THE EFFECTS OF REGIMES IN AFGHANISTAN ON AFGHAN WOMEN AS REVEALED IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S A THOUSAND SPLENDID SUNS A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  THE EFFECTS OF REGIMES IN AFGHANISTAN ON AFGHAN WOMEN AS REVEALED IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S A THOUSAND SPLENDID SUNS A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By Niken Fitriningtias

  Student Number: 061214163

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011

  THE EFFECTS OF REGIMES IN AFGHANISTAN ON AFGHAN WOMEN AS REVEALED IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S A THOUSAND SPLENDID SUNS A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By Niken Fitriningtias

  Student Number: 061214163

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011

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DEDICATION PAGE

Never Let the Fear of Striking Out Keep You from Playing Games

  "Courage does not always roar. Sometimes courage is the quiet voice at the end of the day, saying “I will try again tomorrow”." ~ Mary Anne Radmacher

   I dedicate this thesis to:

  ¾ My Beloved Parents:

  Suparlan and Suryati

  ¾ My Lovely Brothers:

  Danang Eka Saputra and Dimas Wibisono

  ¾ My Close friends

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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

  I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

  Yogyakarta, February 14, 2011 The writer

  Niken Fitriningtias 061214163 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI ABSTRACT

  Fitriningtias, Niken. 2011. The Effects of Regimes in Afghanistan on Afghan

Women as Revealed in Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns.

Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

  This study discusses a novel entitled A Thousand Splendid Suns by Khaled Hosseini. This novel tells about the life struggle of two women. Mariam and Laila are the characters that represent women in this novel.

  There is one research problem analyzed in this thesis. It is: What are the effects of Soviet Union, Mujahideen and Taliban regime in Afghanistan on the life of Afghan Women as seen through the characters of Mariam and Laila in Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns?

  The writer uses sociocultural-historical as the approach in order to analyze the problem. By using this approach, the writer tries to reveal the effects of regimes on Afghan women in three different regimes namely Soviet Union, Mujahideen and Taliban. The method used for the analysis was library research. Some books on Afghanistan history were used in gathering the information that was needed to support the evidence.

  Based on the analysis, each regime gives some effects in women’s life. The first regime was Soviet Union. During the Soviet Union regime, women had good opportunities to have good education, job and freedom. Educated women increased, including Laila. Unfortunately, many Afghan people in rural areas opposed the new rules that Soviet Union stated and they formed a group named Mujahideen. Afterward, there was a war between Soviet Union and Mujahideen. Finally, Mujahideen could take over the country and that was the beginning of Mujahideen regime. Mujahideen stated some rules which made women lost their opportunities for having an education and a job. During Mujahideen regime, Mariam and Laila also felt scared because there were many women who were got attacked and raped. Since war always occurred during Mujahideen regime, then Taliban came in Afghanistan and succeeded took over the country. So, the last regime that empowered in Afghanistan was Taliban. Taliban implemented more strict rules for women. The rules were: women could not go to school and work, they had to be secluded from society, they had to wear burqa, and they got bad medical service in the hospital. Taliban practiced some punishments for women who did not obey the rules. The punishments were in the form of stoning, beating, and killing. Taliban also discriminated women and did not give their rights.

  There are two suggestions in this thesis. The first is suggestion for future researchers who are interested to analyze this novel. The second is suggestion for teaching English by using A Thousand Splendid Suns. The materials are taken from the content of the novel for Intensive Reading II. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ABSTRAK

  Fitriningtias, Niken. 2011. The Effects of Regimes in Afghanistan on Afghan

Women as Revealed in Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns.

Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Studi ini membahas sebuah novel berjudul A Thousand Splendid Suns oleh Khaled Hosseini. Novel ini menceritakan tentang perjuangan hidup dua wanita. Mariam and Laila adalah karakter-karakter yang mewakili karakter wanita di novel ini.

  Terdapat satu masalah utama yang di analisa di dalam skripsi ini: Apa saja akibat-akibat dari rezim Uni Soviet, Mujahideen dan Taliban di dalam kehidupan wantia-wanita Afghan sebagaimana di gambarkan melalui karakter Mariam dan Laila oleh Khaled Hosseini di novel A Thousand Splendid Suns? Penulis menggunakan pendekataan sociocultural-historical untuk menganalisa masalah. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan ini, penulis mencoba untuk mengungkapkan akibat-akibat dari rezim terhadap wanita-wanita Afghan di tiga rezim yang berbeda yaitu Uni Soviet, Mujahidin dan Taliban. Metode yang digunakan untuk menganalisa adalah studi pustaka. Beberapa buku sejarah Afghanistan digunakan untuk mengumpulkan informasi-informasi yang di butuhkan untuk mendukung bukti-bukti yang ada.

  Berdasarkan analisis, setiap rezim memberikan beberapa akibat-akibat di dalam kehidupan wanita. Rezim pertama adalah Uni Soviet. Selama rezim Uni Soviet, wanita-wanita mempunyai kesempatan yang baik dalam pendidikan, kerja dan kebebasan. Wanita yang berpendidikan meningkat jumlahnya, termasuk Laila. Sayangnya, banyak orang-orang Afghan dari daerah pedalaman yang menentang rezim Uni Soviet dan mereka membentuk grup yang bernama Mujahidin. Stelah itu, Terjadi perang antara Uni Soviet dan Mujahidin. Akhirnya, Mujahidin mampu mengambil alih negara dan itu adalah permulaan dari rezim Mujahidin. Mujahidin menetapkan beberapa aturan yang membuat wanita-wanita kehilangan kesempatan untuk mendapat pendidikan dan pekerjaan. Selama rezim Mujahidin, Mariam dan Laila juga merasa takut karena banyak wanita yang di serang dan diperkosa. Sejak perang terus terjadi selama rezim Mujahidin, lalu Taliban datang ke Afghanistan dan sukses mengambil alih negara. Jadi, rezim terakhir yang menguasai Afghanistan adalah Taliban. Taliban menerapkan lebih banyak aturan ketat yang membuat wanita-wanita menderita. Peraturannya adalah: Wanita-wanita tidak bisa pergi sekolah dan kerja, mereka harus dikucilkan dari masyarakat, mereka harus memakai burqa dan mereka mendapatkan pelayanan yang buruk di rumah sakit. Taliban mempraktekkan beberapa hukuman bagi wanita yang tidak mematuhi peraturan. Hukuman-hukumannya adalah dilempar batu, dipukuli, dan dibunuh. Taliban juga mendiskriminasikan wanita dan tidak memberikan hak-hak mereka.

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  Ada dua saran dalam skripsi ini. Saran pertama adalah untuk peneliti- peneliti selanjutnya yang berminat menganalisa novel ini. Saran kedua adalah untuk pengajaran bahasa Inggris dengan menggunakan A Thousand Splendid Suns. Materi-materi pembelajaran di ambil dari isi novel untuk Intensive Reading II . PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK

  Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Niken Fitriningtias

  Nomor Mahasiswa : 061214163 Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

  THE EFFECTS OF REGIMES IN AFGHANISTAN ON AFGHAN WOMEN AS REVEALED IN KHALED HOSSEINI’S A THOUSAND SPLENDID SUNS

  Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin ataupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

  Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 14 Maret 2010 Yang menyatakan Niken Fitriningtias PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Allah SWT who gives me the blessing during the completion of my thesis. Without Him, I would never finish this thesis.

  I would like to sincerely thank my sponsor, Henny Herawati, S.Pd.,

  

M.Hum., for her suggestions, encouragement, comments, kindness, and patience

  in finishing the thesis. I really appreciate her advice, help and understanding during the completion of the thesis. Her guidance has motivated me when I got stuck in writing the thesis.

  I should also thank all lecturers of the English Education Study Program and PBI staff Mbak Daniek and Mbak Tary in the secretariat for helping me with the administrative stuff and for giving me information during my study.

  I also want to express my sincere gratitude to my beloved parents, Suparlan and Suryati. They always give their best support and prayer during my study. I thank my father who always trusts me for finishing the thesis. I thank my mother who always encourages me during the hard time. She teaches me to be a better person. I thank her for listening and understanding me during my study. I also want to thank my lovely brothers, Danang and Dimas. Both of them have motivated me whenever I was down. My brothers also keep reminding me to finish my thesis as soon as possible. I thank my families for their encouragement.

  My gratitude also goes to my beloved friend, Siska, who always help me whenever I have problems and give me good advice when I need it. I thank Siska

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  for listening to all my stories and understanding my personalities and thoughts. I thank Sari who always gives me big motivation during the thesis and become my close friend. I also would like to thank to Indi and Yoana for answering all of my questions during the completion of my thesis in the library. I thank all of my friends Uly, Joice, Intan Kaje, Intan WK and Tita for being my good friends. I feel so grateful having friends like them. I would like to express special gratitude for Dionysius Prabawa who is willing to be the proof reader. I thank him for correcting and giving good advice for my thesis.

  Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to all people who cannot be mentioned one by one. I thank them for their advice and support during my study.

  Niken Fitriningtias

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

  TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................ i APPROVAL PAGES ............................................................................................ ii DEDICATION PAGE ........................................................................................... iv STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ..................................................... v ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... vi

  

ABSTRAK .............................................................................................................. vii

  LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI……………………. ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. x TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... xii LIST OF APPENDICES ....................................................................................... xiv

  CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ...........................................................................

  1 B. Problem Formulation .................................................................................

  3 C. Objectives of the Study .............................................................................

  3 D. Benefits of the Study .................................................................................

  4 E. Definition of Terms ...................................................................................

  4 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theory of Critical Approach .....................................................................

  6 B. Review of Related Studies ........................................................................

  8 C. Review of Regime Changes in Afghanistan …………………………….

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  1. Soviet Union ………………………………………………………….. 8

  2. Mujahideen ………………………………………………………… .. 11

  3. Taliban …………………………………………………………… .... 13

  D. Review of Afghanistan History …………………………………………. 16

  E. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................. 20

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  CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY A. Object of the Study.................................................................................... 21 B. Approach of the Study ............................................................................... 22 C. Method of the Study .................................................................................. 22 CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS A. Soviet Union Regime ................................................................................ 24 B. Mujahideen Regime ………………………………………………… ..... 27

  1. Fear ....................................................................................................... 27

  2. Losing Freedom and Opportunities ...................................................... 29

  3. Sufferings .............................................................................................. 29

  C. Taliban Regime ......................................................................................... 30

  1. Education ............................................................................................. 31

  2. Work ..................................................................................................... 32

  3. Seclusion ............................................................................................... 33

  4. Clothes ................................................................................................... 34

  5. Health .................................................................................................... 35

  6. Sadness .................................................................................................. 37

  7. Injustice ................................................................................................. 38

  CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ................................................................................................ 39 B. Suggestion .................................................................................................. 41

  1. Suggestion for Future Researchers .......................................................... 41

  2. Suggestion for Teaching English by Using Literary Work ..................... 42

REFERRENCES ................................................................................................. 45

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendices Page

  Appendix A. Short Summary ................................................................................ 47 Appendix B. Biography ........................................................................................ 52 Appendix C. Lesson Plan ………………………………………………………... 54 Appendix D. The Implementation of Teaching Reading ………………………… 57

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter consists of five parts. They are background of the study, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms. The background of the study discusses the reason for choosing the topic. In

  problem formulation, I give general description of the problems. Objectives of the study explain the goal of the study. Benefits of the study give explanation about who can get benefits from the study. The last part, I want to discuss the definition of some terms related to the study.

A. Background of the Study

  According to Rene Wellek and Austin Warren in their book Theory of Literature, there is a difference between literature and literary study (15).

  Literature is an art, while literary study is a piece of knowledge or of learning. I think that reading a literary work needs an imagination to understand the story or the meaning of the literary work. People can also improve their knowledge by reading a literary work.

  Prose fiction, poetry, and drama are the genres in literature. This study focuses on the novel. Novel is a kind of prose fiction. Prose fiction is generally regarding “one or a few major characters or deal with problems or difficulties in their lives” (Robert and Jacobs 2). There are many genres of novel, such as, romance, science fiction, horror, thriller, crime fiction, fantasy, and historical fiction.

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  One of the most interesting genres of the novel is historical fiction. Carlos Mata Indurain from University of Navarra defines historical novel as a novelistic action unfolds in the past; its main characters are imaginary, whereas the historical figures and the real facts constitute the secondary element of the story. A Thousand Splendid Suns is an historical novel fiction regarding the life of the people in Afghanistan during the war. Actually, the novel tells the story about two female characters struggling for life. It includes the struggle from the physical abuse which is done by their husband and struggle from the regime changes that happened in Afghanistan. There are also some society problems during the regimes and wars. I find that wars and the regimes changes give many effects to the characters in the novel.

  The reason why I choose this novel because Khaled Hosseini’s novel is a bestseller and the story of the novel teach people about the value of life.

  Moreover, I also find an interesting topic in this novel about the effects of regimes on the life of the people in Afghanistan. I am interested in discussing on how regimes give many effects to the life of women. By using sociocultural-historical approach, I try to find some supporting data form some books of Afghanistan history to support the evidence. Afghanistan is one of the countries which have a long story of conflict between colonizers as well as the civil war on the country.

  Thus this study discusses A Thousand Splendid Suns, a novel by Khaled Hosseini. The study focuses on the history of Afghanistan which tells clearly in the novel. The novel gives information related to the three regimes that invaded Afghanistan and the wars which gave many effects to the life of Afghan women.

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  In the novel, Khaled Hosseini tells about the story of two women who struggle to face the abusement from their husband and the life difficulty. This study intends to discover the effects of regimes on Afghan women through the characters Mariam and Laila.

B. Problem Formulation

  Based on the background stated above, there is one important thing that is discussed in this study.

  What are the effects of Soviet Union, Mujahideen, and Taliban regime in Afghanistan on the life of Afghan Women as seen through the characters of Mariam and Laila in Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns? C.

   Objectives of the Study

  The objective of the study is to discuss the effects of regimes on the life of Afghan women during the three regimes as reflected in the novel. A Thousand Splendid Suns discusses the Soviet Union Regime, Mujahideen Regime and Taliban Regime. The effects of regimes for Afghanistan women can be seen through the life of the characters in the novel. Mariam and Laila represent the characters of women in this novel. Both characters that will be discussed experience the effects of the regimes in Afghanistan.

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   Benefits of the Study

  There are two benefits of this study. First, this study can give more information about Khaled Hosseini’s work. This study is expected to give the reader an understanding about war and historical work as reflected in the novel. Second, this study shares knowledge related to the history of Afghanistan during the war. Hopefully, this study can give a better understanding for the students in learning the history of Afghanistan.

E. Definition of terms

  1. Regime The New Oxford American Dictionary states that “regime is a system or planned way of doing things, especially one imposed from above”.

  Meanwhile in the book of Dictionary of sociology and Related Sciences states that regimentation means “organization of people through doctrinaire teaching and discipline, perhaps for the conscious purpose of developing uniformity in behavior and stereotyped sterility in thought”.

  The changes of regime also happen in Afghanistan. There were three regimes invading Afghanistan. Those three regimes were Soviet Union, Mujahideen, and Taliban. Each regime had their rules, doctrine, discipline, and law. The regimes also gave different effects on the life of Afghanistan people.

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  2. War According to Henry Pratt Fairchild in his book Dictionary of sociology and Related Sciences, war is “armed extensive conflict between organized bodies of people, regarding themselves as politically sovereign and ethically entitled to assert by force their rights, which they claim to be blocked or invaded by their armed opponents” (336).

  This study discusses the wars which occurred in Afghanistan. The first war happened when Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. After Soviet Union surrendered then Mujahideen came and the war between societies occurred. The war became worse when Taliban took over the country. So, this study discusses the effects of war that happened in Afghanistan.

  3. Mujahideen Mujahideen is Muslim guerilla warriors engaged in a jihad. Some people usually call them as holy warriors. On April 1992, Mujahideen came to Kabul after Soviet Union surrendered.

  4. Taliban A movement conducted by Sunni extremists which controlled Afghanistan from 1996-2001. Taliban were a guerrilla force made up of young Pashtun men whose families had fled to Pakistan during the war against the soviets. The Leader named Mullah Omar ‘Leader of the faithful’. Taliban ruled the country and set some strict rules for the people.

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In conducting this study, I present a theory and some reviews which are

  relevant to the analysis of the novel. This chapter consists of four sections to be discussed: review of related theories, review of related studies, review of regime changes in Afghanistan, review on the historical background, and theoretical framework. Review of related theories reveals the theories which are applied in conducting the study. Review of related studies explains the previous study with the similar novel. Review on the historical background reveals the socio-historical approach which is employed. Theoretical framework explains how the theories are applied in the analysis of this study.

A. Theory of Critical Approach

  To have a reasonable judgment of the study, it is better to understand the nature, the function and the benefit of the critical approach. As Rohrberger and Woods state in their book, literature is said to have an aesthetic value (10). The aesthetic value brings the aesthetic response in which the readers give an evaluative judgment to the work of literature. Rohrberger and Woods state that in order to have a reasonable judgment, the writer need to employ a means which is called a critical approach (10). There are five approaches to literary works that are mentioned by Rohrberger and Woods, namely The Formalist Approach, The Biographical Approach, The Sociocultural-Historical Approach, The Mythopoeic Approach, and The Psychological Approach.

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  The Formalist Approach focuses on the literary work. This approach concentrates on the work without paying attention to the relevance of sociological, biographical, and historical information. The formalist approach criticizes only to the elements the literary works. The focuses are also on the demonstrating the harmonious involvement of all parts to the whole and on pointing out how meaning is derived from structure and how matters or technique determine structure.

  In the biographical approach, the writer should appreciate the ideas and personality of the author and the biographical provisions of works. Therefore, we must know the author’s life to understanding his writings better (8). This approach is seeking the ideas, personality, and life of the author.

  The sociocultural-historical approach focuses on the civilization and its effect to the society and culture. This approach insists people to have fully understanding about the society. It leads to the conclusion that the only way to locate the real work is in reference to the civilization that produces it. Rohrberger says, “Literature is a criticism of life that affects men in society, and that great literature express the values of order, restraint, and human dignity” (10). It means that a literary work may appear in a society. People believe that social, cultural, and historical background cannot be separated from the literary work. The past event represents the present or future life. A past event cannot be erased but enrich both present and future life.

  The mythopoeic approach is an approach that uses myth to analyze the literary works. The mythopoeic approach try to find certain recurrent patterns of

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  human thought, which are considered sharing the same universal belief to certain community.

  The psychological approach focuses on the psychological side of human being. Feldmen states one important branch of psychology is developmental psychology (21-22). It studies consistency and change in people’s behavior and the characteristics that distinguish people. Personality changes also one of the samples of psychological side.

  B. Review of Related Studies There is a study which discusses the same novel A Thousand Splendid Suns.

  The title of the study is The Influence of Jalil, Rasheed, and Laila on Mariam’s Personality Changes in Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns. The study discusses the characters in the novel and personality changes. The previous study discussed some characters on the novel and the personality changes of one particular character. Meanwhile in this study, I discuss the history of Afghanistan and the effects of regimes to the characters in the novel. Therefore, this study is significantly different from the previous study and can enrich discussion regarding the novel.

  C. Review of Regime Changes in Afghanistan 1. Soviet Union

  According to M. Hasan Kakar, “twice in the 1970s the Afghans were outraged: in 1978 by the communist coup, and in 1979 by the Russian

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    th

  invasion” (95). Soviet Union came to Afghanistan on 27 April 1978 and the troops and tanks moved into Kabul. President Daoud and his family were killed in the presidential palace. Then Nur Muhammad Taraki became the President of the Revolutionary Council under controlled of communist regime.

  Meredith wrote in her book, Soviet Union officially invaded Afghanistan since 1979 until 1988 (126). In 1978, Soviet Union had not fully invaded in Afghanistan but there was a Party which under controlled of communist regime. When Soviet Union began the invasion, Hafizullah Amin had a major role. M. Hasan Kakar (32) states that in the early time of Amin’s rule, Kabul was having a great enthusiastic about Soviet Union and adopted the new slogan that was friendship with the Soviet Union as an integral part of “Afghan Patriotism”. Afghanistan people wish to get the economic assistance as well as military aid. The government was wishing to have a good relationship with Moscow. The irony of Soviet Union invasion was that Afghanistan government who requested Soviet Union to come to Afghanistan to give the government support against the rebellion.

  Kabul is a cosmopolitan city or it can be said as modern city. Many educated women live in Kabul because they were allowed to work side by side with men. Kabul also had a large number of schools and higher educational institutions. M. Hasan kakar states that in 1959 women were allowed to unveil (9). The unveiling had a good response because the number of educated women who mostly worked as teachers, nurses and midwives had

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  been increasing. Shaista Wahab and Barry Youngerman (162) explain that Soviet Union gave the opportunity for people to have an education because they wanted to reeducate the young generation in Soviet beliefs and values.

  The curriculums of the school were written for all levels. The students also had to attend the political classes and had to learn Russian.

  When Soviet Union invades in Afghanistan, the first city that they controlled was Kabul. At that time, Afghanistan named as the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). The government was divided along partisan, including the Khalq faction against the Parcham. The Khalq party implemented the Marxist ideas. They measured the concept of instituting educational requirements for both men and women. The reforms also included the marriage rules, by banning the forced marriages and minimum age of marriage.

  Even though Kabul had great enthusiasm with Soviet Union regime, but people in rural areas could not accept the changes. That was why Mujahideen was formed. The Mujahideen also took part in rising up Soviet Union. The Mujahideen acted as local rulers. The success of the Mujahideen meant an increase in their numbers. A tragic aspect of the situation was the destruction of schools, which were destroyed with no remorse. From this moment, there was a war between Mujahideen and Soviet Union. Kabul seemed like a war zone. There were many people from both sides killed. The Soviet invasion disturbed Afghan society greatly.

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    2.

   Mujahideen

  The withdrawal of the Soviet Union army was reputed as a victory for Afghanistan. After Soviet Union left Afghanistan, the control of the country was taken by the Mujahideen. The name of Afghanistan also changed became the Islamic State of Afghanistan. Unfortunately, there was civil war in Kabul city under the controlled of Mujahideen. The Mujahideen fight each other to get the control of the city. As a result, the fighting among those Mujahideen itself killing Afghan people and putting the country into a civil war. Jalali and Grau (13) explain “the tactics of mujahideen were not standard, but different from Valley to Valley and tribe to tribe”. The people in mujahideen were true volunteers’ warrior. They were unpaid and fought in order to protect what they believed, their community and their nation. Meredith (134) mentions, under the control of Ahmed Shah Masood, the Mujahideen were heavily armed, well trained and got the full support from United States and Pakistan.

  “Ahmed Shah Masood was a legendary military commander in Afghanistan who lived not only to fight the Soviets but also to fight against the Taliban” (134).

  During the Soviet invasion, many of Afghan fled the country as refugees. After the Soviet withdrawal, the refugees came back to the country. Meredith (141) mentions at that time, Kabul still full of lawlessness, poverty and destruction all over the city. Because the situation in the city was not stable, many people had been killed. Women got attacked and raped, even occurred in daylight. Many young Afghan around 16 years old often got kidnapped and

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  raped by the Mujahideen forces. The girl also being taken in the night and then the Mujahideen gangs stripped, raped and beaten them. The Mujahideen rebels needed food and amount of money, so Mujahideen set up some checkpoints along the roadways then impose the travellers to pay. If the travellers did not have enough money to through all the checkpoints, they would be beaten and killed. In the first year of Mujahideen rule, many civilians were killed and wounded. By 1994, more than 10.000 people had been killed in Kabul.

  According to M. Hasan Kakar (228), the fighting inside of the Mujahideen gave a big destruction to the country, especially Kabul. In many cases, the fighting began when one group of men incited the men of another. The men were looting property, raping women and kidnapping persons for money. Up to 70 percent of the buildings in Kabul were destroyed. Under the Mujahidden controlled, the country became the Islamic State of Afghanistan.

  At first Sibgatullah was the leader of the country for short time, after that Burhanuddin Rabbani replaced him. The country began to adopt Islamic law or it called Shari’a. Cinemas were closed, alcoholic drinks were banned and all officials and workers should pray at fixed time. All the women also had to use veil again, women could not work in the office and all schools for girls were closed.

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    3.

   Taliban

  The last regime that is discussed in this study is Taliban regime. Since Taliban took over Afghanistan from Mujahideen, Women felt suffer a lot.

  Everything was difficult for women. In this review, I will dicuss the events when Taliban rule the country. When the Mujahideen ruled the country, there was a civil war and the chaos between Mujahideen itself then Taliban was formed. Meredith l. Runion (141) explains that Taliban means student or seekers of knowledge. They were formed as a Sunni Muslim who had strong believed of Islam and composed of Pashtun students. Most of them were students from madrassas or religious school. In 1996, the Taliban controlled in Afghanistan and in 1997 renamed the country the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The leader of Taliban was Mullah Mohammad Omar. Gilles Dorronsoro mentions that Mullah was the political key leaders in the society. In September 1996, the Taliban succeeded rule Kabul. Robert D. Crews and Amin Tarzi (18) describe “the Taliban simultaneously launched a theatrical and bloody campaign to impose their vision of Islamic discipline on Kabul’s residents”.

  Robert D. Crews and Amin Tarzi (20) also explain the Taliban “travelling by Toyota trucks and wielding guns and whips made of radio antennas, the Taliban strung television sets as well as audio and videotapes, along with the bodies of their political opponents, on lampposts and trees in a spectacular assault on the modern world”. They also changed the soccer stadium into killing fields and a place for men to throw stones at women. In March 2001,

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  Taliban also destroyed many heritages; one of them was the monumental statues of Buddha in Bamiyan.

  During the Taliban regime, most of the population suffered a lot. They lost their independence and their human rights especially women. Taliban implemented strict Islamic law or Shari’a. Shaista Wahab and Barry Youngerman mention some of the Taliban rules. All of the rules were the same as mentioned in the novel. Women lost their rights to work and receive an education. Women were not allowed to work. Since many women worked as nurse, teacher, or work in government, then they were banned for work, it made many services at those field were decreased.

  Taliban also banned education for girls. Shaista and Barry states “starting in the 1960s, the number of female students at universities and institutes of higher education was on the rise. With the support of the government, women were once more sent to foreign countries for further studies.” Since Taliban came, the educational system had changed. Taliban closed girls’ schools. Education was just for men. Shaista Wahab and Barry Youngerman mention “a ban on most education for girls, even in private homes and a near total ban on women working outside the home” (231).

  Women had to be secluded from the society. When they want to go outside their homes, they had to wear burqa and accompanied by their male relatives.

  Meredith L. Runion describes “the burqa is a head-to-toe garment that must cover every inch of a woman’s skin and is different than the Pakistan or Iranian form of the burqa, in which the face and eyes are exposed”. The

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  Taliban practiced some extreme rules for women. For example, when a woman exposed her hand to reveal the nail polish or her fingertips in the road, she would get punishment from Taliban. Since she broke the law of the Taliban and insulted against Islam, several Taliban men held her down and cut off the tips of her fingers. Women would get beaten and covered in acid, if they were caught wearing nail polish, makeup and white socks under their burqas. Shaista Wahab and Barry youngerman wrote, “a requirement that women be covered from head to toe in public; a ban on white socks, perceived as an insult to the white Taliban banned; a ban on makeup and nail polish”. Women also had difficulty to receive medical treatment in the hospital. Female doctors had been chased out of the hospitals because women were forbid to work. Meanwhile, male doctors were banned from treating women.

  Women hospital was lacking medical facilities, severely limited and the female doctors often unable to help women in giving a birth. The hospital’s condition was also very pitiful. The building was without running water and sometime no enough electricity to turn on the light. Sometime, the Taliban allowed female doctors to work but they had to wear the burqa during operations and medical procedures.

  Television, video players and stereos were banned then the Taliban transformed the Radio Kabul into Radio Voice of Sharia. Robert D. Crews and Amin Tarzi explained “they used radio broadcasts to incite violence against Shias and to announce repressive decrees”.

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  During the Taliban regime, most civil were suffering. There were many people killed and poverty around the city. The Taliban regime could be said as the darkest era of Afghanistan.

D. Review of Afghanistan History

  Afghanistan is an Islamic country. Afghanistan is a vast country and as a result has a rich mix of ethnicities and tribes. There are some ethnics namely, e.g.

  Pashtun, Tajiks, Hazarras, Uzbeks, Turkomen, and Baluchis. In the book of Afghanistan: The Soviet Invansion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982, it is stated that the land of Afghanistan links Central Asia with South Asia and, to some extent, with West Asia or the Middle East. Afghanistan people have thirty languages and dialects belonging to four main linguistic groups: Indo-Aryan, Turkic-Mongolian, Semitic, and Dravidian. The Indo-Aryan languages Pashto and Dari (Afghan Persian) serve as lingua franca, hence the significance of their speakers, that is, Pashtuns and Tajiks. These two groups constitute the overwhelming majority of Afghanistan’s inhabitants. For centuries the Pashtuns have played the dominant role in politics (3).

  Afghanistan is also an ancient land that has a long and eventful history. There are some regimes which empower in Afghanistan. The regimes give many impacts to the society. According to Amin and William (10) “a society is a collection of individual and organizational actors within which key relations between actors are defined by certain shared norms, and the behavior of actors in to a degree patterned and predictable.” There is one characteristic of Afghan

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  people which is strong societies. A strong society is defined by Migdal as one in which ‘the overall level of social control is high’. He mentions such kind of society is ‘web-like societies’, where ‘social control is spread through various fairly autonomous social organizations’ (Amin and William 10-11). Afghanistan is web-like societies because there are multiple, largely autonomous, social units, most importantly tribes and their subdivisions, have retained their identity within a political unit in the face of bureaucratic-administrative accretions within their territories (Amin and William 13).

  Afghanistan has a long story. I discuss the history of Afghanistan from Soviet Union invasion in this country to Taliban regime. The history is taken from the book Afghanistan and Central Asia, A Modern History by Martin McCauley and The History of Afghanistan by Meredith L. Runion. The Soviet Union invasion

  th

  began with the deployment of the 40 Army into Kabul Airport on December 25, 1979 and withdrawal on May 15, 1988 with the last of the Soviet forces leaving in February 1989.

  Communism was a perfect way to people whose looking for a way out from under development, poverty, and backwardness. The Soviet Union was a country which adopted communism as the principal of life. The Soviet had an enthusiastic audience for their version of the good life among Afghan students and military in the Soviet Union. Many young men and women in Afghanistan were also eager to embrace Marxism. The People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) – the communist party – was founded on 1 January 1965 in Kabul. The first meeting took place in the home of Nur Mohammed Taraki and, appropriately, he was

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