ADDRESS FORMS IN THE FILM ENTITLED CRASH (A Sociolinguistics Approach)
ADDRESS FORMS IN THE FILM ENTITLED CRASH
(A Sociolinguistics Approach)
THESIS
Submitted As a Partial Fulfillment of Requirement For the Sarjana Sastra Degree at English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
By:
HESTI TRI WULANDARI C0305034 ENGLISH DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF LETTERS AND FINE ARTS SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA 2010
ADDRESS FORMS IN THE FILM ENTITLED CRASH
(A Sociolinguistics Approach)
By: HESTI TRI WULANDARI C0305034
Approved to be examined before the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
Thesis Consultant
Drs. Sri Marmanto, M.Hum NIP. 195009011986011001
The Head of English Department
Dr. Djatmika, M.A NIP. 196707261993021001
ADDRESS FORMS IN THE FILM ENTITLED CRASH (A Sociolinguistics Approach)
By: HESTI TRI WULANDARI C0305034
Accepted and approved by the Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University On January 12, 2010
Chairman Drs. S. Budi Waskita, M. Pd ( ) NIP. 195211081983031001
Secretary
Dr. Djatmika, M. A
NIP. 196707261993021001
First examiner Drs. Sri Marmanto, M. Hum ( ) NIP. 195009011986011001
Second examiner Dr. Tri Wiratno, M. A ( )
NIP. 196109141987031001
Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University
Drs. Sudarno, M.A. NIP. 195303141985061001
PRONOUNCEMENT
Name : Hesti Tri Wulandari NIM : C0305034
In the name of God, I state whole-heartedly that the thesis entitled Address Forms in the Film Entitled Crash is originally made by the researcher. It is neither a plagiarism, nor made by others. The things related to other people’s work are written in quotation and included within bibliography.
If it is then proved that the researcher cheats, the researcher is ready to take the responsibility.
Surakarta, January 5, 2010
Hesti Tri Wulandari
MOTTO
O you who believe! If you help (in the cause of) Allah, He will help you and
make your foothold firm (Q.S. Muhammad: 7)
So verily, with the hardship, there is relief Verily, with the hardship, there is relief…
(Q.S. Alam Nasyrah: 5-6)
DEDICATION Allah Almighty…
My beloved Mom and Dad, My Friends, and My Self.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillahirabbil'alamin …I finally can finish the thesis. There are many parties who are involved in finishing the thesis. Therefore, I would like to say a deepest gratitude to:
1. Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta’ala and His messenger, Rasulullah SAW, who never let me down.
2. The Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Drs. Sudarno, M.A.
3. The Head of English Department, Dr. Djatmika, M.A.
4. My thesis consultant, Drs. Sri Marmanto, M. Hum. A big thank you for your time, kindness, and of course, your patience in assisting me to finish my thesis.
5. M. Taufiq Al Makmun, S.S as my academic advisor. Thank you for the assistance during my academic period.
6. My dearest lecturers of English Department Sebelas Maret University. Thank you for knowledge you have shared.
7. My beloved family; Mom and Dad. Thank you for always love and support me. Feel so miraculous of having mom and dad like you!
8. My big family; Mbah Putri, Lek Andri, Lek Agus, Lek Endro, Lek Kris, Lek Ati, and tante.. Thank you for supporting me to finish my study. Hope everyone feels benefit of having me.
9. My beloved friends; Irena, a nice friend who always help me every time; Lilis, for always making me laugh and happy; Mulyani, no matter how difficult 9. My beloved friends; Irena, a nice friend who always help me every time; Lilis, for always making me laugh and happy; Mulyani, no matter how difficult
10. My friends in ED 2005; Sonny “Semangat”, Eva, Winda, Elis, Dini, Sari,
Intan, Arif, Novia, Maya, Navis, Fera, Vian, Ismi, Yuni, Astri, Arum, Hemy, Dian, Rizky Adi, Alwi, Galih, Adwin, Ratih Wulan, Leoni, Dida, Anggi, Us, Ratih Dwi, Lambang, Udin, Lia, Ebsi, Ongko, Andhika, Fauzi, Febri, Arih, Jotika and also an unforgettable friend, Maria. Thank you for having a wonderful four years struggling with you guys!
11. Mbak Lesti ILC and to all librarians of Faculty of Letters and Fine arts as well
as of University Library, thank you for the helps so that I easily found the needed references and books required.
12. Last but not least, to Mbak Minuk, Mas Andis and Mas Arif, Thank you for
always help me when I got such problem with my computer.
I believe that this thesis is far from being perfect, thus constructive criticism and suggestion are open-handedly accepted. Hopefully this thesis will be beneficial as it purposively written. Thank you.
Surakarta, January 2010
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS
A. The Classification of The Types of Address Forms Used by The Characters in The Film Entitled Crash ……………………………36
B. The Interpretation of The Use of Address Forms and The Reason of The Use of Address Forms in The Film Entitled Crash…………...37
C. Discussion………………………………………………………….85
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion ………………………………………………………....100
B. Suggestion …………………………………………………………103
BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1. Title address form …………...…………………………………………85 Table 2. Title plus Last Name address forms …………...……………………….88 Table 3. Title plus First Name address forms……………………………………89 Table 4. First Name address forms …………...………………………………….91 Table 5. Multiple Name address forms ………………………………………….94 Table 6. You plus Multiple Name address forms ……………………..................97
ABSTRACT
HESTI TRI WULANDARI. C0305034. 2010. Address Forms in the Film Entitled Crash. (A Sociolinguistics Approach). Thesis: English Department of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts. Sebelas Maret University.
The research was conducted to describe the kinds of addresses used by the characters in the film entitled Crash, to describe how the characters in the film used the addresses and to find out the reason of the use of addresses by the characters in the film entitled Crash.
This research used sociolinguistics approach. The research also employed some supporting theories related to the matter discussed namely, Sociolinguistics, Ethnography of Communication, Style of Speech, Social Dimension of Communication, and Address Forms.
This research is a descriptive qualitative method. The source of data is the film entitled Crash. The data are the dialogs containing address forms employed by the characters in the film. The researcher used total sampling technique in taking the data.
The results of this research are as follows: First, there are eight types of addresses used by the characters in the film entitled Crash, namely title (T), title plus last name (TLN), title plus first name (T+FN), last name (LN), first name (FN), multiple name (MN), you plus multiple name (You+MN), and name (N).
Second, the use of addresses employed by the characters in the film Crash is related to the tone of voice, the facial expression and manner. ‘Title’ address form is used in usual tone of voice (when it is used to show formality); low and polite tone of voice, polite and respectful manner (when it is used to show respect). ‘Title plus last name’ is used in usual tone of voice (when it is used to show formality); usual tone but showing a humiliating manner toward the addressee (when it is used to show power). ‘Title plus first name’ address is used in low tone of voice politely and respectfully. ‘Last name’ address form is used in high tone of voice with worry expression on the face. ‘First name’ address form is used in high tone of voice with serious expression (when it is used to show power); usual tone of voice clearly (when it is used to show solidarity); low and relaxed tone of voice and relax manner (when it is used to show intimacy); low tone of voice painstakingly and sarcastic/ mocking tone of voice with cynical smile ( when it is used to express feeling); low tone of voice temptingly (when it is used to persuade the addressee). ‘Multiple name’ address form is used in usual tone of voice but showing serious expression and manner (when it is used to show power); usual tone of voice (when it is used to show solidarity); usual and low tone of voice painstakingly (when it is used to show intimacy); high and resentful tone of voice with angry expression, low tone of voice, facial expression of worry, Second, the use of addresses employed by the characters in the film Crash is related to the tone of voice, the facial expression and manner. ‘Title’ address form is used in usual tone of voice (when it is used to show formality); low and polite tone of voice, polite and respectful manner (when it is used to show respect). ‘Title plus last name’ is used in usual tone of voice (when it is used to show formality); usual tone but showing a humiliating manner toward the addressee (when it is used to show power). ‘Title plus first name’ address is used in low tone of voice politely and respectfully. ‘Last name’ address form is used in high tone of voice with worry expression on the face. ‘First name’ address form is used in high tone of voice with serious expression (when it is used to show power); usual tone of voice clearly (when it is used to show solidarity); low and relaxed tone of voice and relax manner (when it is used to show intimacy); low tone of voice painstakingly and sarcastic/ mocking tone of voice with cynical smile ( when it is used to express feeling); low tone of voice temptingly (when it is used to persuade the addressee). ‘Multiple name’ address form is used in usual tone of voice but showing serious expression and manner (when it is used to show power); usual tone of voice (when it is used to show solidarity); usual and low tone of voice painstakingly (when it is used to show intimacy); high and resentful tone of voice with angry expression, low tone of voice, facial expression of worry,
Third, there are six reasons that influence the use of address forms in the film. They are power, respect, formality, solidarity, intimacy, feeling expression. Each kind of address form has its own reason of the use of the address. ‘Title’ address form in the film is used to show formality and respect. ‘Title plus last name’ is used to show formality and power. ‘Title plus first name’ address forms is used to show respect. ‘Last name’ address form is used to show solidarity. ‘First name’ address form is used to show power, intimacy, solidarity, feeling expression, and persuasion. ‘Multiple name’ address form is used to show power, solidarity, intimacy, and feeling expression. ‘You plus multiple name’ address form is used to show intimacy and feeling expression. ‘Name’ address form is used to show intimacy.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background
As social creature, human being cannot live alone. Human being live together in a community called as society. In the daily interaction among the member of society, they need a means to communicate each other that is called as language. Language becomes an important medium of communication. Through language, people express their feeling, ideas, and thoughts easily. Language can also be used to fulfill their needs and desires. By using language, people can express his thought to each other in the form of ideas, information, or opinion, either concrete or abstract for the past and future (Effendi, 1990:11).
Language and society have very close relationship. Chaika explains that language and society are intertwined, so it is impossible to understand one without the other (1994:6). It can be said that language cannot be separated from society and vice versa. Therefore, there is a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and society which is called as Sociolinguistics. Dell Hymes defines sociolinguistic as a scientific knowledge that refers to correlation between language and society, and between particular linguistic and social phenomena (1974: VII).
In society there are many social phenomena concerning with language used such as addressing. Addressing is a way people call the other person during a
speakers use to designate the person they are talking to while they are talking to them (1990:1). There are some address forms that are usually used in the society such as Title (For example: “Sir”, “Miss”, “Mr.”, etc), Title plus Last Name (For example: “Mr. Thayer”, “Mrs. Smith”, “Dr. Johnson”, etc), First Name (“Jean”, “Dirk”, “David”, etc), Multiple Name (They can be nickname or other name such as: “Osama”, “Young man”, “Sweetie”, “Honey”, etc). The status of addressee in society brings the variation of the use of addresses. It can be said that the use of addresses depends on the relationship between the addresser and addressee, the social status of the participants involved in conversation, the purpose of conversation and the situation when the conversation happens. Fasold explains the main goal of addressing is to maintain social relationship between addresser and addressee in a society (Fasold, 1990:1).
The researcher uses a film entitled Crash as the source of data. Film Crash has American life background. The film tells about the racial discrimination that exists in America. The racial discrimination among the ethnic groups in America is reflected in the film clearly. In the film, the researcher finds that the characters in the film use various kinds of addresses. The way the characters in the film address someone can be figured out the kind of relationship they share whether they are close or not. Here, the researcher provides examples of the address usage in the film below:
1. The dialog happens in the police station (in Dixon’s room). The participants involved in the dialog are Lieutenant Joe Dixon and Officer Hansen. Lieutenant 1. The dialog happens in the police station (in Dixon’s room). The participants involved in the dialog are Lieutenant Joe Dixon and Officer Hansen. Lieutenant
a new partner. Since the setting is in police station so it makes the dialog run in the formal way. HANSEN
: I don’t wanna cause any problems, Lieutenant. I just want a new partner.
DIXON : I understand. Your partner’s a racist prick. But you don’t wanna stir up any bad feelings with him.
Hansen asks Dixon to have a new partner. Meanwhile, Dixon needs a good reason from Hansen if he wants a new partner. Dixon cannot accept Hansen’s reason saying that his partner is a racist man. It makes the conversation lead to the serious situation. There is an address form that is used by the addresser in the dialog above namely Title form “Lieutenant”. The address term above is the formal address that is usually used in military rank. The addresser uses this kind of address since he wants to show honor or respect. It can be seen that Dixon has higher status than Hansen. Hansen addresses Dixon politely and respectfully. He utters it in a serious and respectful tone. It can be seen that the position between addresser and addressee is unequal since the addresser has lower status than the addressee. It is a power relationship between lower police rank toward higher one. Thus, the reason of the use of address terms above is to show honor or respect toward addressee.
2. This dialog happens in counter. The participants of the dialog are Dirk, Farhad and Dorry. Dirk is the seller while Farhad is the buyer. Dorry is Farhad’s daughter. Dirk is a white man while Farhad and Dorri are Persian. Since Farhad and Dirk have never met before, they do not know each other. The topic of the
Farhad to choose free box of bullets for his gun. Meanwhile, Farhad and Dorry are busy to debate it themselves in Farsian language that Dirk does not understand. Dirk feels annoyed of that situation. DIRK
: You get one free box of ammunition. What kind do you want? FARHAD
: (in Farsi) What did he say “Ammunition”? DORRI
: (in Farsi) He asked what kinds of bullets you want.
FARHAD : (in Farsi)The kind that fit in the gun. DORRY
: (in Farsi)There is more than one type. FARHAD
: (in Farsi) How do I know? I don’t know anything about bullets. DORRY
: (in Farsi)Which is really good reason not to be buying a gun. FARHAD
: (in Farsi) You don’t use that tone of voice with me.
DIRK : Yo, Osama! Plan a Jihad on your own time. What do you want? FARHAD
: (in Farsi) What is he saying about “Jihad”? (to DIRK, in English) Are you making insults at me? DIRK
: Am I making insults at you? Is that the closest you get to English? FARHAD
: Yes, I speak English! I am American citizen. DIRK
: Oh God, here we go.
The conversation runs in an informal way. The address form that is used by Dirk toward Farhad is a Multiple Name “Osama”. Dirk looks annoyed to Farhad since Farhad speaks to Dorry in Farsian (Persian) language. Dirk does not understand what his two buyers discuss about. Thus, Dirk addresses Farhad in a high tone of voice. Dirk is angry because Farhad and Dorry ignore him. The reasons of the use of address “Osama” by Dirk are to get Farhad’s attention and to show Dirk’s anger since Farhad and Dorry ignore him as the owner of the shop. It can be seen that Dirk uttered it in a resentful and high tone with anger expression in his face. Dirk uses the Multiple Name “Osama” since he does not know the buyer’s name. Therefore, he uses name “Osama”(Osama bin Laden), a man coming from Middle East who is famous for his “Jihad”, since Dirk sees Farhad as Middle East people. Here, the addresser also wants to send a negative affective The conversation runs in an informal way. The address form that is used by Dirk toward Farhad is a Multiple Name “Osama”. Dirk looks annoyed to Farhad since Farhad speaks to Dorry in Farsian (Persian) language. Dirk does not understand what his two buyers discuss about. Thus, Dirk addresses Farhad in a high tone of voice. Dirk is angry because Farhad and Dorry ignore him. The reasons of the use of address “Osama” by Dirk are to get Farhad’s attention and to show Dirk’s anger since Farhad and Dorry ignore him as the owner of the shop. It can be seen that Dirk uttered it in a resentful and high tone with anger expression in his face. Dirk uses the Multiple Name “Osama” since he does not know the buyer’s name. Therefore, he uses name “Osama”(Osama bin Laden), a man coming from Middle East who is famous for his “Jihad”, since Dirk sees Farhad as Middle East people. Here, the addresser also wants to send a negative affective
Based on the phenomena above, it is interesting to analyze the style of speech especially addressing in the film entitled Crash related to the characters with different ethnic, social status, situation, topic and setting. Therefore, the researcher conducts a research entitled ADDRESS FORMS IN THE FILM
ENTITLED CRASH.
B. Problem Limitation
Considering many kinds of address forms in the film, the researcher only focuses on the style of addresses used for calling the second person participant occurring in the dialogs in the film entitled Crash. Since the address form “You” has no special meaning or various usages in English, it will be excluded in the analysis.
C. Problem Statements
Based on the research background above, the problem statements are as follow:
1. What kinds of addresses are used by the characters in the film Crash?
2. How are the addresses used by the characters in the film Crash?
3. Why are the addresses used by the characters in the film Crash.
D. Research Objectives
Based on the formulation of problem statements above, the objectives of the research are as follow:
1. To describe the kinds of addresses used by the characters in the film Crash .
2. To describe the use of addresses in the film Crash.
3. To find out the reasons of the use of addresses by the characters in the film Crash .
E. Research Benefits
The researcher expects that this research will be beneficial to:
1. Lectures and students of English Department: This research is expected to give some input and knowledge about style of speech especially concerning with address forms.
2. Other Researchers in the related areas: This research can be used as reference for the other research related to the study especially in sociolinguistic field.
F. Research Methodology
This research belongs to descriptive research. In descriptive research, the researcher only collected data, classified them then analyzed them and finally draw conclusion about the data and not necessarily draw a general conclusion
Taylor in Moleong states that qualitative method refers to the research procedure which brings about descriptive data in the form of written or spoken words and behavior available to be examined (2007:6).
The data of this research are all address forms spoken by the characters in the film entitled Crash. The data are analyzed through sociolinguistic approach that is by using ethnography of communication point of view, addressing theory, and the other related aspects of Sociolinguistics. The researcher also uses internet to enrich information about the data. The research methodology will be explained clearly in Chapter III.
G. Thesis Organization
The organization of this research is based on the following arrangement: CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION. It consists of Research Background, Problem Limitation, Problem Statements, Research Objectives, Research Benefits, Research Methodology and Thesis Organization.
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW. Sociolinguistics, Ethnography of Communication, Social Dimensions of Communication, Style of Speech, Address Forms, Domain of Language Use, Synopsis of the Film and Review of the Related Research.
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. It consists of The Types of Research, Data and Source of Data, Sample and Technique of Sampling, Instrument of the Research, Technique of Analyzing
CHAPTER IV: DATA ANALYSIS. It consists of The Types of Addresses used by the Characters in the Film Crash, The Interpretation of The Use of Address Forms in the Film Crash and The Reason of The Use of Address Forms in The Film Crash, and Discussion Analysis.
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
Reviews of some related literature are needed to solve the problems of the research. This chapter contains some theories related to the topic of the research which covers the Definition of Sociolinguistics, The Scope of Sociolinguistics, Ethnography of Communications, Fundamental Concepts in Ethnography of Communication, Components of Speech, Social Dimension of Communication, Style of Speech, Address Forms, Synopsis of the Film and Related Research. Thus, this chapter will discuss all of those theories.
A. Sociolinguistics
1. The Definition of Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and society. There are some sociolinguists who give their definition of Sociolinguistics as follows:
Chaika states that sociolinguistics is the study of the way people use language in social interactions of all kinds (1982:2). Sociolinguistics examines how language works in any kind of situation. Similarly, Wardaugh also states that Sociolinguistics concerns with investigating the relationship between language and society with the goal of being better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication (1998:12). It means Chaika states that sociolinguistics is the study of the way people use language in social interactions of all kinds (1982:2). Sociolinguistics examines how language works in any kind of situation. Similarly, Wardaugh also states that Sociolinguistics concerns with investigating the relationship between language and society with the goal of being better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication (1998:12). It means
Hudson defines sociolinguistics as the study of language in relation to the society (1996:1). It is also confirmed by Dell Hymes. He states that sociolinguistics refers to correlation between language and societies, and between particular linguistics and social phenomena (1974: VII). The statement above shows the close relationship between language and society. They are inter-related each other. Thus, none of them exists without the other’s presence.
Holmes defines that sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguists are interested to explain why people speak differently in the different social context and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning (1992:1). It can be said that sociolinguistics does not only describe the relationship between language and society, but also the social function and the way people use language in the different social context and speech community.
From those definitions above, it can be concluded that sociolinguistics is the study of language which focuses on the relation between language and its social factors within a society.
2. The Scope of Sociolinguistics
Based on Fishman’s (1972) point of view, Sociolinguistics can be divided Based on Fishman’s (1972) point of view, Sociolinguistics can be divided
Macro sociolinguistics is a term used to cover secular linguistics, the sociology of language and other areas involving the study of relative large group of speakers (Trudgill, 1992: 51). It emphasizes its study on the society that is in relatively large group of people or speakers of such language. Macro sociolinguistics is the study on sociolinguistics that takes account of the language history and development in the scope of society in general (Fishman, 1972). Thus, it can be concluded that macro sociolinguistics concerns with the use of a language and language varieties involving a large group of speakers rather than individual. In other word, macro sociolinguistics is the study of language which aimed to understand the society.
b. Micro Sociolinguistics
Micro sociolinguistics is a term that covers the study of face to face interaction, discourse analysis, conversation analysis, and other areas of sociolinguistics involving the study of relatively small group of speakers (Trudgill, 1992:52). Fishman (1972) states that micro sociolinguistics is the study of language in specific communities with the scope of discussion such as the behavior toward language style of speech, domains of language use, register and speech act.
Since the focus of the discussion is style of speech concerning with the use of Address forms, the researcher takes micro sociolinguistics as the frame of study. All theories used are under the scope of micro sociolinguistics study.
B. Ethnography of Communication
1. The Definition of Ethnography Communication
In order to know how the speakers of a particular language in a particular community organize their social relationship, it is necessary to know the ethnography of communication. The approach to the sociolinguistics of language in which the use of language in general related to the social culture is called the ethnography of communication (Fasold, 1996:39).
Hymes in Foundations in Sociolinguistics (1974:4) gives further explanations of his theory of Ethnography of Communication as follows: “As the scope: One cannot simply take separate results from linguistics,
psychology, sociology, ethnology, as given, and seek to correlate them, however partially useful such work maybe, if one is to have a theory of language (not just a theory of grammar). One needs fresh kinds of data, one need to investigate directly the use of language in context of situation, so as to discern patterns proper to speech activity, patterns that escape separate studies of grammar, of personality, of social structure, religion, and the like, each abstracting from the patterning of speech activity into some other frame reference. As to basis: One cannot take linguistic form, a given code, or even speech itself, as a limiting frame of reference. One must take as context a community, or network of persons, investigating its communicative activities as a whole, so that any use of channel and codes takes its place as part of resources upon which the members draw.”(p.IV)
From the definition above, it can be seen that the Ethnography of Communication is concerned with the situations and uses, the patterns and function of speaking as an activity in its own right (Hymes in Fasold, 1996:39). Ethnography of communication is the study of the organization of speaking as an activity in human society. In Ethnography of communication, we cannot simply take a part of the linguistics result as the source of investigation but we should From the definition above, it can be seen that the Ethnography of Communication is concerned with the situations and uses, the patterns and function of speaking as an activity in its own right (Hymes in Fasold, 1996:39). Ethnography of communication is the study of the organization of speaking as an activity in human society. In Ethnography of communication, we cannot simply take a part of the linguistics result as the source of investigation but we should
Therefore, ethnography of communication seeks to account not only for what can be said, but also for when, where, by whom, to whom, in what manner and what particular circumstances. It deals with the factors relating to the use of language varieties including the norms and rules used in a certain community.
2. Fundamental Concepts in Ethnography of Communication
In order to get more comprehensive of what ethnography of communication is all about, we should know some fundamental concepts of ethnography of communication, that is, speech community, speech situation, speech event and speech act.
a. Speech Community
The term speech community is usually used by sociolinguist to refer to a community based on language. Dell Hymes defines the term of speech community as a community sharing knowledge of rules for conduct and interpretation of speech, rules for interpretation of at least one language variety (1974:51). Similarly, Coulthard also states that a speech community is any group which shares both linguistics resources and rules for interaction and interpretation (1998:35). It can be said that a speech community is a group of people who speak the same language and share the same norms of language.
Peter Trudgill explains speech community as a community of speakers who share the verbal repertoire and who also share the same norms for linguistics Peter Trudgill explains speech community as a community of speakers who share the verbal repertoire and who also share the same norms for linguistics
Moreover, Fishman states that a speech community is one, all whose members share at least a single variety and norms for its appropriate use (1972:22). From the definition, a speech community is not simply a group of people that use the same language, but it must have the same judgment towards the prevailed rules in using language.
From all of definition above, it can be concluded that speech community is
a group of people who share a set of norms, rules for interaction and interpretation regarding to the use of language. It means there must be a mutual intelligibility among them. Each of them has to know how to use that language appropriately in the society in which they live, when and to whom it is used as they communicate and interact with others.
b. Speech Situation
Hymes (1974:51) describes speech situation as situations associated with or marked by the absence of speech. He gives the examples of speech situation such as ceremonies, fights, hunts, love making and etc. He also explains that speech situations are not purely communicative. They may be composed of both communicative and other kinds of events. Speech situations are not themselves subject to rules of speaking, but can be referred to by rules of speaking as contexts (Hymes in Fasold, 1990:42).
c. Speech Event
Hymes explains that the term speech event will be restricted to activities, or aspects of activities, that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech (1974:52). Speech event takes place within a speech situation. Speech situation is composed by one or more speech events. It can be seen in the example: a request might be a speech act that is part of a conversation (speech event) which takes place at a dinner (speech situation).
d. Speech act
Hymes explains that speech act is to be distinguished from the sentence and is not to be identified with any unit at any level of grammar (In Fasold, 1990:43). A speech act gets its status from the social context as well as grammatical form and intonation. “The level of speech acts mediates immediately between the usual levels of grammar and the rest of a speech event or situation in that it implicates both linguistics form and social norms” (ibid, 1990:43).
Speech is a very essential concept that is strongly related to the concept of Hymes’ ethnography of communication. It is clear that speech act occurs in social communication in which social and situational context, function and topics is the determiner of the speech meaning.
3. Component of Speech
Hymes suggests that there are eight components of speech that the ethnographer should look for. Those are situation, participants, ends, act sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms and genres. All of them are known with one of Hymes suggests that there are eight components of speech that the ethnographer should look for. Those are situation, participants, ends, act sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms and genres. All of them are known with one of
The situation (S) consists of setting and scene that describe the conversation occurs. The setting refers to time and place or the concrete physical circumstances in which a speech takes place. The scene refers to the abstract psychological setting or cultural definition of an occasion as formal or informal, serious or festive (ibid: p.44).
b. Participants
Participant (P) is a person or individual involving in a speech event. The participants consist of speaker-listener, addresser-addressee, or sender-receiver. It deals with who is speaking and who is a speaker speaking to. A speaker, addresser and sender mean people who deliver a message. A listener, addressee and receiver mean people to whom the message is delivered (ibid, p.44).
c. Ends
Ends (E) mean the purpose of an event. It can be divided outcomes (the purpose of the event from social/ cultural point of view) and goals (the purpose of the individual participant). Outcomes that enter into the definition of speech event can be described as the purpose of speech base on the cultural point of view, e.g. trade, marriage contract, interview, etc. while the goal of a speech is a purpose of each participant during communication. In other words, it can be seen as a negotiation among participants to make an agreement toward the topic discussed. Thus, there is a different goal of the participants.
d. Act sequence
Acts sequence (A) refers to the message of a conversation. It consists of message form (how something is said) and message content (what is said) (ibid, p.44). Both message form and message content involve communicative skills that vary from one culture to another. Speakers have to know how to formulate speech event and speech act in ways that their culture values and also how to recognize what is being talked about, when a topic changes, and how to manage changes in the topic.
e. Key
Key (K) refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a speech is carried out, whether it is mock or serious, perfunctory or painstaking. In addition, key also refers to the feeling, atmosphere, and attitude. Key seems to be one of the most important social factors affecting one’s uses of language. For better understanding of the term “key”, the definition of “key” in details is given as follows:
· Tone: the general spirit of the scene, such as brave, fierce, and fearful · Manner: the participant’s way of behavior toward others, whether it is polite, impolite, intimate, distant, formal, informal, tense, relaxed, serious, mocking, respectful. · Feeling: the emotions indicating happiness, terror, excitability, anxiety, shock, desperation, anger, neutrality, irony, uncertainty, frustration, etc. · Atmosphere: the feeling that affects the mind in a place o condition, for
· Attitude: the participant’s ways of thinking and behaving toward a situation whether it is sympathetic, optimistic, pessimistic, resolute,
serious, mocking, resentful, bitter, etc.
f. Instrumentalities
Instrumentalities are derived from the word “instrument” that means the way the message of a conversation is transmitted. Instrumentalities (I) include both channel and form of speech. Hymes describes channel as the way in which a message travels from one person to another. The most commonly used channels are oral and written, but message can also be transmitted by such means of telegraph, smoke signals, semaphore, etc. Whereas, form of speech according to Hymes deals with language and their subdivisions such as dialects, codes, varieties, and register (ibid, p.43).
Related to the discussion of this research, the researcher takes speech style as counterpart to register for it can be considered as form of speech in accordance with aspects of person, situation and genres (Hymes, 1974: 59).
g. Norms
Norms (N) refer to the rules used within a conversation and interaction. There are two kinds of norm namely norm of interaction and norm of interpretation. Both of them are determined by cultural aspects of certain community. Norms of interaction refer to a set of non-linguistic rules which govern when, how, and how often speech occurs, while norms of interpretation involve trying to understand what is being conveyed beyond what is the actual Norms (N) refer to the rules used within a conversation and interaction. There are two kinds of norm namely norm of interaction and norm of interpretation. Both of them are determined by cultural aspects of certain community. Norms of interaction refer to a set of non-linguistic rules which govern when, how, and how often speech occurs, while norms of interpretation involve trying to understand what is being conveyed beyond what is the actual
Genres refer to the categories of the speech. It can be a poem, myths, tale, proverb, riddle, curse, prayer, oration, lecturer, commercial, form letter, editorial, etc (Hymes, 1974:61). They often coincide with speech events, but may occur in more than one different event (Hymes in Fasold, 1990:46).
C. Social Dimension of Communication
Holmes (1992:376) states that there are four dimensions reflected during the process of communication, namely: social distance scale, status scale, formality scale, and function scale.
a. A Social distance scale concerned with participants relationships
The solidarity – Social distance scale Intimate/ close Distant
High solidarity Low solidarity Dimension of social distance is a solidarity dimension taking account for pattern of linguistic interaction. The discussion of this dimension always connects with participant’s relationship. It is useful in emphasizing that how well the participants know each other is one of the most important factors in affecting the pattern of communication. How close and far the participant’s relationship is shown by this scale. Language of solidarity based on Holmes (1992:378) is in- group language that identifies certain group difference, existence, or solidarity among the group members.
b. A Status scale concerned with participants relationship
The social status scale Superior High status Subordinate Lower status
Other name of the dimension of status scale is the dimension of power scale of participants. Dimension of status or power scale is the dimension that accounts for a variety of linguistic differences in the way people speak (ibid, 378). People communicate in such a way signal their status or power in a society. When people of lower status address to the higher status, they will use “sir”, “madam”, etc.
c. A Formality scale relating to the setting or type of interaction
The Formality scale Formal
High formality
Low
Low formality
The formality dimension is the dimension that accounts for speech variation in different settings or contexts. This scale is useful in assessing the influence of the social setting or types of interaction on the language choices. People will choose a certain variety of linguistic choices in accordance with the context of setting when the communication takes place whether a formal or informal occasion. For example, in a law court, a very formal setting will influence the language used regardless of the personal relationship between the speakers. For everyday friendly conversation, people usually use casual language The formality dimension is the dimension that accounts for speech variation in different settings or contexts. This scale is useful in assessing the influence of the social setting or types of interaction on the language choices. People will choose a certain variety of linguistic choices in accordance with the context of setting when the communication takes place whether a formal or informal occasion. For example, in a law court, a very formal setting will influence the language used regardless of the personal relationship between the speakers. For everyday friendly conversation, people usually use casual language
The Referential and affective function scale Referential
High
Low
Information information
The function of an interaction can also be an important influence on its linguistic form. The function dimension here covers referential meaning and affective social meaning. The linguistic features of a certain interaction with referential meaning are strongly influenced by the information they need to convey and it can express how someone is feeling. Many everyday interactions serve both an affective (or social) function and referential (informative) function. The weather forecast tends to put emphasis on information or the referential function. On the contrary, the interactions which are concerned with expressing feeling often have a little space in the way of new information to communicate. Talk between neighbors over the fence at the weekend about the weather, for instance, is more likely to be mainly affective in function and intended to convey goodwill toward the neighbor rather than important new information.
D. Style of Speech
Dell Hymes (1974 in Coulthard, 1998:40) explains that style of speech is used in the neutral sense of ‘a way or mode’. He gives the definition of speech style as follow:
“The concept of style may seem very close to that of register but there is a crucial difference: registers are mainly defined and recognized by topic and context-specific lexis – the register of sermons is the language used in giving sermons; style, however, as the rules of alternations emphasize, are not mechanically connected to particular situations – speakers may choose among styles and their choices have social meaning” (p.40).
From that definition above, it can be seen clearly that the use of certain style of speech constitutes social meaning conveyed and emphasized in interaction. The speech style is not only connected with the situation in which the communication takes place, but it also has social meaning such as the intimacy of participants, formality, mood of communication and other social dimensions of communication.
Chaika in Language as the Social Mirror states that speech, like a dress, varies with the situation, different situation calling for different styles (1994: 81). Style also controls social interaction. More interestingly, style gives its own messages that are not supposed to be given via linguistic system proper. A communication with a typical setting, participants, topic requires a specific language variety whether varieties in one language or in the variation in other languages. It depends on the situation when the communication occurs and the social dimension of the communication. Thus, it can be said that a different situation and different social dimension of communication will require a different
Chaika also defines that style forms a communication system in its own right, one that determines how a social interaction will proceed or it will not proceed at all. Style of speech tells whether a communication goes formally or informally. Style also tells the listeners how to take what is being said, whether seriously, ironically, humorously, angrily, lovingly or dubiously (1994:81).
Style is also related to the care that the speaker takes with his expression in
a certain situation. The more formal situation is the more formal people pay attention to their language. In the less formal situation, people can talk informally and produce language variety freely. Moreover, the use of language varieties is depend on the social status of the interaction involve in a conversation.
From those definitions above, it can be said that style constitutes the use of varieties in one language that has some specific social meaning related to the speaker’s intention in conducting of communication. The choice of style is related to the situation when the communication occurs and the social dimension of the communication. Thus, a person may choose different styles in relation to the situation and social dimension of communication that occur during the process of communication. The style of speech also deals with the participants, topics and setting that always determine the situation when the conversation occurs.
E. Address Forms
Fasold in The Sociolinguistics of Language states that address forms are the words speakers use to designate the person they are talking to while they are
Spolsky (1998:21) states that there are four kinds of address forms used in
a society, namely: Title alone (“Sir”, “Your Majesty”, “Madam”, “Mr”, “Mrs”, “Miss”), Title plus Last Name (“Mr. Jones”, “Dr. Smith”, “Lord Clark”, “Miss Jones”, “Mrs. Jones”), First Name (“Orlando”, “David”, “Tom”), and Multiple Name (including nicknames: “Young man”, “Son”, “Dear”, “Sweetheart”, “Honey”).
Brown and Ford (1964, in Fasold, 1990: 8) divide the address forms into two forms, namely major and variant. Major forms of address include term of first name (FN), and term of title plus last name (TLN). The variant forms of address consists of term of title alone (T), last name (LN) and multiple name (MN). Among the kinds of addresses, it can be seen that Title alone (T) is the most formal address forms. Last name (LN) is less formal than Title plus Last Name (TLN), but not so intimate as First Name (FM). Multiple Name (MN) is the most intimate address forms.