RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

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CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The goal of this research is a description of Enggano phonology and phonetics that will be of typological interest and will be useful for language development, with a focus on vocoids and vocoid sequences. To accomplish this, I take what is already known about Enggano phonology and expand on that knowledge with original research. In this chapter I summarize what has been previously published about Enggano phonology. I then sketch out my objectives for further research and the methodology used to accomplish the objectives. As indicated in Chapter 1, the three publications that have information on Enggano phonology are Kähler’s grammar and dictionary and Nothofer’s 1992 paper on loanwords. Following is a summary of the analyses presented there. a Phoneme inventory: twelve to seventeen consonants and six to eight oral vowels with nasal counterparts. Kähler 1940 lists seventeen diphthongs in the phoneme inventory while other sources do not list these. b Syllable structure: CV and V. Kähler’s dictionary does not list any syllable codas. There are many vowel sequences. c Stress patterns: The discussion in the 1895 Holle list says, “word stress mostly is on the penultimate syllable; if not it falls on the final syllable” Stokhof 1987, 189. Kähler’s dictionary also states that stress is penultimate. d Morphophonology: There are many prefixes and suffixes in the language. As affixation is difficult to decipher in Kähler’s dictionary because of 13 typographical issues, it is difficult to tell whether there is any phonologically conditioned alternation in derived forms. e Dialects: The Kähler grammar lists a few phonological differences between two dialects, and the older Dutch sources also list dialectal differences. There were apparently different speech patterns on several small inhabited outlying islands, especially Pulau Dua. Today the outlying islands are no longer inhabited. In 2007 Enggano speakers informed a sociolinguistic survey team that there was no dialect variation at all in the Enggano language Aprilani 2007. The same was reported to me during my field research in 2010. Only the northeastern coast of the island is now inhabited. Based on the goal of a descriptive phonology that is of typological interest, and based on what is already known from the literature, the following objectives guide the research. The focus here is on vowels and vocoid sequences. a Establish the phoneme inventory, specifically by resolving areas of disagreement between the various published phoneme inventories. b List and discuss basic phonological patterns including syllable structure, stress patterns, allophonic processes and positional neutralization of contrast. c List and discuss syllabification patterns in vocoid sequences. d Provide a phonological analysis of syllabification patterns of vocoid sequences. e Show the acoustic correlates duration, intensity, formants of all syllabification patterns of vocoid sequences. f Show how the vowel system maps out acoustically in the vowel space. Because of external factors, I was able to spend only two weeks doing intensive data collection in Meok. I was able to collect a large amount of quality data during that time, thanks to the guidance of my advisor and the generosity of my Enggano hosts. However, 14 two weeks is a very short time span for conducting field work, and there are several areas of Enggano phonology that remain unclear because of a lack of time in field research. If more extended visits to Enggano are undertaken in the future, researchers will be able to build on the initial research presented here. I discuss in prose below the methodologies used to accomplish the six objectives presented above. The phoneme inventories in Kähler 1940; 1987 and Nothofer 1992 give a total of fourteen vowels and eighteen consonants, including all of Kähler’s marginal consonants. For each of the vowels and consonants, native speakers were asked to think of words that contained that segment in various positions. Initially, the goal was to obtain ten examples of each consonant in the onset of syllables in three positions: initial, medial preLstress, and stressed; as well as wordLfinally. This is shown in 1. 1 Four word positions for consonant elicitation Example consonant: [p] Initial purik [purik] ‘grow’ Medial preLstress kĩpãʔĩõp [kĩpãʔjõp] ‘eight’ Stressed hãpɘ̃ʔ 5 [hãpɘ̃ʔ] ‘breathe’ Final kõp [kõp] ‘grave’ Each vowel was to be elicited in initial, stressed, and postLstress environments. These parameters were set up with the assumption that, as per Kähler, stress was penultimate and there were no syllable codas. When it became evident that stress was final, elicitation for the postLstress position was discontinued. Since wordLinitial syllable onsets are mandatory, elicitation for vowelLinitial words was discontinued as well. The word positions for vowel elicitation are shown in 2. 2 Three word positions for vowel elicitation Example vowel: [a] PreLstress tahaʔ [tahaʔ] ‘write’ Final closed syllable poraʔ [poraʔ] ‘split’ 5 Formant measurements of the mid central vowel show that it is acoustically higher than the other mid vowels e and o see section 5.2. Perceptually, the quality of this vowel sounds different from that of intrusive schwa see section 3.3. So the highLmid vowel symbol [ɘ] is used for the mid central phoneme, while the schwa symbol with the breve [ə̆] is used for intrusive schwa. 15 Final open syllable kitaha [kitaha] ‘centipede’ It also became evident during elicitation that there were many syllable codas in the language, including wordLinternal codas. This created the possibility of medial consonant sequences across syllable boundaries. Medial consonant sequences are common. Elicitation focused on consonant sequences was therefore not necessary since there were many examples of the sequences in words elicited for other purposes. Examples of each vocoid sequence 6 were elicited as well. The goal was to obtain at least five examples of all possible combinations, excluding homorganic sequences. The surrounding environment was not specified as it was for consonants and vowels. Speakers could only think of one or two examples of some of the rarer sequences, especially the nasal and nasalized sequences. A total of six men and two women, all from the village of Meok, participated in the research. All had spent most of their lives in Meok. All were initially thought to be firstL language Enggano speakers, although I learned later that one of the women had learned Indonesian as her first language and had learned Enggano while in elementary school. Data contributed by this speaker was not removed from the database since everyone agreed that she spoke Enggano no differently from anyone else, and had been fluent for a very long time. The speakers worked in small groups. Together they filled out paper forms that listed a segment, a specific environment, and ten blank example spaces for examples. The speakers worked in small groups to fill out the forms. One group member was informally assigned as the transcriber. Standard Indonesian orthography was used for 6 In this thesis, the term vocoid sequence is used to denote a sequence of underlying vowels. Vocoid sequences have surface realization as either two vowels or a vowel and an approximant. 16 transcription, with the addition of the apostrophe for glottal stop, schwa ə for both central vowels, and tilde e.g. ã for vowel nasalization. As lists of words were completed, all data was checked and reviewed with one of the speakers, and then entered into a FieldWorks database. 7 When all of the lists were complete and entered into the database, one of the speakers made an audio recording of the whole database. All recordings in the study were done on a Zoom H2 portable digital recorder with an Audio Technica Pro 70 lapel microphone. Recordings were made at 24 bit depth, 48 kHz sampling rate. The recordings were done in stereo mode, with right gain turned to zero. Using Audacity Audacity Team 2010, the right channel was extracted and deleted, leaving a mono file. For the recording, I gave a prompt in Indonesian and the speaker repeated the corresponding Enggano word twice. The only problem with this method was that it yielded words with “list intonation” – the first repeat of each word has a rising pitch and greater overall intensity, and the second has a falling pitch with lower overall intensity. All words in the FieldWorks database were later checked with the audio recordings to ensure phonetic accuracy. The database resulting from this methodology contains 841 entries. 144 of these are complex words, loanwords, or place names. These were removed for the basic phonological analysis. The database of basic words for phonological analysis thus contained 697 items. The audio files resulting from the research will be archived online in SIL International’s REAP archive. As of this writing, the REAP archive is still very new and has not yet been made publicly available on the Internet. Plans are being developed to make this data publicly available, however. 7 SIL International’s FLEx FieldWorks Language Explorer was used for the database of lexical items. SIL’s Phonology Assistant was used to analyze phonological patterns from the words in the corpus. Both programs are freely available on the Internet at http:fieldworks.sil.org and http:phonologyassistant.sil.org . 17 Most Enggano verbs and adjectives have affixation. These words were included in the basic database, while other complex and compound words were excluded. In the analysis, care was taken to ensure all phenomena are attested within morphemes and not only across morpheme boundaries. In verbs with affixation, it is not clear what form of the verb is represented with the different affixed forms. Determining this would require a morphological analysis, which was impossible due to time constraints. The Kähler grammar would have likely been of great help in this area, but it was largely inaccessible to me since it is written in German. All glosses of verbs, therefore, only contain the basic sense of the words and do not show what form of the verb is represented. Procedures for dividing morphophonological phenomena from phonological phenomena are discussed in Appendix A, along with a brief overview of affixation. For each vocoid, consonant, and vocoid sequence, one example word was recorded in the sentence frame [ʔu pe __ ʔan pe janik] ‘Say __ clearly’ for acoustic analysis. Words recorded in frames with a vocoid in focus are shown in 3, while those with a consonant in focus are shown in 4. The segment in focus is in bold. 3 Vocoids recorded in frames 8 hɘdik [hɘdik] ‘turn around’ kɨx [kɨx] ‘turtle’ duduk [duduk] ‘burn’ kaLrep [karep] ‘boil’ kɘx [kɘx] ‘mountain’ kaʔLtok [kaʔə̆tok] ‘red’ kak [kak] ‘person’ kãʔLkĩh [kãʔə̆kĩh] ‘dry’ pA ̃ʔ [pA ̃ʔ] ‘fireplace’ kũk [kũk] ‘back’ kãLpẽp [kãpẽp] ‘shallow’ 8 As discussed in sections 3.2 and 5.2 , the mid central vowel represented as [ə] in other sources is better represented as [ɘ] as it is acoustically higher than the other mid vowels. This convention is also useful to distinguish it from the schwa vowel inserted in consonant clusters, which I represent with the symbol [ə̆]. [x], [ç], and [s] were found to be allophones of x, as discussed in section 3.1.3. 18 kãʔLkɘ̃h [kãʔə̆kɘ̃h] ‘black’ kõp [kõp] ‘grave’ kãp [kãp] ‘traditional leader’ ʔaLioiaʔ [ʔajojaʔ] ‘pay out a rope’ ʔauaʔ [ʔawaʔ] ‘mangrove’ 4 Consonants recorded in frames ʔabeh [ʔabeh] ‘bamboo’ batar [batar] ‘pillow’ kaLder [kader] ‘soft’ kabakeʔ [kabakeʔ] a term of address baʔau [baʔ.au̯] ‘guava’ ʔamak [ʔãmãk] ‘God’ kanam [kãnãm] ‘salt’ karah [karah] ‘body’ pɘix [pɘi ̯s] ‘machete’ karaix [karaç] ‘cup’ kaʔLdaix [kaʔə̆daç] ‘white’ kɘx [kɘx] ‘mountain’ tahaʔ [tahaʔ] ‘write’ kaLlel [kalel] ‘soft’ Words recorded in frames with a vocoid sequence in focus are shown in 5. Here and throughout the thesis, syllable breaks between two vowels are marked with a period. Glottal consonants syllabify with the preceding vowel Chapter 4; these syllable breaks are also marked. 9 Syllable breaks not involving a vocoid sequence are unmarked. Most of the sequences are sequences of two vowels, but several have a vowel and an approximant. Because of time limitations, I was not able to record an exhaustive set of vowelLvowel and vowelLapproximant sequences. 5 Vocoid sequences recorded in frames hiur [hi.ur] ‘dust’ ie [je] ‘vomit’ hiɘr [hi.ɘr] ‘earthworm’ kiak [ki.ak] ‘blood’ dudiar [dudi.ar] ‘durian fruit’ kiLdadaʔɨɘh [kidadaʔ.ɨ ̯ɘh] ‘care for deceased’s spouse’ kaʔhɨɘ [kaʔə̆hɨ.ɘ] ‘female leader’ 9 This analysis of glottal consonant syllabification is necessary for the analysis of vocoid sequence syllabification presented in Chapter 4. I assume that there is no articulatory or perceptual difference between glottal consonant as coda e.g. [bah.aʊ̯ʔ] and onset e.g. [ba.haʊ̯ʔ]. These syllabification marks are part of the analysis rather than a reflection of actual articulation. 19 kaLkɨɘ [kakɨ.ɘ] ‘short’ pɨah [pɨ.ah] ‘face’ kahʔuis [kahə̆ʔwis] ‘sea crab’ baLʔueh [baʔweh] ‘sleep’ ʔiLʔuoʔ [ʔiʔwoʔ] ‘there’ puak [pu.ak] ‘go’ kikeor [kike.or] ‘lost’ kiLdeok [kide.ok] ‘pinched’ paLhitɘi [pahitɘi ̯] ‘mock’ koi [koi ̯] ‘wild pig’ bohoe [boh.o̯e] ‘wild’ koar [ko.ar] ‘type of kitchen utensil’ paido [pai ̯do] ‘cry’ bahauʔ [bah.aʊ̯ʔ] ‘heart’ beia [beja] ‘table’ tauud [tawud] ‘year’ Words recorded in frames with a nasal or nasalized sequence in focus are shown in 6. 6 Nasal and nasalized sequences recorded in frames hĩũk [hĩ.ũk] ‘louse’ kiLhĩẽk [kĩhjẽk] ‘sit’ kĩʔj ̃ɘ̃kj ̃ʔF ̃ɘ̃ [kĩʔjɘ̃kj ̃ʔjɘ̃] ‘sea creature sp.’ hion [hĩ.õn] ‘scratch’ kiLhiam [kĩhjãm] ‘itchy’ ĩũʔpA ̃ãʔ [jũʔə̆pA ̃.ãʔ] ‘fence’ kũʔũĩ [kũʔwĩ] ‘great grandparent’ kũhũẽ [kũhwẽ] ‘usefulness’ muo [mũ.õ] ‘flower’ kuan [kũ.ãn] ‘when’ hẽõk [hẽ.õk] ‘cockroach’ ʔẽãp [ʔẽ.ãp] ‘thick’ kiLmɘmɘi [kĩmɘ̃mɘ̃F ̯̃] ‘overcast’ pinohoi [pĩnõh.õF ̯̃] ‘naïve’ koan [kõ.ãn] ‘Lord’ ʔamahai [ʔãmãh.ãF ̯̃] ‘bed’ painɘn [pãF ̯̃nɘ̃n] ‘feelings ‘ kĩpãʔãũp [kĩpãʔ.ãʊ̯̃p] ‘ten’ kãʔãũ [kãʔ.ãũ̯] ‘fat adj.’ Six speakers were given the list of words written in five different orders on separate sheets of paper. Each speaker went through the lists one at a time, repeating each word in the frame [ʔu pe ___ ʔan pe janik] ‘Say ___ clearly’. For analysis I selected two recordings each from four men, totaling eight tokens of each word. I chose the second and third recordings from each speaker unless there was a problem with one of these 20 such as stuttering, stumbling or scrambling the words in the frame, a pause part way through the frame phrase, or background noise. In these cases I selected the fourth recording of the word unless it also was problematic, in which case I chose the first or fifth one. I also recorded all the words from the entire database in list format with one speaker. I spoke the Indonesian prompt once, and the speaker repeated the Enggano word twice. When the words recorded in frames were not sufficient for acoustic analysis, I used recordings of words from this comprehensive list. 21

CHAPTER 3 OVERVIEW OF ENGGANO PHONOLOGY