GIRL POWER MANIFESTATION OR FEMININE VALUES DEGRADATION? : A FEMINIST CRITICISM OF THE MOVIE MEAN GIRLS BY MARK WATERS

GIRL POWER MANIFESTATION OR FEMININE VALUES DEGRADATION? : A FEMINIST CRITICISM OF THE MOVIE MEAN GIRLS BY MARK WATERS

THESIS

Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Sarjana Degree in English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University

Written by:

ROSALINA

C 0304046

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA

GIRL POWER MANIFESTATION OR FEMININE VALUES DEGRADATION?: A FEMINIST CRITICISM OF THE MOVIE MEAN GIRLS BY MARK WATERS

Approved to be examined by the Board of Examiners, Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts

Sebelas Maret University

Thesis Advisor

Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari M.Hum.,Ph.D NIP. 196703231995122001

The Head of English Department

Dr. Djatmika, M.A. NIP. 196707261993021001

GIRL POWER MANIFESTATION OR FEMININE VALUES DEGRADATION?: A FEMINIST CRITICISM OF THE MOVIE MEAN GIRLS BY MARK WATERS

By: ROSALINA

C 0304046

Approved by the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University On March 2010

The Board of Examiners:

Chairman Yusuf Kurniawan, S.S. M.A. ( )

NIP. 197111301999031001

Secretary M. Taufiq Al Makmun, S.S. ( )

NIP. 197806272005011003

First Examiner Dra. S.K. Habsari, M. Hum., Ph. D ( )

NIP. 196703231995122001

Second Examiner

Dra. Susilorini, M.A.

NIP. 196506011992032002

Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Drs. Sudarno, M.A. NIP. 195303141985061001

PRONOUNCEMENT

Name : Rosalina Student Number : C 0304046

I declare that the thesis entitled “Mean Girls: Girl Power Manifestation or Feminine Values Degradation?” is my own work. It is not a result of plagiarism at all.

I accept willingly any academic consequences including the withdrawal of the academic title when the declaration is proved incorrect.

Surakarta, March 2010

ROSALINA

MOTTO

Surely Allah is with the patient.

(Al-Qur’an: 2: 153)

The ink of the scholar is more holly than the blood of the martyr.

(Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.)

Act kindly towards woman, for woman is created from a rib, and the most crooked part of the rib is its top. If you attempt to straighten it,

you will break it, and if you leave it, its crookedness will remain there.

So act kindly towards women.

(Muslim: Book 8: Hadith 3468)

I have not failed. I’ve just found 10.000 ways that won’t work

(Thomas Alva Edison)

DEDICATION

The thesis is dedicated to:

My Mama Dahlia and Papa Suhartono, the best parents in the world American Studies lovers

Myself

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I want to thank Allah SWT, my Guardian and Sustainer. Thank you for always making me survive and showing me the right direction when I do not know where to go. Thank you for blessing me so that I can finish the thesis.

In doing the thesis, I have worked with many people. It is a pleasure to express my gratitude to them all in this acknowledgement.

I want to express my gratitude to Drs. Sudarno, M.A., Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, and Dr. Djatmika, M.A., Head of English Department, for giving permission to write the thesis and all of English Department lecturers for giving me a lot of knowledge and understanding of American Studies.

I am heartily thankful to the thesis advisor, Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari, M. Hum., Ph. D., whose encouragement, help and support from the initial to the final level enable me to get a further understanding of the subject. Thank you for being

a super-patient advisor. Thank you for all of the knowledge and advices have been given. It is so precious.

I am grateful to the board of examiners of the thesis, Yusuf Kurniawan S.S., M.A., M. Taufiq Al Makmun, S.S., Dra. Susilorini, M.A., and Dra. Sri Kusumo Habsari M.Hum., Ph.D, for they share their precious time and give contribution to the thesis.

Endless thanks go to my mama and papa. Thank you for always praying and caring for this stubborn girl. Your support and love make me stronger more than I can be. I would also thank my brothers and sisters, Leo, Kiky, Dian, and

Nina. Thanks for taking care of me. But please see me now, I have grown up. I love you all.

My special thanks go to Reny Fian Abrita. Thank you for being such a great ‘companion in arms’ from the early stage of the making of the thesis. Thank you for the printer and all of the helps. Reny, we did it!

I gratefully thank my great buddies, Dhita, Tyas, Rizqy, Puji, Widy, Dewi, Rosi, Mamad, and Dhika Cassandra. Thank you for always being there.

I am grateful to my beloved fabulous friends, The Tumpulz: Uswatun, Yunindar, Fitra, Fikri, Yunus, Itok, Tantra, Thory, and Rudy. All of you motivate me so much. Thank you for coloring my life in the last five years. Keep this togetherness always.

Many thanks go to Rahayu ‘Ayonk’ Widiati. Thanks for sharing the clever ideas and the exhilarating moments. It is gorgeous. Big thanks go to ‘do-it-your- self boy’, Shantika ‘Dhika’ Wijaya, for being so kind and patient in motivating and raising me up. I would also like to thank Rizwan Muharram for waking me up from my long ‘hibernation’.

Thanks to the guys and the girls in American Studies Class of 2004, Afida, Widya, Tutut, Ulil, Ika, Danang, Dony, etc. It is so fun working together with all of you. Thanks to my friends from the class of 2004 of English Letters, Rina, Natalia Dani, Pungki, Cindy, Lydia, Nina Tri, Chubby, Tatan, Susi, Dewi, Hilda, Ria, Fika, Alfanie and the other great friends who I can not mention one by one. It is so nice being a part of all of you.

I am very grateful to my friends from the upper semester, Mas Tyok, Mas Sanjaya, Mas Sapoet, and Mas Wenny (from the class of 2002). Thanks for being kind brothers who guide me well. Thanks to Mbak Bella (from the class of 2002), Mbak Betty, Mbak Aleea, Mbak Arum (from the class of 2003) for the help, the books, and the patience. Thanks seniors!

Thanks a lot for my friends from the lower semester, Rizqy Adi, Fauzi, Sony, Adwin, Hemy, US Dyah, Sari, Lambang, Dini, Astri, Alwi, Dila, Hendra, Rizqy Arifudin, Ita, Dhea, Mega, Ika and Hanifan. Thank you for the kindness and help.

A lot of thanks go to the big family of Solo Youth Heritage (SYH). Thanks for sharing knowledge and experience. Last but not least, I want to say million thanks to everyone who has given contribution to the making of the thesis whose name cannot mention here one by one. The thesis is impossible to accomplish without all of them. Thank you very much.

ABSTRACT

Rosalina. C0304046. 2010. Girl Power Manifestation or Feminine Values Degradation?: A Feminist Criticism of the Movie Mean Girls by Mark Waters. Thesis. English Department of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University.

This research is purposed to explain how the movie Mean Girls constructs its primary teenage heroines, whether the heroines are depicted challenging feminine values in society or rather go along with the values. The research is descriptive qualitative research of which the source of data is the movie Mean Girls directed by Mark Waters. The main data of the research are the characters and characterizations, costume, dialogue, body language, visual images, and other cinematographic elements of the movie. The supporting data are taken from the other sources such as the film script, books, and internet articles related to film and the issues of women, specifically the issues of American women, which supports in answering the research question.

The research is in the scope of American studies which is an interdisciplinary study. Therefore, the research involves some disciplines which in this case are applied in the form of theory and approach. In answering the research question, the researcher uses feminist theory, semiotic film theory, socio-cultural approach, and feminist approach.

After conducting the analysis, it is found that the primary teenage heroines in Mean Girls are constructed challenging the values of femininity embraced by mainstream society, which tends to be traditional, as they are depicted promoting the contemporary values, the values of Girl Power. But instead of being encouraged, Girl Power values in the movie are discouraged as in the last session of the movie the filmmakers lead the heroines to go along with the values held by mainstream society. Girl Power values and ideology promoted by the teenage primary heroines of the movie is seen as negative since the values do not go along with the mainstream society values. As the movie is a mass media product, it is created with the mass society values.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background

Today a new shape of femininity arises in American culture due to Girl Power movement, a cultural phenomenon emerging in the mid-late 1990s to the early 2000s. This movement has a great role in shaping American culture today, especially American women culture. This issue emerges as a part of post- feminism. Thanks to the media so that Girl Power is widely accepted by many women and girls in the US as what is stated by Susan Hopkins in her book Girl Heroes: The New Force in Popular Culture , “A new stereotype of ideal femininity is emerging in magazines, music, films, and television” (1993, p. 1). In 2001, the Oxford English Dictionary defines (as cited in “Girl Power”, n.d.) the phrase Girl Power as "a self-reliant attitude among girls and young women manifested in ambition, assertiveness and individualism”. This means that the femininity in Girl Power era no longer means vulnerable and submissive attitude, but it means confident and tough behavior.

One of the media that makes Girl Power movement widely spread all over the country is movie. The emergence of movie heroines who are cute, sexy, independent and powerful is dominant in mainstream movie in the era of 1990s until today. Hopkins has stated:

“The (televised) girl revolution is far from being happy, harmonious summer of love. These new-generation power girls are not necessarily selfless, co-operative pacifist – they “The (televised) girl revolution is far from being happy, harmonious summer of love. These new-generation power girls are not necessarily selfless, co-operative pacifist – they

The movie heroines in the era is not the “caring, sharing good girl” but the heroines are “often driven by revenge, anger, or a lust for material gain” (ibid). Today, the image of vulnerable girl has been shifted by the image of mean girl.

Mean Girls (2004), a movie directed by Mark Waters, can be said as a respond to the emergence of the phenomenon of Girl Power movement popularized by media. Mean Girls is a comedic drama film distributed by Paramount Pictures of which the screenwriter, Tina Fey, writes the script based on the non-fiction book entitled Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends, and Other Realities of Adolescence written by Rosalind Wiseman (“Tina Fey”, n.d.).

Mark Stephen Waters or is usually just called Mark Waters, the director, began his career in 1996 by filming House of Yes (1997), a dark comedy about incest and obsession. Waters was born in South Bend, Indiana. He grew up in a lower-middle class home. He later attended the University of Pennsylvania as a pre-med, but then drifted into avant-garde theater midway. After graduating in 1986, he went to San Francisco to act and direct theater. He gradually drifted away from acting to focus on directing. He joined off-Broadway productions, then Super8 films. He later joined the directing program at the American Film Institute. He graduated with his masters degree in 1994 (“Mark S. Waters Biography”, 1996).

With Mean Girls, Waters got a hit as it grossed over $85 million (“Mark Waters”, n.d.). It was nominated for 2004 Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Young Actress -Lindsay Lohan- and for 2004 Writers Guild of America for Best Adapted Screenplay - Tina Fey - (“Girls Just Want to Be Mean”, n.d.) and it won 2005 MTV Movie Award for Best Female Performance and 2005 MTV Movie Award for Breakthrough Female (“Inside the World of Mean Girls”, n.d.).

Mean Girls tells about an innocent girl named Cady Heron (Lindsay Lohan) who was shocked by all the rules in her new public high school as she had been home schooled all her life. She met two students, Janis (Lizzy Caplan) and Damian (Daniel Franzese), who decided to show her around the school and the cliques and hierarchy of the school.

One of the groups was known as "the Plastics", a group of popular girls consists of Karen Smith (Amanda Seyfried), Gretchen Wieners (Lacey Chabert), and the “Queen Bee”, Regina George (Rachel McAdams) who were adored by many people in the school despite their manipulative and mean behaviour. But Janis hated Regina as Regina spread rumors that she was a dyke. Knowing Cady was invited to sit with “The Plastics” at lunch in the cafeteria, Janis and Damian convinced her to eat lunch with them in order to make her accepted in the group so she could report back to them every horrible thing the Plastics said and did. Nevertheless, for Cady, Regina was too nice to her and she could not help accepting Regina’s kindness until she found Regina kissed Aaron (Jonathan Bennett), the man she had a crush on.

Cady decided to leave the Plastics but Janis stopped her, convincing Cady to keep hanging out with them so that they could get revenge. Since then, the aggressions against the Plastics began until Cady finally could kick Regina out of the Plastics and became the most popular girl in the school. She did not realize that she herself had become such a clone of Regina.

The movie clearly represents the image of American girls in the present day as well as their social and cultural condition. It completely shows the audience both the image of girl which is considered ‘good’ by society and that who is considered evil. What makes the movie interesting and evoke curiosity is that the movie emphasizes more in representing girls who are considered evil by society. This is questionable and that is why it is interesting to analyze.

B. Scope of Study

This research focuses on the primary teenage heroines in Mean Girls (2004), Cady Heron and Regina George. The minor characters and the social and cultural condition in the movie will also be involved for providing information and justification related to the analysis.

C. Problem Statements

The research is conducted to answer two questions:

1. How does the movie construct the primary teenage heroines?

2. How do the primary teenage heroines in the movie represent the idea of Girl Power which emerges in American society in 1990s to 2000s?

D. Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

1. To explain how the movie constructs the primary teenage heroines

2. To explain how the primary teenage heroines in the movie represent the idea of Girl Power which emerges in American society in 1990s to 2000s

E. Benefits of the Study

The research is aimed to describe the condition of American teenage girls in postmodernist era and reveal the influence of the current women’s movement, Girl Power, to them as well. Furthermore, the research is hoped to give contribution to American Studies, because instead of giving a shallow description, the research provides a further analysis about how American teenage girls are represented in the movie and how Girl Power values and mainstream society’s values take role in shaping them. Besides, the research expectedly can give benefit to:

1. The students of English Department To give information about one issue of postfeminist movement, Girl Power, which is a part of feminist movements in the U.S. Therefore, students can get further understanding about it.

2. Other researchers To give contribution for other researchers who want to do a research on the related field.

F. Research Methodology

1. The Type of the Research The research is in the form of descriptive qualitative research. “Qualitative research is all about exploring issues, understanding phenomena, and answering questions” (Ereaut, 2007). As the research is qualitative research, the data collected are in the form of words and pictures, not statistics or numbers as what are in quantitative research. The research seeks out to answer the problems of the research by employing the question of ‘how’ of the topic, not just ‘what’, ‘where’ and ‘when’.

2. Data and Source of Data Data consist of main data and supporting data. The main data are taken from the movie entitled Mean Girls (2004) directed by Mark Waters starring Lindsay Lohan, distributed by Paramount Pictures. The main data consist of dialogues, characters and characterization, and the cinematographic elements such as camera angle, camera distance, lighting, etc. The supporting data are collected from written materials like books, internet articles and journals related to the study.

3. Technique of Analyzing the Data Firstly, the data in the movie Mean Girls are selected based on the problem statement of the research. Then, the selected data are analyzed through its cinematographic elements and some other elements. The data are discussed further by applying feminist theories, semiotic film theories, socio- cultural approach, and feminist approach to build the idea to answer the 3. Technique of Analyzing the Data Firstly, the data in the movie Mean Girls are selected based on the problem statement of the research. Then, the selected data are analyzed through its cinematographic elements and some other elements. The data are discussed further by applying feminist theories, semiotic film theories, socio- cultural approach, and feminist approach to build the idea to answer the

G. Theoretical Approach

American studies emerged in 1950s as a study of all issues related to the United States (Spiller, 1973, p. 611). Robert E. Spiller in his article Unity and Diversity in the Study of American Culture: the American Studies Association in Perspective has stated:

This was a time when the United States was emerging into the role of a world power and the stirrings of cultural nationalism were beginning to be felt in the universities in practically all of the academic disciplines except perhaps those in pure science; and even there, American technology gave to scientific disciplines something of a nationalistic flavor. (1973, p. 611)

It is quite obvious that the fact that the United States is a superpower nation makes the country, its culture and all issues in it significant to study.

The culture of the country is somehow complex. American culture “has been characteristically heterogeneous rather than homogenous” (Spiller, 1973, p. 613) as its people come from different ethnics, religion, social and cultural background, etc. The culture certainly does not develop in a short time. It builds its identity through out the history of the United States from the past until present. That is why American culture can be understood as complex culture as it is multifaceted and encompasses a vast range of time.

Because of its complexity of the culture, the study of the country needs more than one discipline and approach. Neil Campbell and Alasdair Kean has Because of its complexity of the culture, the study of the country needs more than one discipline and approach. Neil Campbell and Alasdair Kean has

American Sudies from the beginning has been concerned to explore the possibilities of cooperation between practitioners from different disciplines and even to develop an interdisciplinary methodology with its own distinctive working practices (1997, p. 2).

Hence, American Studies “encompasses a vast range of disciplines [which are intermingled and interrelated], all of which, in one way or another, are trying to describe the cultures of United States” (“What is American Studies”, n.d.). The studies involves history, literature, art, economics, cultural studies, ethnic studies, women studies, media studies, film studies, among other fields.

One issue which becomes central to the project of American studies in present days is the study of popular culture. Popular culture has been termed as everything from common culture, to folk culture to mass culture (“Pop Culture”, n.d.). John Storey stresses that popular culture comes from the urbanization of the industrial revolution (“Mass Culture” n.d.). Thus, it can be understood that popular culture comes from low class society.

In the modern era, the social signification of popular culture can be mapped based on how the culture is identified with mass culture. It can be said that mass culture is popular culture which is produced through industrial technique of mass production and marketed to mass consumers to get profits (Strinati, 2003, p. 2). MacDonald has stated (as cited in Strinati, 2003, p. 11) that mass culture is created by experts who are recruited by capitalists. These experts adopt the dominant culture of society, mold it with certain techniques, then In the modern era, the social signification of popular culture can be mapped based on how the culture is identified with mass culture. It can be said that mass culture is popular culture which is produced through industrial technique of mass production and marketed to mass consumers to get profits (Strinati, 2003, p. 2). MacDonald has stated (as cited in Strinati, 2003, p. 11) that mass culture is created by experts who are recruited by capitalists. These experts adopt the dominant culture of society, mold it with certain techniques, then

Movie is a product of popular culture which has been processed to be mass culture. John Belton in his book entitled Movies and Mass Culture has stated:

The movies are an integral part of mass culture and are embedded within it. One does not produce the other; rather, each interacts with the other, and they mutually determine one another. If films and filmmaker produce culture, they are also produced by it. Thus, it is impossible to separate films and filmmakers from the society within which they exist. (1996, p. 1)

It is quite obvious that movie is closely related to society. It usually conveys many ideas and meaning and represents what happen in reality as well as beliefs and values embraced by society.

In building and transferring its meaning, movie uses its particular way, in this case using signs and codes which often have deeper meaning than what its audience can figure out. To understand the meaning and idea of the movie completely, these signs and codes have to be analyzed further. Therefore, semiotic film theory is applied in the research.

Monaco has given a further explanation about semiotic film theory in his book How to Read a Film:

Film is not a language, but is like language, and since it is like language, some of the methods that we use to study language might profitably be applied to a study of film. Yet, since film is not a language, narrowly linguistic concepts can be misleading. Ever since the beginning of film history, theorists have been fond of comparing film with verbal language (partly to justify the serious study of film), but it wasn’t until a new, larger category of thought developed in the fifties and early sixties–one that saw written and spoken language as just two among many systems of communication–that the real Film is not a language, but is like language, and since it is like language, some of the methods that we use to study language might profitably be applied to a study of film. Yet, since film is not a language, narrowly linguistic concepts can be misleading. Ever since the beginning of film history, theorists have been fond of comparing film with verbal language (partly to justify the serious study of film), but it wasn’t until a new, larger category of thought developed in the fifties and early sixties–one that saw written and spoken language as just two among many systems of communication–that the real

Based on what is explained by Monaco, it can be understood that semiotic film theory is applied in the research to analyze the system of signs in the movie analyzed. In this analysis, what is applied is the theory of the prominent figure in semiotics, Roland Barthes.

Roland Barthes based his theory on semiology of Ferdinand de Saussure who is often claimed as a source thinker of contemporary semiotics beside Charles Sanders Peirce, as they found this science in around the same time without knowing of the researches of the other. It can be said that Barthes’ theory is the development of Saussure’s theory.

Saussure defined ‘sign’ as the union of the ‘signifier’, a form which signifies, and the ‘signified’, an idea signified (Stam, 1992, p. 18). According to Saussure, sign, the relation between signifier and signified, is arbitrary (Storey, 1996, p. 55). The relation between the signifier and the signified is not constructed naturally but rather conventionally. A signifier opens many chances for various signified or meaning.

Roland Barthes then developed Saussure’s scheme that signifier + signified = sign and added to it a second level of signification which he called ‘two semiological systems’ (Barthes, 1999, p. 115). In Barthes’ system, there are two stages of signification which are denotation stage and connotation stage. The sign produced in the connotation stage is interpretative and depends upon one’s social and cultural experience (Turner, 1993, p. 46). In Accordance with this, to Roland Barthes then developed Saussure’s scheme that signifier + signified = sign and added to it a second level of signification which he called ‘two semiological systems’ (Barthes, 1999, p. 115). In Barthes’ system, there are two stages of signification which are denotation stage and connotation stage. The sign produced in the connotation stage is interpretative and depends upon one’s social and cultural experience (Turner, 1993, p. 46). In Accordance with this, to

It has been stated that:

Socio-cultural approach is based on the idea that society and culture shape cognition. Social customs, beliefs, values, and language are all part of what shapes a person's identity and reality. According to this approach, what a person thinks is based on his or her socio-cultural background. A socio-cultural approach takes into account more than the individual in attempting to understand cognitive processes. (“Psychology Glossary”, n.d.)

From the explanation, it is clear that the way people behave, think, and interpreting something is influenced by their social and cultural background. Thus, to understand the meaning of the movie completely, socio-cultural approach is applied. Besides, the movie analyzed deals with social and cultural condition, thoughts and behaviors of American girls in the contemporary society. It means that the movie represents social and cultural phenomenon which exists in reality. That is why socio-cultural approach is significant in the study.

As the research focuses on the analysis of how the movie constructs its primary characters that are girls, the research certainly has to do with women’s issues. Thus, feminist approach is needed as the framework of the research. In this case, the movie has to be analyzed in the range of feminism.

Feminism has long journey to struggle for equality between men and women. Feminism rejects the idea that women are inferior to men. Feminism claims that patriarchy, the rule of the fathers, is the basic cause of women’s oppression (Murphy, 1995, p. 1). Contemporary feminism struggles for correcting laws and practices that discourage women to achieve equality with men in all Feminism has long journey to struggle for equality between men and women. Feminism rejects the idea that women are inferior to men. Feminism claims that patriarchy, the rule of the fathers, is the basic cause of women’s oppression (Murphy, 1995, p. 1). Contemporary feminism struggles for correcting laws and practices that discourage women to achieve equality with men in all

Feminist approach in the research is applied to view what are represented by the girls in the movie in the range of feminism. Thus, the research also needs feminist theories. Feminist theories and approach is crucial to build a complete idea used to answer the research questions.

H. Thesis Organization

This thesis is divided into four chapters and each chapter is divided into some subchapters. Those chapters are Chapter I Introduction, Chapter II Literature Review, Chapter III Analysis, and Chapter IV Conclusion and Recommendation.

The first chapter, Introduction is divided into eight subchapters. These are Research Background, Scope of Study, Problem Statements, Objectives of the Study, Benefits of the Study, Research Methodology, Theoretical Approach, and Thesis Organization.

The next chapter, Literature Review, explains about postfeminism in America, Girl Power movement in America which is under the umbrella of postfeminism, the concept of heroine in America since the nineteenth century until the present, semiotic film theory, and the basic terminology of cinematography.

The third chapter, Analysis, consists of two subchapters. The first subchapter tells about the signification of the title of the movie, Mean Girls, while the second subchapter discusses about how the movie construct the primary teenage heroines. The second subchapter contains two points: Cady Heron, the Girl Who Transforms; and Regina George, the Queen Bee. The answer of the research questions are provided in this chapter.

The last chapter, Conclusion and Recommendation, provides explanation about the result and recommendation of the research.

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Postfeminism in America

American feminism, which is actualized by its movement, has a very long history. American women has a long hard struggle to achieve the equality between men and women. It can be said that the Enlightenment or the age of reason is the foundation of American women’s movement.

One of the important figures in the Enlightenment is John Locke. Locke’s doctrine of Natural Rights claims that “all human beings, in their natural state, were equal and free to pursue life, health, liberty, and possessions; and that these were inalienable rights” (“John Locke”, n.d.). This doctrine also claims that both women and men are born with the same potency of rationality. It means that women and men are equal, and there are no groups which are more inferior to the other. This doctrine however leads to the ideology of individualism (Murphy, 1995, p. 10). This ideology has shaped women’s ways of thinking about themselves and the world. It leads women to think that a woman as a person has independence to seek self-realization, becoming a fully individual, not just as the opposite of male. To be a woman must be as important as to be a man.

The ideology that a woman is an independent entity, not just ‘the other’ or ‘the opposite of male’ leads women to pursuit their personal identities. This leads American women to hold women’s movements which are historically noted until now containing three waves; first-wave feminism, second-wave feminism, and the The ideology that a woman is an independent entity, not just ‘the other’ or ‘the opposite of male’ leads women to pursuit their personal identities. This leads American women to hold women’s movements which are historically noted until now containing three waves; first-wave feminism, second-wave feminism, and the

First-wave feminism in the U.S. began in 1848 and lasted until 1960s. It was usually considered beginning with the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 which was purposed to end discrimination based on sex. The convention was held in response to the prohibition of women's participation in the 1840 World's Anti- Slavery convention in London (Rynder, 1999).

First-wave feminism insisted that sexual identity was inessential or secondary to our humanity. It claimed that biological characteristics were not the reason for the limitation of women’s participations in society. First-wave feminism mainly concerned about equality, rights, liberation and emancipation (Colebrook, 2003). The ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in August 18, 1920 was considered the main victory of the movement as with this each of the states and the federal government was prohibited from denying any citizen the right to vote because of that citizen’s sex.

Second-wave feminism began in the 1960s and continued until the late of 1980s or the beginning of 1990s. The main issues in this movement were sexuality and reproductive rights, and most struggles done in the movement were for passing the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution of the U.S. guaranteeing social equality regardless of sex. The central focus of the second wave was on gender equality so women must had the same social, political, legal, and economic rights that men had (Head, n.d.).

The movement was often claimed dating from the appearance of Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique in 1963, which was very significant for its challenge to the ideology of domesticity. This best-seller book caught readers among middle- and upper-class women as male supremacy required them to be submissive women who were capable in domestic concerns as well as ‘good’ mothers and wives who did not have chance to determine what they wanted to achieve. In the era of this movement, there were also the actions going against the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City in 1968 and 1969. One of the protests came from the radical feminist New York group calling themselves Redstockings. They held a counter pageant by parodying the beauty pageant but what was crowned as Miss America was a sheep. This was done in order for women were not considered merely object of male gaze. Redstockings also did the action by throwing feminine artifacts which they considered oppressing women such as bras, girdles, high-heels, makeup and false eyelashes into the trashcan (Rampton, n.d.).

In the era of second-wave feminism, there were other social movements like Black Power and the effort to end the war in Vietnam. Second-wave feminists realized that their voice would be easily marginalized and viewed less important than the other social movements at that time. Second-wave feminists responded this by establishing women organizations (Rampton, n.d.). The most prominent women organizations at this time, the National Organization for Women (NOW), founded in 1966, concerned about discrimination in matters such as property rights, employment, and pay.

Second wave feminists also struggled for the rights to seek freedom to define their sexuality and practice it without discrimination. They also concerned about reproductive freedom for women and struggle for the legalization of abortion as they thought that women could have control over their own body. However, in 1982 the Equal Rights Amendment was defeated because of three states short of ratification (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998).

Second wave feminists were dominated by upper middle class white women who claimed that patriarchal and imperial oppressions were universal oppressions experienced by women in the world. Whereas, in reality women did not only consist of upper middle class white women only but they also came from different social classes, races, ethnicity, religions, subculture, sexual community, etc. Certainly, they experienced different social and cultural experiences. However, second wave feminism over-emphasized the experience of upper middle class white women. In this case, this movement was often claimed excluding women out of the group. Due to the fact, the movement was often called “hegemonic feminism” (Ibrahim, 2004, p. xiv).

As it was claimed that it could not represent American women entirely, many women had become more antifeminist during the 1980s to 1990s. Vaid, as cited by Hall and Rodriguez, has stated:

“Minority women feel their needs and values have been largely ignored by the organized

women’s movement, which grew out of white, middle-class women’s discontent, and racial-minority women feel they cannot participate in the feminist movement because of white women’s racism.”(2003, p. 882)

The groups claiming themselves antifeminist somehow include young women who never deal with second wave feminism and racial-minority and traditional women who oppose women’s movement in 1970s (ibid).

Negative representations of women in popular media as unattractive, man- hater, unfeminine, even lesbian make many girls and women refuse to claim themselves feminists as this supposedly can distance themselves from men. Even though many girls and women agree with what women’s movement strives for, equity in many aspects of life, they do not want to be called feminist (Hall & Rodriguez , 2003, pp. 883-84). It is as if ‘feminist’ is a dirty word.

Media is somehow male dominated field. It is closely related to capitalism in which patriarchal values fully applied. Patriarchal values require women to be feminine, passive, and submissive. Women are the object and cannot be the subject. Their duties are child bearing, nurturing, doing household, and their place is at home. Women who oppose this rule are viewed negative and considered threat of male supremacy.

After the era of second wave feminism, negative stereotype toward feminist women increased the number of antifeminists in the U.S. Feminists were often labeled “women’s lib, man hater, bra burner, lesbians and/or sexually deviant, feminazi (ugly, unable to catch a man, dyke), and whining victims” (Hall & Rodriguez, 2003, p. 880). Women’s movement was as if dead. Many women thought that equality had been achieved, thus women’s movement was not needed anymore.

Subsequently, America begins to enter postfeminist era. It is the era when the term “feminism” is considered no longer relevant as the goals of feminism has been achieved. Popular media claims that 1990s is the starting point of postfeminist era in the U.S. (Hall & Rodriguez, 2003, p. 878). Nevertheless, popular authors and scholars state that this era starts in 1980s (Ibrahim, 2004, p. xii). However, the term “post-feminism” was firstly used in Susan Bolotin’s article “Voices of the Post-feminist Generation” published in 1982 in New York Times magazine (Nedeau, 2008). Some opinions claim that this movement arises in the U.S. as a response of the weakness and the failure of second wave feminism. It is said that this movement happens as a continuity of second wave feminism and therefore it is often claimed as third-wave feminism. On the other hand, this movement is also considered a backlash of second-wave feminism; even it is claimed as an antifeminist movement (Ibrahim xiii, 2004).

Media clearly have important role in shaping negative view about postfeminism. The popular assumption about postfeminism propagandized by media that postfeminism is a backlash against second-wave feminism is done to create antagonism toward second-wave feminism (Brooks, 2008, p. 4). Susan Faludi, in her book entitled Backlash, has claimed that media declare that feminism is the taste of 1970s and that postfeminism is a new story completed with younger generation supposedly taking part in criticizing women’s movement (Faludi as cited in Brooks, 2008, p. 4). While, Ann Brooks argues that this movement is not an antifeminist movement. It only opposes hegemonic assumption held by second wave feminists who are dominated by upper middle Media clearly have important role in shaping negative view about postfeminism. The popular assumption about postfeminism propagandized by media that postfeminism is a backlash against second-wave feminism is done to create antagonism toward second-wave feminism (Brooks, 2008, p. 4). Susan Faludi, in her book entitled Backlash, has claimed that media declare that feminism is the taste of 1970s and that postfeminism is a new story completed with younger generation supposedly taking part in criticizing women’s movement (Faludi as cited in Brooks, 2008, p. 4). While, Ann Brooks argues that this movement is not an antifeminist movement. It only opposes hegemonic assumption held by second wave feminists who are dominated by upper middle

Actually, Postfeminism and second wave feminism have different perspectives in some ways. Second-wave feminism provides the idea that feminism and femininity are oppositional so that feminism and femininity cannot go along together. It prompts what is called ‘body politics’ transmitting the rejection of practices that will show differences between male and female bodies such as shaving the legs and underarms, putting on cosmetics and wearing revealing and form-fitting clothing as they are created by patriarchy. Second wave feminism also sees sexuality pessimistically as it concentrates on its negative side such as “sexual transmittable diseases, sexual abuse and sexual objectification of women in media discourse” (Adriaens, 2009). It seems that the values provided by second-wave feminism have been fixed and the women violating the values are considered victims of patriarchy. Postfeminism however offers women and girls the new alternatives. It creates a bridge between femininity and feminism so that girls and women can be both feminine and feminist at the same time, without feeling anxious of being considered a passive victim of patriarchy. Postfeminism considers femininity and women’s body as women’s distinct things which distinguish women from men and see them as women’s source of identity (ibid). Therefore, postfeminism rejects ‘body politics’ of second-wave feminism (Gill as cited in Adriaens, 2009). Postfeminism also criticizes second-wave feminism’s Actually, Postfeminism and second wave feminism have different perspectives in some ways. Second-wave feminism provides the idea that feminism and femininity are oppositional so that feminism and femininity cannot go along together. It prompts what is called ‘body politics’ transmitting the rejection of practices that will show differences between male and female bodies such as shaving the legs and underarms, putting on cosmetics and wearing revealing and form-fitting clothing as they are created by patriarchy. Second wave feminism also sees sexuality pessimistically as it concentrates on its negative side such as “sexual transmittable diseases, sexual abuse and sexual objectification of women in media discourse” (Adriaens, 2009). It seems that the values provided by second-wave feminism have been fixed and the women violating the values are considered victims of patriarchy. Postfeminism however offers women and girls the new alternatives. It creates a bridge between femininity and feminism so that girls and women can be both feminine and feminist at the same time, without feeling anxious of being considered a passive victim of patriarchy. Postfeminism considers femininity and women’s body as women’s distinct things which distinguish women from men and see them as women’s source of identity (ibid). Therefore, postfeminism rejects ‘body politics’ of second-wave feminism (Gill as cited in Adriaens, 2009). Postfeminism also criticizes second-wave feminism’s

It seems that the values of postfeminism create ambivalence. It goes along with patriarchy as it prompts patriarchal things such as revealing and form-fitting clothing and cosmetics (which leads to consumerism which is also patriarchal as well), but refuses to be considered as the victim or the object of patriarchy. If feminists see woman wearing revealing clothes as an object of male gaze, postfeminists rather see her as a woman with personal freedom as she wears the clothes based on her own willingness. At this point, postfeminism changes the idea of sexual objectification into sexual subjectification, a focus on a “powerful male gaze” into a “self-regulating narcissistic individualistic gaze” (Adriaens, 2009). However, what is proposed by postfeminism is actually “a movement beyond feminism, to a more comfortable zone where women are now free to choose for themselves” (Beck as cited in McRobbie, 2004, p. 259).

Postfeminism focuses more on the individual empowerment of women and less on activism. It encourages women to build their identities in the postmodernism era (Gladen, 2007). Women can choose what they want to be; as a housewife, author, athlete, supermodel, singer, astronaut, teacher, etc, and they do not oblige to leave their femininity to reach their goal. Therefore, postfeminism is often considered highly individualistic as it too over-emphasizes values of personal empowerment over activism. Because of this, the movement is often criticized not political enough. Critics argue that postfeminism is ill equipped to Postfeminism focuses more on the individual empowerment of women and less on activism. It encourages women to build their identities in the postmodernism era (Gladen, 2007). Women can choose what they want to be; as a housewife, author, athlete, supermodel, singer, astronaut, teacher, etc, and they do not oblige to leave their femininity to reach their goal. Therefore, postfeminism is often considered highly individualistic as it too over-emphasizes values of personal empowerment over activism. Because of this, the movement is often criticized not political enough. Critics argue that postfeminism is ill equipped to

The term third-wave feminism itself is coined by a young, Southern, African-American, Jewish, and bisexual feminist author named Rebecca Walker in 1993 "to describe a new generation of young feminists working to create a more inclusive and comprehensive movement” (Head, n.d.). The era of third-wave feminism is often thought initiated by the Anita Hill – Clarence Thomas hearings in 1991. At the time when President George H.W. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court, during the Senate Judiciary Committee hearings, Anita Hill, an African-American professor from Oklahoma, reported that she had been sexually harassed by Thomas almost a decade earlier. In response to the Thomas hearings, Rebecca Walker published an article entitled “Becoming the Third Wave” in an issue of Ms in 1992 (Darko, n.d.). Thenceforth, the term is often used to label the current women’s movement as another alternative beside the term ‘postfeminism’.

As the current women’s movement, Postfeminism are embraced mostly by them who are part of the Generation X demographic (born roughly between 1966 – 1976) or are from Generation Y (born roughly between 1977-1997). Some postfeminists are the children of Baby Boomers (born roughly between 1940s- 1950s) who have participated in the second-wave feminism beginning in the