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raising of different parts of the tongue as well as the extent of the raising. As an example, [i] and [u] are different because [u] is a back vowel, one which is
produced with the back of the tongue raised, whereas [i] is a front vowel which is produced with the front of the tongue raised.
There is another important criterion in the classification of vowels i.e., how wide is the mouth open. The vowels [a] and [ɑ] , for instance, have one common
feature i.e., they are produced with the mouth wide open. In other words, there is a maximum distance between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. This is a
difference in height. Thus, [i] and [u] are high vowels and [a] and [ɑ] are low vowels.
The four vowel sounds, Giegerich 1992 explains, represent the extreme points of the principal dimensions of vowel articulation: height and backness.
Thus, [i] is a high front vowel, [u] a high back vowel, [a] a low front vowel and [ɑ] a low back vowel. If the the height of [i]-[a] scale is divided into four points that
are of equal distance, Giegerich argues, there will be four vowels that can be symbolized as [i] - [e] - [ɛ] -[a] in the vowel diagram.
For the back series, Giegerich 1992 maintains, one may fill in the corresponding intermediate vowels as [o] and [ɔ], so that [u]-[o]-[ɔ]-[a] represent
the set of back reference vowels. This system of reference vowels is known as the Cardinal Vowels Scale CV Scale devised by the English phonetician
Daniel Jones. In addition, Stuart Poole 1999 explains, vowels made with an open mouth cavity, with the tongue far away from the roof of the mouth, such
as æ in trap and ɑ: in palm are termed open vowels. If the upper tongue PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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surface is close to the roof of the mouth such as i: in fleece, the sounds are close vowels.
Figure 2.2 English Vowel Chart Finegan, 2004: 95
2.1.4.2 English Consonants
Linguists have also agreed on the general descriptions of consonants. In order to form consonants, Collins and Mees 2003 explain, the air-stream through
the vocal tract must be obstructed in some way. In addition, the two phonologists ascertain, consonants can be classified according to the place and manner of
articulation. Places of articulation indicate what articulators are involved in the production of speech sounds.
2.1.4.2.1 Bilabial
According to Giegerich 1992, English bilabial sounds i.e., [b], [p], [m] are produced by bringing the lips together as in pie, buy, and my. Though all the three
of them are bilabials, they are discrete sounds which are composed of different PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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features. [p] has the features of [- voice, + stop]. [b] has the features of [+voice, + stop] and [m] has the features of [+voice, +stop, + nasal].
2.1.4.2.2 Labiodental
Giegerich 1992 explains that English labiodental sounds i.e., [f],[v]] are produced by raising the lower lip against the upper incisors as in fat and vat.
Though both are labiodentals, they are different sounds which are composed of different features. [f] has the features of [+labial, -voice, +fricative] and [v] has
the features of [+labial, +voice, + fricative].
2.1.4.2.3 Interdental
According to Giegerich 1992, interdental sounds [θ], [ð] are produced by raising the tip of the tongue against the upper incisors, or inserting it between the
upper and lower incisors as in thigh and thy. The two of them, however, are discrete sounds which are composed of different features. [θ] has the features of [-
voice, + stop, + fricative]. Whereas [ð] has the features of [+ voice, + stop, +fricative].
2.1.4.2.4 Alveolar
English alveolar sounds [d],[n],[s],[z],[l],[t], Giegerich explains, are produced by raising the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. Examples are
nigh, lie, tie, sue, and zoo. All the six are, however, discrete sounds which are composed of different features. [d] has the features of [+voice, +stop]. [n] is
composed of features such as [+voice, +nasal]. [s] is composed of features such as [- voice, + fricative, +sibilant]. [z] is composed of features such as [+voice,
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+fricative, + sibilant]. [l] is composed of features such as [+lateral, approximant, +voice]. [t] is composed of features such as [+stop, - voice].
2.1.4.2.5 Palato-Alveolar
English palatal sounds [ʃ], [Ʒ,] [tʃ], [dƷ], according to Giegerich 1992, are produced by raising the front of the tongue towards the back of the alveolar ridge
and the front of the palate as in she and leisure. However, each of them is a discrete sound which is composed of different features. [ʃ] is composed of
features such as [+fricative, +sibilant, - voice]. [Ʒ] has the features of [+sibilant, +fricative, +voice]. [tʃ] is composed of features such as [+sibilant, + fricative, -
voice].
2.1.4.2.6 Palatal
In the production of a palatal sound [y], Giegerich maintains, the front of the tongue is raised towards the palate, slightly further back than in a palato-alveolar
sound. Example: you.
2.1.4.2.7 Velar
English velar sounds [k],[g],[ŋ], according to Giegerich 1992, are produced by raising the back of the tongue towards the the soft palate or velum. Examples:
back, bag and bang. However, each of them has different features. [k] has the features of [+stop, -voice, +back]. [g] has the features of [+voice, + dorsal, + back,
+ stop]. [ŋ] is composed of features such as [ +nasal, +voice]. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
