Simple Prepositional Phrases Found in Business Articles of the Jakarta Post.

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FOUND IN BUSINESS ARTICLES

OF THE JAKARTA POST

FITRI HANDAYANI 1201305108

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF LETTERS & CULTURE

UDAYANA UNIVERSITY

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APPROVAL SHEET

This paper is submitted as a partial fulfillment to obtain the SS degree

at the English Department, Faculty of Letters and Culture, Udayana University

Approved by the Examining Board of the English Department Faculty of Letters and Culture

Udayana University

Denpasar, Maret 2016

Chairperson, Secretary,

Ni Made Ayu Widiastuti, S.S, M.Hum. Drs. I Gede Sadia

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First of all, I would like to express my great gratitude to God the Almighty for His blessing during the process of writing this thesis. The thesis entitled Simple Prepositional Phrases Found in Business Articles of the Jakarta Post is written in order to complete the final task as a requirement to finish the study program of S1 English Department.

During the process of writing this thesis the writer has been inspired and assisted by many people. Through this chance the writer would like to thank:

1. Prof. Dr. Ni Luh Sutjiati Baratha as the Dean of Faculty of Letters and Cultures, Udayana University.

2. I Gusti Ngurah Phartama, S.S. M.Hum. as the Head of English Department Language Program.

3. Dra. Ni Wayan Sukarini, M,Hum. as the Academic Supervisor who has guided the writer during the study.

4. Ni Made Ayu Widiastuti, S.S, M.Hum. as the Supervisor I for her guidance during the process of writing this thesis.

5. Drs. I Gede Sadia as the Supervisor II for his guidance during the process of writing this thesis.

6. All the lecturers for giving knowledge and all the administrative staffs of Faculty of Letters and Culture, Udayana University.

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The writer realizes that this thesis is still far from perfect because of limited ability, knowledge, and experience. Therefore, the writer welcomes any suggestions and constructive criticisms from all sides for the perfection of this thesis. Wishing this thesis can be useful.

Denpasar, Maret 2016

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Cover ...i

Approval Sheet...ii

Acknowledgements...iii

Table of Contents...v

Abstract...viii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background ...1

1.2 Problems of Study ...3

1.3 The Aims of Study ...4

1.4 Scope of Discussion...4

1.5 Research Methods...4

1.5.1 Data Source...5

1.5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data...5

1.5.3 Method and Technique of Analyzing Data...5

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Review of Literature...6

2.2 Concepts...9

2.3 Theoretical Frameworks...10

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2.3.1.1 Monosyllabic preposition...12

2.3.1.2 Polysyllabic preposition...12

2.3.2 Syntactic Functions of Simple Prepositional Phrases...13

2.3.2.1 Postmodifier in a Noun Phrase...13

2.3.2.2 Adverbial...14

2.3.2.3 Complementation...15

2.3.3 Simple Prepositional Meanings...16

2.3.3.1 Prepositions Denoting Spatial Relations...16

2.3.3.2 Prepositions Denoting Time...24

2.3.3.3 The Cause/ Purpose spectrum...27

2.3.3.4 The Means/ Agentive Spectrum...30

2.3.3.5 Other Prepositional Meaning...33

CHAPTER III THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 3.1 The Types of the Simple Prepositional Phrases...36

3.1.1 Monosyllabic Preposition...36

3.1.2 Polisillabic Preposition...36

3.2 The Analysis of Syntactic Function of Simple Prepositional Phrases...36

3.2.1 Post Modifier in a Noun Phrase……….36

3.2.2 Adverbial………..…………..………38

3.2.3 Complementation………..………...41

3.3 The Analysis of Simple Prepositional Meanings of Simple Prepositional Phrases……….42

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3.3.3 Denoting Cause or Purpose Spectrum………52

3.3.4 Denoting Means or Agentive spectrum………..54

3.3.5 Other Prepositional Meanings………...………….57

CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION………61

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ABSTRACT

The title of this study is Simple Prepositional Phrases Found in Business Articles of the Jakarta Post. This study aims to identify types of simple prepositions, to describe syntactic functions and to analyze simple prepositional meanings of simple prepositional phrases.

This study uses the Jakarta Post, especially Business articles as data source. This study uses the main theory of Quirk, et. al (1985) related to prepositional phrase, in their book entitled A comprehensive Grammar of English Language. Besides, there is a support theory of Yule (1998). Based on theory of Quirk, et. al, the data were analyzed descriptively and qualitatively.

Based on the main theory, the collected data is classified into its types, that are monosyllabic (for, to, of, from, on, as, in) and polysyllabic (after into under among) prepositions. In this case, the occurrence of monosyllabic preposition is more dominant. Then the occurrences of simple prepositional phrases are analyzed based on the functions, which indicate postmodifier in a noun phrase, adverbial, and complementation. In addition, the simple prepositional meanings are analyzed in terms of spatial relation, time, cause or purpose spectrum, means or agentive spectrum and other prepositional meanings that consist of various relations of prepositional of, having, and concession. Prepositions denoting spatial relations and time are the commonest in the simple prepositional phrases of the sentences.

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INTRODUCTION

1.1Background

Prepositional phrase is one of the sentence elements, which functions to indicate certain relation between other words in one sentence. It used to make the sentence complete and understandable (by Quirk, et. al). The prepositional phrase consists of preposition followed by a prepositional complement. It functions to indicate time, position, space, location, etc. The prepositions that consist of one word called as simple preposition. The simple prepositions are often used either in written or spoken. There are some theories used in this study related to prepositional phrases. They are theory of Quirk, et.al as main theory and the last Yule’s theory as support theory.

According to Quirk, et.al (1985:673) a preposition emphasizes the relation between two entities, that one being represented by the prepositional complement. In this case time and place are easier to be identified, however in term of labels; preposition in systematic meaning is difficult to be described. Besides theory of Quirk, et.al, Yule’s theory is also used to support in analyzing of this study.

Yule (1998:156) states that preposition can be followed by a noun phrase from prepositional phrase. So following noun phrase, verb, or adjective can become a mark of the relationship in terms of what can be a mark of preposition in English.

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So, if we compare the theory of Quirk, et.al with Yule. It is same, but they have different ways to state their opinions. We can see either the word or phrase which is after preposition can be called either as prepositional complement or noun phrase.

Quirk, et.al (1985:659) also state that there are several points of similarity between preposition and other word classes and constructions in English grammar, particularly conjunction and adverb, as well as participle and adjective. Quirk, et.al mean prepositions and conjunctions have a relating or connecting function. For instance: the day when she arrived and the day of her arrival. There are whenin the first sentence and of in the second sentence, when is as a conjunction and of is as a preposition. Both of them have a relating or connecting function, it’s a point of similarity between preposition and conjunction. The point of similarity between preposition, participle and conjunction is a same item, for instance: a word of “considering”. Word of “considering” can be a preposition, conjunction, or participle. It depends on distinguishing criterion of them in a sentence. “Considering” as a conjunction, it introduces or followed by a subordinate clause, “considering” as a preposition, it introduces or followed a noun phrase, and “considering” as participle, it is a nonfinite verb, which is a word from verb, ending –ing. So, we can conclude that the points of similarity of relating or connecting function can be occurred between preposition and conjunction. The point of similarity of the same item occurred between preposition, conjunction and participle.

Besides, we have to know that there is also a difference between prepositions other word classes, particularly preposition and particle. We sometime find the preposition and particle in a same form of word, but have different word class. Particle is a preposition that can combines with a verb to make a phrasal verb. Phrasal verb is a verb combined with a preposition to give a new meaning. (Oxford dictionary 8th edition)

The frequency of the use of preposition is very high either in spoken or written. It is impossible for us to speak or write in English without preposition to make sentence related to each other and understandable. The reason why the writer interests in choosing newspaper as the object because prepositional phrase is not only used in academic but also it is used in newspaper. Prepositions that found never changed and pure based on their type, syntactic function and also the meaning. Newspapers are totally different that poetry especially in the use of prepositions itself. Preposition has very crucial and distinct rule in the grammar of English language; this topic is discussed in this study.

1.2Problems

Based on the background, there are three problems that are discussed in this writing, they are:

1. What types of simple prepositions are found in business articles of the Jakarta Post?

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2. What syntactic functions of simple prepositional phrases are found in business articles of the Jakarta Post?

3. What simple prepositional meanings of simple prepositional phrases are found in business articles of the Jakarta Post?

1.3Aims of Study

Based on the problems above, the aims of this study are as follows:

1. To identify the types of the simple prepositions found in business articles of the Jakarta Post.

2. To describe the syntactic functions of the simple prepositional phrases found in business articles of the Jakarta Post.

3. To analyze about the simple prepositional meanings of simple prepositional phrases found in business articles of the Jakarta Post.

1.4Scope of Discussion

The scope discussion in this study is focused on the types of simple prepositions, the syntactic functions and the simple prepositional meanings of simple prepositional phrases based on the theory of Quirk, et.al (1985) related prepositional phrase in their book A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.

1.5Research Methods

There are some steps needed to be followed when we do a research. There are data source where all the data used to sport all the analysis taken from, method and

technique of collecting data and analyzing data are important in helping to solve difficulty in collecting and analyzing process. So, the research resulted becomes quicker, better and clearer.

1.5.1Data Source

The data were taken from the articles in business topic of Jakarta Post newspaper. The Jakarta Post was chosen as the data source because it is an international newspaper in Indonesia. Besides, in Jakarta Post especially in business articles there are many simple prepositions.

1.5.2Method and Technique of Collecting Data

Library research method was applied in collecting the data relevant to the topic. The data were taken from Business articles in The Jakarta Post. The data were collected through intensive and comprehensive reading and then marking the occurrences of simple prepositions, and the last input into Microsoft word of computer program.

1.5.3Method and Technique of Analyzing Data

The collected data were descriptively and qualitatively analyzed based on the main theory of Quirk, et.al (1985) about prepositional phrase in their book entitled A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Based on that theory, the data were classified based on types of simple prepositions. After that the syntactic functions and simple prepositional meanings of simple prepositional phrases were analyzed qualitatively.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS, AND

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1Review of Literatures

There are four theses and one intenational journal reviewed; all of them are related to the topic in this thesis that is prepositional phrase. All of literatures are reviewed as below:

The thesis entitled The Preposition “FOR” in English and its translation in Indonesian written by Satwika (2009). This thesis mainly focused on the preposition “for” occurring in English-Indonesian translation. The theories used in this study were the theory of translation proposed by Larson (1984) and Catford (1965), and the theory of preposition was taken from the theory proposed by Quirk (1973). This study is aimed at finding out the functions of the preposition “for” in English and analyzing the translation of the preposition “for” in Bahasa Indonesia. The data were taken from the English novel entitled The Stars Shine Down by Sidney Sheldon with its Indonesian version entitled Kilau Bintang Menyinari Bumi. The data were collected by reading both novels carefully, finding out the problems, written the data on pieces of paper and classified based on their functions. Finally, the data was analyzed descriptively. The strength of his study is the clear analysis; he has explained and analyzed the problem of his study based on used theory. Meanwhile, the analysis of his study is too narrow, he did not discuss about other prepositions.

The similarities of this study with his thesis are both of them use descriptive method to find the reason prepositional in English and their translation into Indonesian. The difference is while his thesis only analyzed the preposition “for”.

The thesis entitled The Analysis of Preposition in Master of the Game by Sidney Sheldon was written by Susanti (2007). This thesis only focused on the meaning indicated by preposition with, and the classes of words that can be combined “with”. This theory is primary taken from a Quirk, et al. (1985), besides from this main reference, the theoretical concept of the preposition “with” has also been taken from Swam (1995) in the book entitled Practical English Usage. The aims of this study are to find out the meanings indicated by preposition “with” and the class of words that can be combined into sentence with preposition “with”. The data in this study were taken from novel entitled Master of the Game by Sidney Sheldon. The strength of his study is the clear analysis; he explained each analysis based on meanings of preposition “with”.

The similarities of this study with the thesis are both of them use theory entitled A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language by Quirk, et al. (1985). The difference is while her thesis discussed about the meaning indicated by preposition “with”.

The thesis entitled Function and Meaning of Preposition IN and ON in Economic and Political Articles of “The Jakarta Post” written by Tinaya (2010). The data were analyzed based on grammar theory focusing on preposition that introduced by Quirk, et al. in their book entitled A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985). The data of this study were taken from “The Jakarta Post”. The

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data are classified based on the types of prepositions then the result is described descriptively according to Quirk, et al. The strength of his study is the clear analysis, he described in his analysis based on the meaning of prepositions IN and ON. Meanwhile, the analysis of her study is too narrow, she did not analyze more complete other prepositions.

The similarities of this study with the thesis are both of them use “The Jakarta Post”. The difference is while the first thesis discusses about Economic and Political Articles, this study only focuses in discussing about Business Article.

The thesis entitled Prepositional Phrase in the Article of Resident Magazine written by Putra (2010). The data were analyzed based on the main theory proposed by Quirk, et al. (1985) in their book entitled “A Comprehensive Grammar. The data in this study were taken from the articles of Resident Magazine (issue 6 Nov-April 2008) wet/hot season and issue 10 Nov-May 2010 wet/hot season). The aims of this study were to find out the types of prepositional phrase especially with preposition at, on, and in as the head of the phrase, to describe and analyze the syntactic function and meaning of prepositional phrase in some of articles in magazine. The data were collected by using library research and analyzed qualitatively. The strength of his study is the clear analysis, he discussed and analyzed based on the types, syntactic functions, and meanings of prepositional phrases. Meanwhile, the title of his study “phrase” word should be plural and add with -s, because he analyze more than one phrase.

The similarities of this study with the thesis are both of them use the main theory proposed by Quirk, et al. (1985). The difference is while the first thesis used the articles of resident Magazine in analyzing prepositional phrase.

The international article from Chen, et al entitled A Construction Grammar Approach to Prepositional Phrase Attachment: Semantic Feature Analysis of V NP1 into NP2 Construction. This paper provides a construction grammar perspective to identifying the ambiguity of prepositional phrase (PP) attachments (i.e., whether a PP is attached to the closest VP or NP1). In this study, the writers adopt the construction grammar framework to provide a different means to reformulate the PP attachment problem

2.2Concepts

2.2.1 Prepositional Phrase

Quirk, et al. state preposition itself is a word or group of word used before a noun or pronoun to show place, position, time, or method. Phrase is a group of words which have a particular meaning when use together. And the last is prepositional phrase; it means that one of the sentence element which functions to indicate certain relation between other words in one sentence. Prepositional phrases used to make the sentence complete and understandable. They are important element in sentences which function to indicate time, position, space, location, etc.

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2.2.2 Business Articles

Business is the activity of marking, buying, selling or supplying goods or services for money. Article is a piece of writing about a particular subject in a newspaper or magazine (Oxford dictionary 8th edition). Business article is a piece of writing that contains kinds of information and promotions related to activity of selling, supplying goods and services, which may be needed and desired by readers.

2.3Theoretical Framework

The theory which relevant with this topic is proposed by Quirk, et al. entitled The Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.

A prepositional phrase consists of preposition followed by a prepositional complement, which is characteristically a noun phrase or a wh-clause or V-ing clause:

PREPOSITION PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT

At the bus stops

From what he said

By signing a peace treaty

That-clause and infinitive clauses, although they frequently have a nominal function in other respect, do not occur as prepositional complement.

Alternation between the presence and absence of preposition are observed in cases like:

her mark He was surprised at her saying this

what she said He was surprised that she said this

Further examples of verbs and adjectives which have either prepositional complements or that-clause are:

Afraid (of), angry (at), found (of) For examples:

1. John is fond of them

2. They were afraid of him (‘They feared him’) 3. I’m angry at Marry getting married.

(Quirk, 1973: 143)

2.3.1Types of Simple Prepositions

Quirk, et al. (1985: 665-673) propose that the types of prepositions can be divided such as:

The most common English prepositions, such as at, in and for are SIMPLE, i.e. they consist of one word. The following is the list of the common simple prepositions. In view of the different stress patterns, they have been divided into mono- and polysyllabic.

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2.3.1.1Monosyllabic Preposition

Monosyllabic Preposition is a word consisting of one syllable used to denoting time, place, etc. These are some monosyllabic prepositions with their meanings:

As Basis of comparison

At Space; time position; goal; target; stimulus; standard; reaction By Space; time; means and instrument; agentive; stimulus; reaction Down movement; orientation

For Duration; Cause, etc: purpose, intended destination; recipient; support; standard

From Space; Orientation; originator; duration; cause; etc; source, origin; substance

In space; time position; measurement into the future

Like manner

Near (to) (also comparative and superlative: nearer (to), nearest (to)) space Of Cause, means; various relations; subject matter; material

Off Space

On Space; time position; target; means and instrument; respect; subject matter

2.3.1.2Polysyllabic Preposition

Polysyllabic Preposition is a word consisting of two or more than two syllables to indicating space, time, etc. These are some polysyllabic prepositions with their meanings:

A’bout space; respect; subject matter A’bove relative position

A’cross relative position; passage; movement; orientation After relative position; time

A’gaint position; opposition

A’long movement; orientation; pervasive

Quirk, et al. (1985:665-667)

2.3.2 Syntactic Functions of Simple Prepositional Phrases

Simple prepositional phrases have the following syntactic functions: 2.3.2.1 POSTMODIFIER in a Noun Phrase

The people on the bus were singing

Quirk, et al. (1985:657) In addition to reduction of sentences into noun phrase by means of post modification by finite and nonfinite clauses, we have the further possibility of reduction by prepositional phrase, as in the last item of the following series:

The car was standing outside the station The car which was standing outside the station The car standing outside the station

The car outside the station

It is natural to relate such prepositional post modifier as (the car) outside the station to be-sentences (‘the car is outside the station’), though in some instance the phrase seems to correspond with more than merely the finite verb be. For example:

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The university as a political forum

The university is acting/ regarding as a political forum

Quirk, et al. (1985: 1274-1275) 2.3.2.2Adverbial

(a) Adjunct

The people were singing on the bus In the afternoon, we went to Boston (b) Subjunct

From a personal point of view, I find this a good solution to the problem (c) Disjunct

In all fairness, she did try to phone the police. (d) Conjunct

On the other hand, he made no attempt to help her.

Quirk, et al. (1985:657) ADJUNCT and SUBJUNCT are relatively integrated within the structure of the clause. By contrast, disjunct and conjunct have a more peripheral relation in the sentence. Semantically, DISJUNCT expresses an evaluation of what is being said either with respect to the form of communication or to its meaning. We identify disjunct with the speaker’s authority for, or comment on, the accompanying clause. And the last CONJUNCT expresses the speaker’s assessment of the relation between two linguistic units.

2.3.2.3Complementation

Complementation is part of a phrase or clause which follows a word and completes the specification of meaning relationship which that word implies.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 1150) Quirk, et al. divide complementation into:

(a) Complementation of a verb

We were looking at his awful paintings (b) Complementation of an adjective

I’m sorry for his parents

Quirk, et al. (1985:657) Adjective often form a lexical unit with a following preposition: good at, fond of, opposed of, etc. The lexical bond is strongest with adjective for which, in a given sense, the complementation is obligatory: Max is averse to games = max is averse. In particular, it is often possible for the same adjective to go with two or more preposition, as in angry about, angry at, and angry with.

Quirk, et al. (1985:1221) As a complementation of a verb or an adjective, the preposition is more closely related to the preceding word (look at, sorry for) which determines its choice, than to the prepositional complement.

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2.3.3 Simple Prepositional Meanings

In the surveying of simple prepositional meanings, space and time relations will be explained first, and will be followed by other relations such as cause, goal, origin, and other simple prepositional meanings. The explanation below will give complete description about simple prepositional meaning.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 675) 2.3.3.1 Prepositions Denoting Spatial Relations

2.3.3.1.1 Dimension

When we use a preposition to indicate space, we do so in relation to the dimensional properties, whether subjectively or objectively conceived, of the location concerned. Consider at in example [1]:

My car is at the cottage. [1]

Here the use of at treats cottage as a dimensionless location, a mere POINT in relation to which the position of the car can be indicated. This is dimension- type 0. Compare on in [2]:

Our cottage is on that road. [2]

In [2], the road is viewed as a LINE ['along that road'], ie dimension-type 1. But on can also be used to denote an area, as in [3] and [4]:

There is some ice on that road. [3] There is a new roof on the cottage [4]

In [3 and [4], the road and the cottage are viewed as two-dimensional areas, ie as SURFACES.

There are only two beds in the cottage. [5]

In [5], the cottage is viewed as three-dimensional object which in reality it is. The figure below sets out the dimensional orientation of the chief prepositions of space:

destination position destination position To X at

.

X Away (from) X away from X

.

DIMENSION-TYPE 0 (point) on(to) on

.

off Off

.

DIMENSION-TYPE 1 or 2 (line or surface)

in(to) in out of out of

.

DIMENSION-TYPE 2 or 3 (area or volume)

POSITIVE NEGATIVE Figure 1.space and dimension

Quirk, et al. (1985: 673-674)

2.3.3.1.2 Positive position and destination: at, to, on, onto, in, into

Prepositional phrase of place typically either adjunct (relating an event or state of affair to a location) or post modifiers (relating some ‘object’ to a location)

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DESTINATION POSITION

Ann went to Oxford AS A RESULT: Ann was at Oxford Ann climbed onto the roof AS A RESULT: Ann was on the roof Ann dived into the water AS A RESULT: Ann was in the water A prepositional phrase of ‘position’ can accompany most verbs, although this meaning is particularly associated with verbs of stative meaning. The meaning of destination generally accompanies a verb of dynamic motional meaning, such as go, more, fly, etc.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 675)

2.3.3.1.3 Source or negative position: off

There is cause-and-effect relation with negative destination and position parallel to that of positive destination and position:

The book fell off the shelf. ~The book is off the shelf

Quirk, et al. (1985: 677-678)

2.3.3.1.4 Relative position: over, under, etc

Apart from simple preposition, preposition may express the RELATIVE POSITION of two objects or groups of object. Above, over, under, below express relative position vertically, whereas before, and after represent it horizontally. This figure depicts the relations expressed by above X, over X, etc.

above X over X

before X after X

--- X ---

under X below X

Figure 2. Relative Position

Quirk, et al. (1985: 678-679)

2.3.3.1.5 Space: by, beside, with, opposite

Other prepositions denoting space are by, beside, and with. He was standing by/ besidethe door. [‘at the side of’] I left the keys with my wallet. [‘in the same place with’]

Quirk, et al. (1985:679)

2.3.3.1.6 Space: around, round, about

Around and round refer to surrounding position or to motion: We were sitting (a)round the campfire.

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About and around often have vaguer meaning of ‘in the area of’ or ‘in various position in’:

The guest was standing about/around the room.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 681)

2.3.3.1.7 Relative destination: over, under, behind, etc

As well as relative position, the preposition can express RELATIVE DESTINATION:

He threw a blanket over her.

The brush was the only conceivable hiding place, so I dashed behind it. When it started to rain, we all went underneath the trees.

This use is distinct from that denoting ‘PASSAGE over, under, behind, etc. with verb of motion, preposition may express the idea of PASSAGE (i.e. movement toward and then away from a place), this occurs in sentence like [1-3]:

He jumped over the ditch [1]

Someone run behind the goalpost [2]

The ball rolled underneath the table [3]

In sentence such as [2] and [3], there is ambiguity. In [3], we can supply either the meaning of ‘passage’ (=the ball passed under the table on the way to some other destination) or the meaning of ‘destination’ (=the ball rolled under the table and stay there).

2.3.3.1.8 Passage: across, through, past

The sense of ‘passage’ is the primary locative meaning attached to across (dimension-type 1 or 2), through (dimension-type 2 or 3) and past (the ‘passage’ equivalent to by which may also, however, be substituted for past in a ‘passage’ sense).

DIMENSION-TYPE 1 OR 2

.

on the grass across the grass

DIMENSION-TYPE 2 OR 3 l l l

.

l l in the grass l l l l l through the grass Figure 3. Passage

Quirk, et al. (1985: 682)

2.3.3.1.9 Movement with reference to a directional path: up, down, along, across, etc. Up, down, along, across and (a)round, with verb of motions, make up a group of prepositions expressing movement with reference to an axis or directional path, as illustrated below:

Up and down contrast in term of vertical direction, e.g.: We walk up the hill and down the other side

But up and down are also used idiomatically in reference to a horizontal axis: I walked up and downthe platform.

up /down the road She went up/ down the cost

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Up and down here express the notion of ‘along’ and need not have any vertical implication.

Along denotes ‘from one toward the other’ or ‘in a line parallel with’, e.g.: We walk along the streets, just looking at the people.

I took my dog for a walk along the river.

Along contrasts with across [‘from one side to another’] in term of a horizontal axis:

Be careful when you walk across a street.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 682-683) 2.3.3.1.10 Orientation: beyond, over, past, up, across, etc.

Beyond is preposition whose primary meaning is one of orientation. Over, past, across, and through combine the meaning of ‘beyond’ with more specific information about dimension.

They live across the moors [i.e. ‘from here’] past the bus stop

The village is

through the wood

Up, down, along, across and (a)round are used orientationally with reference to an axis in:

The shop down the road [‘toward the bottom end of…’] up the stairs. [‘at (OR towards) the top of…..’;=upstairs] Her office is

There’s a hotel across/along the road. [‘on the other side/ towards the other end of…’]

We live just (a)around the corner.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 683-684)

2.3.3.1.11 Resultative meaning: from, over, past.

Prepositions which have the meaning of motion, as in [1], can usually have also a static resultative meaning when combined with is, indicating ‘the state of having reached the destination’ as in [2]:

The horses jumped over the fence. [1]

The horses are over the fence. [‘Have now jumped over’] [2] Out of context, resultative meaning is not always distinguishable from other static meaning. Its presence, however, is often signaled by certain adverbs (already, just). Resultative meaning is characteristically found with negative prepositions from or with prepositions of ‘passage’ such as across, through, and past:

When you’re past the next obstacle, you can relax.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 684)

2.3.3.1.12 Pervasive meaning: over, throughout, with.

Over (dimension-type 1 or 2) and through (dimension-type 2 or 3), especially when preceded by all, has pervasive meaning (either static or motional):

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Throughout meaning (all) through is the only preposition whose primary meaning is ‘pervasive’:

Chaos reigned (all) through the house.

The epidemic has spread throughout the country.

With also has pervasive meaning in expressions such as the following: The ground was covered with snow.

The garden was buzzing with bees.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 684-685)

2.3.3.2Prepositions denoting time

A prepositional phrase of time usually occurs as adjunct, postmodifier, or predication adjunct. Some kinds of prepositional meaning denoting time are as follows:

2.3.3.2.1Time position: at, on, in, by

At is used for points of time:

At ten o’clock, at 6.30 p.m., at noon At the weekend, at Christmas, at Easter

The reference is to the season of Christmas/ Easter, not the day itself. At can be used for periods when conceived of as points of time, as in:

at the/ that time, at breakfast time, at night

on is used for referring to days as periods of time:

On Monday, on the following day, on May (the) first, on New Year’s Day In or, less commonly, during is used for periods longer or shorter than a day:

In the evening in summer

In August during holly week

In 1969 in the eighteenth century

When we want to refer to a period of the night we use in. I woke up several times in the night.

At night I usually have the window open. [‘during the night’; as opposed to in the evening, in the day]

By occur in the idioms by day, by night, which replace during the day/the night which some activities such as traveling:

by night We preferred traveling

during the night

Quirk, et al. (1985: 687-688)

2.3.3.2.2Measurement into the future: in

To denote measurement to the present time, the postponed adverb ago is used for a span back to appoint of time in the past, and in for a similar span ahead into the future:

We met three months ago

in three months’ time We’ll

in three months from now

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2.3.3.2.3 Duration: for, during, over, throughout

Duration is usually expressed by for. For is also used in idiomatic phrases like forever, for good [‘forever’], for years (and years)

Over and throughout have a durational meaning parallel to their pervasive meaning in reference to place:

We camped there over the holiday/ over Christmas/ over the weekend/ over the Sabbath/ over night

We camped there throughout the summer.

Quirk, et al. (1985:689-690) 2.3.3.2.4 Duration: until

Informally, until and till are also sometimes preceded by up: until

I worked (up) till last week to

Quirk, et al. (1985: 690-691) 2.3.3.2.5 Before, after, since, till, until

These words occur almost exclusively as preposition of time, and are followed by either:

(a) A temporal noun phrase (after next week) (b) A subjectless-ing clause (since leaving school)

(c) A noun phrase with a deverbal noun or some other noun phrase interpreted as equivalent to a clause:

till/until the fall of Rome [‘until Rome fell’] since electricity [‘since electricity was invented’]

Before and after indicate relation between two times or event and have opposite meaning:

The meeting will take place after the ceremony = The ceremony will take place before the meeting

Quirk, et al. (1985:691) 2.3.3.2.6 By

By refer to the time at which the result of the event is in existence: Your papers are to be handed in by next week. [‘not later than’]

She should be back by now. (but I’m not sure)

By specifies an end point. Already, still and yet are related in meaning: Bythe time we’d walked five miles, he was already exhausted.

Quirk, et al. (1985: 691-692) 2.3.3.3The cause/ purpose spectrum

The cause/ purpose spectrum is one of the meanings of simple prepositional. It can be described as follows:

2.3.3.3.1motive: for, from

At one end of the cause/ purpose spectrum, we have prepositional expressing either the material cause or the physical cause (motive) for a happening. Phrase of motive answer the question Why….? Some example:

The survivors were weak from exposure and lack of food. I hid the money, for fear of what my parents would say.

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For is found with a relatively small number of expression. Eg: For fear/love/joy/sorrow

nothing He offered to fix my sink for

free

Quirk, et al. (1985: 695-696) 2.3.3.3.2Purpose, intended destination : for

For is used to express PURPOSE in the following examples: He’ll do anything for money.

Everyone ran for shelter.

For the journey, they packed three large picnic baskets of food. The express INTENDED DESTINATION, for is used with verb such as run, start, head, leave, and set out. For example:

He set out for London.

With to-phrases, the assumption is that the destination will be reached. Compare:

went to to

He London. Is this the train London?

left for for

Quirk, et al. (1985:696) 2.3.3.3.3Recipient, goal, target: for, to, at

When for is followed by noun phrase denoting persons or animals, the meaning is rather one of INTENDED RECIPIENT:

He laid a trap for his enemies.

She made a beautiful doll for her daughter.

Denoting intended recipient (her daughter may not have actually received the doll), the for-phrase can often be equated with an indirect object.

She made her daughter a beautiful doll. He cooked her a dinner.

In contrast to the notion of intended recipient expressed by for, the preposition to expresses ACTUAL RECIPIENT in sentences such as:

She gave a beautiful doll to her daughter.

Here again, there is often a relationship with the indirect object construction:

gave gave

I lent the book to my friend. ~I lent my friend the book.

sold sold

At, in combinations such as aim, at (where the prepositional phrase is complementary to the verb), expresses INTENDED GOAL or TARGET:

After aiming carefully at the bird, he missed it completely. A vicious dog was snapping at her ankles.

Quirk, et al. (1985:696-698) 2.3.3.3.4Source, origin: from

The converse of to [‘goal’] is from [‘source’]

Bill lent the book to me. ~I borrowed the book from Bill. From is used with reference to ‘place of origin’:

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He comes from Scotland/Glasgow. [‘He is a Scot/a Glaswegian.’] This type of prepositional phrase occurs not only as an adjunct, but also as a complement in copular clauses [1] and as a postmodifier [2]:

I am from Madrid. [1]

This is a friend of mine from London. [2]

Quirk, et al. (1985: 698) 2.3.3.4 The means/ agentive spectrum

The prepositional phrase denoting means/ agentive spectrum can be described as follows:

2.3.3.4.1 Manner: with

Manner can be expressed by with. For example: We were received with the utmost courtesy.

Quirk, et al. (1985:698-699) 2.3.3.4.2 Means and instrument: by, with, without

By can express the meaning ‘by means of’:

I usually go to work by bus/ train/ car/ boat. [mode of transport] Communication took place by letter/ telex/ radio/ post/ mail. [ means of communication ]

With, on the other hand, expresses instrumental meaning: Someone had broken the window with a stone. He caught the ball with his left hand.

For most sense of with, including that of instrument, without expresses the equivalent negative meaning:

I drew it without (using) a ruler. [‘I did not draw it with a ruler’] Quirk, et al. (1985: 699-700) 2.3.3.4.3 Instrument and agentive: with, by

With expresses the meaning of ISTRUMENT: Someone had broken the window with stone.

In the passive sentence, the AGENTIVE is expressed with a by-phrase: by someone. However, in the most passive sentences, the agent by-phrase is actually omitted, as in:

The window had been broken with a stone.

The agentive is the initiating cause and typically animate, usually personal, as also in:

A passing stranger observed us.

We were observed by a passing stranger. The instrument also can be expressed with a by-phrase.

The window had been broken by a stone. The by-phrase also occurs as a postmodifier to denote authorship:

a picture by Degas [‘painted by Degas] a novel by Tolstoy [‘written by Tolstoy]

Quirk, et al. (1985:700-701) 2.3.3.4.4 Stimulus: at

The relative between an emotion and its stimulus can often be expressed by at or by instrumental by:

32

at

I was alarmed his behavior

by

Both of these can be treated as passive equivalent of: His behavior alarmed me.

The idea of ‘stimulus’ is sometimes expressed by other prepositions, in place of at, with function as semi-agent:

I’m worried about this. [‘this worried me’] He’s interested in history. [‘history interest him]

Quirk, et al. (1985: 701-702) 2.3.3.4.5 Accompaniment: with

Especially when followed by an animate complement, with the meaning ‘in company with’ or ‘together with’ (commutative function):

I’m so glad you are coming with us.

Jack, (together) with several of his noisy friend, was drinking till After 2 in the morning.

With is also used to express ‘accompanying circumstance’ [1] and to introduce a subject [2], as in:

With all the noise, she was finding it hard to concentrate. [1] It all started with John (‘s) being late dinner. [2]

2.3.3.4.6 Support and opposition: for, with, against

For conveys idea of support and with that of solidarity or movement in sympathy:

Are you for or against the plan? [‘Do you support or oppose the plan?’] Remember that every one of us is with you. [‘On your side’]

In this case, there is no negative without contrasting with with. The contrary idea of opposition is conveyed by against:

It is prudent to go with rather than against the tide of public opinion. The movement against nuclear arms [‘anti-nuclear]

Quirk, et al. (1985: 702-703) 2.3.3.5 Other prepositional meanings

2.3.3.5.1 Various relations indicated by of

The most common preposition, of, occurs chiefly as postmodifier in noun phrase in the function similar to that of the genitive, eg:

The gravity of the earth- the earth gravity

However, postmodifiying of- phrase also has a wide range of other uses, eg: a part of the city [partition]

a kind of wood [quality] a lot of people [quantity]

Quirk, et al. (1985:703) 2.3.3.5.2 ‘Having’: of, with, without

In the latter type of construction, of is limited to the expression of abstract attributive, as in:

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a pianist of great talent [‘a very talented pianist’]

a performance of distinction [‘a distinguished performance’]

The notion of ‘having’ is more generally expressed by with, especially with concrete attributes:

a man with a red nose [‘who has a red rose’: ‘a red-nosed man’] a woman with a large family

The negative of with, is without:

a play without any faults [‘ a play with no faults’]

With and without can also introduce a nonfinite or verbless clause as postmmodifier in a noun phrase:

the factory with its smoking chimney a room with its door open

Quirk, et al (1985: 704-705) 2.3.3.5.3 Concession: despite

Despite strong pressure from government, the unions have refused to order a return to work.

With all and for all ‘despite’ are more colloquial and rather restricted in their use. In concessive use, all must be present after both prepositions: with all, and for all, in causal, all is optional: with or with all. Compare:

With all

this noise I managed to get some sleep. [concessive: ‘in spite of’] For all

With all

this noise, I couldn’t sleep. [causal: ‘because of’] With

Quirk, et al. (1985:705-706) 2.3.3.5.4 Exception and addition

The most common prepositions denoting exception are: except, excepting, excluding, but, and save (formal).

but

All the captain were rescued.

Except(ing)

ADDITION can be expressed by the preposition besides. For example:

There were three people present besides the committee.

He comes from Scotland/Glasgow. [‘He is a Scot/a Glaswegian.’] This type of prepositional phrase occurs not only as an adjunct, but also as a complement in copular clauses [1] and as a postmodifier [2]:

I am from Madrid. [1]

This is a friend of mine from London. [2]

Quirk, et al. (1985: 698) 2.3.3.4 The means/ agentive spectrum

The prepositional phrase denoting means/ agentive spectrum can be described as follows:

2.3.3.4.1 Manner: with

Manner can be expressed by with. For example: We were received with the utmost courtesy.

Quirk, et al. (1985:698-699) 2.3.3.4.2 Means and instrument: by, with, without

By can express the meaning ‘by means of’:

I usually go to work by bus/ train/ car/ boat. [mode of transport] Communication took place by letter/ telex/ radio/ post/ mail. [ means of communication ]

With, on the other hand, expresses instrumental meaning: Someone had broken the window with a stone. He caught the ball with his left hand.

For most sense of with, including that of instrument, without expresses the equivalent negative meaning:

I drew it without (using) a ruler. [‘I did not draw it with a ruler’] Quirk, et al. (1985: 699-700) 2.3.3.4.3 Instrument and agentive: with, by

With expresses the meaning of ISTRUMENT:

Someone had broken the window with stone.

In the passive sentence, the AGENTIVE is expressed with a by-phrase: by

someone. However, in the most passive sentences, the agent by-phrase is actually

omitted, as in:

The window had been broken with a stone.

The agentive is the initiating cause and typically animate, usually personal, as also in:

A passing stranger observed us.

We were observed by a passing stranger. The instrument also can be expressed with a by-phrase.

The window had been broken by a stone. The by-phrase also occurs as a postmodifier to denote authorship:

a picture by Degas [‘painted by Degas] a novel by Tolstoy [‘written by Tolstoy]

Quirk, et al. (1985:700-701) 2.3.3.4.4 Stimulus: at

The relative between an emotion and its stimulus can often be expressed by at or by instrumental by:

at

I was alarmed his behavior

by

Both of these can be treated as passive equivalent of: His behavior alarmed me.

The idea of ‘stimulus’ is sometimes expressed by other prepositions, in place of at, with function as semi-agent:

I’m worried about this. [‘this worried me’]

He’s interested in history. [‘history interest him]

Quirk, et al. (1985: 701-702) 2.3.3.4.5 Accompaniment: with

Especially when followed by an animate complement, with the meaning ‘in company with’ or ‘together with’ (commutative function):

I’m so glad you are coming with us.

Jack, (together) with several of his noisy friend, was drinking till After 2 in the morning.

With is also used to express ‘accompanying circumstance’ [1] and to introduce a subject [2], as in:

With all the noise, she was finding it hard to concentrate. [1]

It all started with John (‘s) being late dinner. [2]

2.3.3.4.6 Support and opposition: for, with, against

For conveys idea of support and with that of solidarity or movement in sympathy:

Are you for or against the plan? [‘Do you support or oppose the plan?’] Remember that every one of us is with you. [‘On your side’]

In this case, there is no negative without contrasting with with. The contrary idea of opposition is conveyed by against:

It is prudent to go with rather than against the tide of public opinion. The movement against nuclear arms [‘anti-nuclear]

Quirk, et al. (1985: 702-703) 2.3.3.5 Other prepositional meanings

2.3.3.5.1 Various relations indicated by of

The most common preposition, of, occurs chiefly as postmodifier in noun phrase in the function similar to that of the genitive, eg:

The gravity of the earth- the earth gravity

However, postmodifiying of- phrase also has a wide range of other uses, eg: a part of the city [partition]

a kind of wood [quality] a lot of people [quantity]

Quirk, et al. (1985:703) 2.3.3.5.2 ‘Having’: of, with, without

In the latter type of construction, of is limited to the expression of abstract attributive, as in:

a pianist of great talent [‘a very talented pianist’]

a performance of distinction [‘a distinguished performance’]

The notion of ‘having’ is more generally expressed by with, especially with concrete attributes:

a man with a red nose [‘who has a red rose’: ‘a red-nosed man’] a woman with a large family

The negative of with, is without:

a play without any faults [‘ a play with no faults’]

With and without can also introduce a nonfinite or verbless clause as postmmodifier in a noun phrase:

the factory with its smoking chimney a room with its door open

Quirk, et al (1985: 704-705) 2.3.3.5.3 Concession: despite

Despite strong pressure from government, the unions have refused to order a

return to work.

With all and for all ‘despite’ are more colloquial and rather restricted in their

use. In concessive use, all must be present after both prepositions: with all, and for all, in causal, all is optional: with or with all. Compare:

With all

this noise I managed to get some sleep. [concessive: ‘in spite of’] For all

With all

this noise, I couldn’t sleep. [causal: ‘because of’] With

Quirk, et al. (1985:705-706) 2.3.3.5.4 Exception and addition

The most common prepositions denoting exception are: except, excepting,

excluding, but, and save (formal).

but

All the captain were rescued.

Except(ing)

ADDITION can be expressed by the preposition besides. For example:

There were three people present besides the committee.