not focus in the one of meaning. So both interpretations are true to be used in this sentence above.
Based on the analysis data above the writer presents the table of types of lexical ambiguity and the example of it as follow:
Table 4.1 Lexical Ambiguity
Types of Lexical Ambiguity Example
Homonym Backpack Song
Homophone Ask Holly day
Polysemy Many stars have Erica’s animals.
b. Referential ambiguity
Ambiguity found in nature of refering expressions is called referential ambiguity. Kreidler divided referential ambiguity into four
types, those are: referential ambiguity which occurs when an indefinite referring expression may be specific or not; anaphora; the pronoun you
is used generically or specifically; and a noun phrase with every can have distributed reference or collected reference.
From the data source, the writer found 74 ambiguous sentences, consists of: 6 referential ambiguities that occurs when an indefinite
referring expression may be specific or not; 37 anaphora; 26 the pronoun you is used generically or specifically; and 5 a noun phrase
with every can have distributed reference or collected reference. The writer presents some ambiguous sentence found in Backpack 4 as
follows:
a Referential ambiguity occurs when an indefinite referring
expression may be specific or not.
The writer tries to analyzed the data as follows: 1
Backpack is full of fun things we use each day in school. Stories, puzzles, songs, and games— Backpack is really
coolbackpack4: 1 The word stories may refer to a specific story, or some
stories, or any stories. In the words puzzles, songs, and games may refer to specific term or not, too.
2 Backpack is full of fun and facts, projects and pictures, too.
We’re learning English, we’re never bored. backpack4: 1 In the words fun, facts, projects and pictures may refer to
specific term or not.The word fun may be refers to specific fun or some funs, or any funs. The word fact, projects and pictures may
refer to specific term or not, too 3
Write them and call them once a while. Keep pictures of your old friends in an album. backpack4: 9
Sentence 3 also has the same problem that is in the words pictures. The word pictures can refer to the specific
pictures or not. 4
Busy people have full schedules. backpack 4: 16 In sentence 4, ‘busy people’ means all people or some
people or many people. The context of that sentence does not
focus on one meaning. So both interpretations are true to be applied in this sentence above.
5 Dear, All Alone backpack4: 9
Sentence 5 contains referential ambiguity because the phrase all alone has more than one reference, there are:
− All Alone refers to the peoples that is lonely − All Alone refers to the peoples that read ‘friends forever
magazine’ The context of that sentence does not focus on one
interpretation. So both interpretations are true to be applied in those sentences above.
6 Al shouldn’t run so fast, you know. The sidewalk’s full of ice
and snow. He could fall and slip and slide, and end up right on his backside backpack 4: 38
Sentence 6 contains anaphora because the word sidewalk has more than one reference, there are: all sidewalk or each
sidewalk. The context of that sentence does not focus on one meaning. So both interpretations are true to be used in this
sentence above.
b Anaphora is unclear because a personal pronoun, he, she, it or
they, can be linked to either of two referring expressions
The writer tries to analyse the data as follows:
1 It’s time to open backpack and see what we can see. backpack
4: 1 2
We’ll have lots of adventures. backpack 4: 1 3
Backpack is full of fun things we use each day in school. backpack 4: 1
4 We’re learning English, we’re never bored. backpack 4: 1
Sentences above contain anaphora, because pronoun we has more than one reference if it is used in the different context,
there are: − If those sentences are read by readers and it has listeners,
pronoun we can refers to the readers and the listeners; or pronoun we can refers to the writers, the readers and the
listeners. − If those sentences are read by readers alone; for example
student alone in student’s house and does not have listeners, pronoun we can refer to the writers and the readers.
5 Cows have good taste And we’re not talking about roast beef
backpack 4: 20 6
Cows like classical music better than rock and roll. How do we know? backpack 4: 20
7 Dinosaurs, dinosaurs, what do we know? What were they like,
and where did they go? backpack 4: 50
Sentences above contain anaphora, because pronoun we have more than one reference if it is used in the different context,
there are: − Pronoun we refers to the writers
− Pronoun we refers to the writers and the reader − Pronoun we refers to the writers, the listeners, and the
readers. 8
We must protect the planet for animals large and small. They need clean air and water to have a chance at all. backpack 4: 58
9 The way we live changes over time. Inventions often change the
way we do things. backpack 4: 64 10
Inventions often change the way we do things. backpack 4: 64 Sentences above contain anaphora, because pronoun we
have more than one reference if it is used in the different context, there are:
− Pronoun we refers to the people all around the world − Pronoun we refers to the writers and the readers
− Pronoun we refers to the writers, the readers, and the listeners
− Pronoun we refers to the writers 11
Sunday, November second, was my birthday parti. Monday, November third, was a holiday. We took a trip and visited my
uncle, aunt and cousins. backpack 4: 75
12 We came back home late on Tuesday the fourth backpack 4: 75
Sentences above contain anaphora, because pronoun we have more than one reference if it is used in the different context,
there are: − Pronoun we refers to the boy in the picture and family.
− Pronoun we refers to the boy in the picture and friends. 13
Next week Earth Day is coming. What are you going to do? We’re going to plant some flowers. backpack 4: 82
14 We’re going to clean the playground and pick up trash on the
beach. backpack 4: 82 Sentences above contain anaphora, because pronoun we
have more than one reference if it is used in the different context, there are:
− Pronoun we refers to the reader and friends. − Pronoun we refers to the writer and friends.
15 We’ll have alot of adventures. Explore Backpack with me
backpack 4: 1 That sentence above clearly contains anaphora because in
different context, the pronoun me has more than one reference, there are:
− If those sentences are read by the readers, for example student wherever heshe is, pronoun me refers to the writer;
or the English textbook entitled backpack 4
− If that sentence is read by reader, for example teacher in the classroom and has listeners, pronoun me refers to the
reader itself. 16
Our new classmates backpack 4: 3-4 Sentences above are contains anaphora, because
possessive determiner our have more than one reference if it is used in the different context, there are:
− Pronoun our refers to the readers and the listeners; − Pronoun our refers to the writers and the readers.
17 When does Lyndia get impatient? When her sister doesn’t
understand her homework. backpack 4: 5 Sentence 17 contains anaphora because the possessive
pronoun her has more than one reference if it is used in different context, there are:
− Pronoun her refer to Lyndia. − Pronoun her refer to Darlene, Lyndia’s younger sister.
18 Who’s youe best friend? Why? What does he or she look like?
backpack 4: 13 Sentences above hold anaphora, because pronoun he or
she has more than one reference if it is used in the different context, there are:
− Pronoun he or she refers to the reader’s male or female friend
− Pronoun he or she refers to the listener’s male or female friend
19 What does she do in her free time? backpack 4: 18
20 She sings with the tones. backpack 4: 18
21 She ____________ some fruit salad. backpack 4: 30
22 She protects ___________ with a bike helmet. backpack 4: 49
23 What is she going to do on Arbor Day? backpack 4: 85
24 What is she going to do on Earth Day? backpack 4: 85
Sentences above are contains anaphora, because pronoun he or she has more than one reference if it use in the different
context, there are: − Pronoun she refers to female people.
− Pronoun she refers to the reader’s female friend. − Pronoun she refers to the listener’s female friend.
25 You want to know what life was like? Let’s see if you can tell. I
tell you, kids, life back then was special, like a dreambackpack 4: 70
26 I used to bring Mom water from our family well. backpack 4:
70 27
I used to walk two miles to school in sun or snow or rain. backpack 4: 70
28 I copied math onto my slate and then walked home again.
backpack 4: 70
These sentences contain anaphora because the pronoun I has more than one reference, there are:
− Pronoun I refers to the writer’s grandpa; − Pronoun I refers to someone’s grandpa.
29 Animals are all around us. backpack 4: 58
30 They’re around us every day. But, like the ancient dinosaurs,
some might go away. backpack 4: 58 Sentences above are called anaphora because the pronoun
us have more than one reference, there are: − Pronoun us refers to the writers;
− Pronoun us refers to the writers and the readers; − Pronoun us refers to the writers, the reader and the
listeners. 31
Tell us, grandpa backpack 4: 70 Sentence 31 contains anaphora because the pronoun us have
more than one reference, there are: − Pronoun us refers to the grandpa’s grandchild;
− Pronoun us refers to the kids; − Pronoun us refers to the writers;
− Pronoun us refers to the s and the readers. 32
They play chess backpack 4: 18 33
What do they do in their free time? backpack 4: 18 34
How often do they sweep the floor? backpack 4: 18
35 What would they like? backpack 4: 27
Sentences above are includes anaphora because the pronoun they have more than one reference, there are:
− Pronoun they refers to the people around the world. − Pronoun they refers to the people around the reader.
− Pronoun they refers to the people around the writer. 36
What did they do? backpack 4:63 Sentence 36 contains anaphora because the pronoun they
have more than one reference, there are: − Pronoun they refers to the people.
− Pronoun they refers to the past people. − Pronoun they refers to the people now days.
37 They’ll give the bags to customers, who’ll use the bags some
more. backpack 4: 82 Sentence 37 holds anaphora because the pronoun they
have more than one reference, there are: − Pronoun they refers to the people around the writer.
− Pronoun they refers to the store employee.
c The pronoun you is used generically or specifically
The writer tries to analyzes the data as follows: 1
Good to see you backpack 4: 2 Sentence 1 contains the types of referential ambiguity
that is ‘the pronoun you is used generically or specifically’. In
different context, the pronoun you have more than one reference if it use there are:
− If those sentences read by reader alone, for example student wherever student is, pronoun you refers to the readers
− If those sentences read by reader, for example teacher and has listeners, pronoun you refers to the listeners
− In If those sentences said by the boy in the text to his friend, pronoun you refers to his friend that is the girl in the text.
2 But she’s slow Do you like to ride bikes, too? backpack 4: 5
3 Are you a good friend? Check the boxes backpack4: 8
4 What are you doing this weekend? Write. backpack 4:19
5 Are you mother’s little helper? backpack 4: 21
6 Smelling apples or bananas every day can help you lose weight.
backpack 4: 33 Sentences above are contained the types of referential
ambiguity that is ‘the pronoun you is used generically or specifically’. In different context, the pronoun you have more
than one reference if it use there are: − If those sentences read by reader alone, for example student
wherever student is, pronoun you refers to the readers − If those sentences read by reader, for example teacher and has
listeners, pronoun you refers to the listeners 7
How much water did you drink yesterday? backpack 4: 43
8 How much time did you exercise yesterday? backpack 4: 43
9 How many hours of sleep did you get last night? backpack 4:
43 10
How many times did you brush your teeth yesterday? backpack 4: 43
11 How do you take care of yourself? backpack 4: 43
In those sentences are include the types of referential ambiguity that is ‘the pronoun you is used generically or
specifically’. In different context, the pronoun you have more than one reference if it use there are:
− If those sentences read by reader alone, for example student wherever student is, pronoun you refers to the readers or the
students − If those sentences read by the student in the class, pronoun
you refer to the student’s classmate. 12
Here is a photo of my best friend, Mariko, and me. Can you guess who is who? backpack4: 8
Sentence 12 contains anaphora because the pronoun you have more than one reference, there are:
− Pronoun you refers to the editors of ‘Friends Forever’ column
− Pronoun you refers to the readers − Pronoun you refers to the listeners
13 You are blindfolded and have to break a pinata. Everyone shares
the treats backpack 4: 80. 14
You get a birthday pie, not a cake. backpack 4: 80 15
You wear a colorful dress and pass out chocolates at school. backpack 4: 80
16 Birthday cake candles are lit at sunrise and burn all day. At
dinner, you blow out the candles and make a wish. backpack 4: 80
These sentences are contained the types of referential ambiguity that is ‘the pronoun you is used generically or
specifically’. In different context, the pronoun you have more than one reference if it use there are:
− Pronoun you refers to the people that live in Mexico, in Russia, India, and Germany.
− Pronoun you refers to the readers − Pronoun you refers to the listeners
− Pronoun you refers to the reader and the listeners 17
You want to know what life was like? backpack 4: 70 18
Let’s see if you can tell. backpack 4: 70 Sentence 17 and 18 includes the types of referential
ambiguity that is ‘the pronoun you is used generically or specifically’. In different context, the pronoun you have more
than one reference if it use there are:
− Pronoun you refers to the readers − Pronoun you refers to the grandpa’s grandson or granpa’s
granddaughter. 19
A true friend shows you how to do Math. A true friend remembers your birthday. backpack 4: 10
20 Who’s your best friend? Why? What does he or she look like?
backpack 4: 13 21
What about your week? backpack 4: 14 22
What are you doing this weekend? Write. Compare your list with a partner’s backpack 4: 19
23 What’s your favorite holiday? What are you going to do that
day? backpack 4: 79 That sentences holds anaphora because the pronoun your
have more than one reference, there are: − If those sentences read by readers, for example teacher in
the classroom of the class and has listeners, Pronoun your refers to the listeners, or your refers to the readers and the
listeners − If those sentences read by readers alone; for example
student alone in student’s house and does not have listeners, Pronoun your refers to the readers or the students
24 What is that on your plate? It looks and smells so great.
backpack 4:26
That sentence includes anaphora because the pronoun your have more than one reference, there are:
− Pronoun your refers to the children in the picture. − Pronoun your refers to the Child from Korea or Mexico or
Morocco or Italy. − Pronoun your refers to the writer friends
− Pronoun your refers to the readers or the listeners 25
Compare yourself to a friend. backpack4: 7 Sentence 25 contains anaphora because the pronoun
yourself has more than one references, there are: − Yourself refers to the readers self
− Yourself refers to the listeners self 26
Swimming in a pool or in the ocean is a lot of fun. Always swim with another person, and don’t forget use sunscreen on sunny
days to protect yourself. Swimming exercises all the muscles in the body backpack 4: 41
Sentence 26 contains anaphora because the pronoun yourself has more than one references, there are:
− Yourself refers to the readers self − Yourself refers to the listeners self
d A noun phrase with every can have distributed reference or
collected reference
The writer tries to analyzes the data as follows:
1 Everyone should exercise for 30 minutes or more every day.
There are many fun ways to keep in shape Backpack 4, 40 Sentence 1 is called referential ambiguity because the
words ‘everyone’ has more than one reference there are: exercise all people in the world or exercise for each people in the world.
The words ‘every day’ should mean all day or each day. 2
You _____ exercise every day. backpack 4: 49 Sentence 2 is called referential ambiguity because the
words ‘every day’ should mean all day or each day. 3
... Later, women in ancient Rome put oil on the paper to keep rain from coming through. Now everyone has an umbrella of
each cloth or plastic for rainy days. backpack 4: 65 Sentence 3 above is called referential ambiguity
because the word ‘everyone’ has more than one reference, there are: all people in the world or each people in Rome.
4 You get a blindfolded and have to break a pinata. Everyone
shares the treats. Jose, Mexico backpack 4: 80 Sentence 4 above is called referential ambiguity
because the word ‘everyone’ has more than one reference, there are: all people in Mexico or each people in Mexico.
5 We have noodles for lunch, and everyone wishes you a long life.
Ping, China backpack 4: 80
Sentence 5 above is called referential ambiguity because the word ‘everyone’ has more than one reference, there
are: all people in China or each people in China. The context of sentence 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 does not
focus on one meaning. So both interpretations are true to be used in this sentence above.
Table 4.2 Referential Ambiguity
Types of Referential Ambiguity Example
Referential ambiguity occurs when an indefinite referring expression may be
specific or not. Stories,
puzzles, songs, and games—
Anaphora What did
they do? The pronoun you is used generically or
specifically. Compare yourself to a
friend. A noun phrase with every can have
distributed reference or collected reference Everyone shares the
treats.
c. Surface structure ambiguity
