Svyantek after two revisions: February 1, 2002
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001
M. S. O'CONNELL, D. DOVERSPIKE, C. NORRIS-WATTS, AND K. HATTRUP
281
ignore this taable
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for All Variables Used in the Study
Mean SD
1
2
3
4
Conscient NA Cust Serv (P)Sales (SJ)
1
4.00
.60
2
4.14
.72
.33**
3
4.47
.95
.51** –.25**
4
4.00 2.36
.08
5
3.57
.58
.35** –.24**
6
1.02
.31
5
OCB
6
Sales Perf.
(.83)
–.02
(.68)
.06
–.03
(.63)
.05
(.67)
.27**
.06
(.79)
.15
.18*
.21*
(.63)
Note: Reliabilities (alpha) appear in the diagonal. All correlations are based on a sample
size of 112. Correlations were not adjusted for attenuation or range restriction.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
The International Journal of Organizational Analysis , Vol. 9, No. 3, 2001