Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue5.1996:
Incorporating action research in school senior
management training
Carol Cardno
He ad o f the Educ atio n Manage me nt Ce ntre
Eileen Piggot-Irvine
Le c ture r in the Educ atio n Manage me nt Ce ntre at UNITEC Institute o f
Te c hno lo gy, Auc kland, Ne w Z e aland
Outlines how an action
research approach can be
used for management training and education. The
emphasis on developing
competence in problemsolving processes, using
action research, is supported
by the literature and this is
illustrated by several examples of institutional projects
and award-bearing
programmes. Details how the
authors’ interpretation of
action research, in the school
management training context, can both challenge and
develop educational leaders.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [ 1996] 1 9 –2 4
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
What training do school managers
need?
Parallels with the business arena
In th e cu r r en t post-edu ca tion -r efor m er a in
N ew Zea la n d, sch ool m a n a ger s (pr in cipa ls,
a n d oth er sen ior a dm in istr a tor s) a r e in cr ea sin gly r equ ir ed to fu lfil expa n ded a n d ch a llen gin g r oles a ssocia ted w ith th e self-m a n a gem en t of sch ools. Th e r ole of a sch ool pr in cipa l
is on er ou s a n d a m bigu ou s a n d in volves
sim u lta n eou sly a dm in ister in g sch ool oper a tion s in clu din g fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t,
a ppoin tin g sta ff, a ppr a isin g a n d developin g
tea ch er s, su per visin g in str u ction , bein g
a ccessible to a n d lia isin g w ith a ll sta k eh older s, dele ga tin g r espon sibility, str a te gic pla n n in g a n d policy developm en t, m a r k etin g,
vision in g, a n d so on . Ma n y of th ese r oles n ow
closely pa r a llel th ose of m a n a ger s in th e
w ider bu sin ess a r en a a n d r equ ir e lea der sh ip
to in flu en ce ch a n ge. Ma n a gem en t, in th e
sen se wh ich we u se it, en com pa sses lea der sh ip a s a cen tr a l fea tu r e of effective m a n a gem en t. It is ou r con ten tion , th er efor e, th a t th e
ch a n ges r equ ested in gen er a l m a n a gem en t
tr a in in g n ow a pply equ a lly to edu ca tion a l
a dm in istr a tor s.
Traditional training
Tr a dition a lly som e tr a in in g for edu ca tion a l
a dm in istr a tor s h a s been ava ila ble th r ou gh
u n iver sity-led, th eor etica lly-or ien ted cou r ses
th a t tea ch a n u m ber of well-k n ow n th eor ies
a n d en cou r a ge discu ssion of h ow th ese idea s
m igh t a pply to th e pr a ctition er ’s ow n con text.
Robin son [1] h a s exa m in ed th e tr en d aw ay
fr om th is typica l tr a in in g to a m or e colle gia l
a n d pr a ctica l in -ser vice m odel wh ich is cu r r en tly favou r ed by pr a ctition er s. Sh e a r gu es,
h owever, th a t “to su ggest a fa lse dich otom y
between th eor y a n d pr a ctice sever ely lim its
both types of pr ovision ”[1, p. 25].
In th e pa st, explicitly th eor etica l, con ten t
ba sed pr ogr a m m es h ave pr im a r ily been con cer n ed w ith th e tr a n sm ission of k n ow ledge
a n d sk ills fr om th e exper t to th e n ovice, w ith
little a tten tion pa id to th e a pplica tion of th is
k n ow ledge in th e wor k con text of th ese m a n a ger s. Con sequ en tly, gr a du a tes fr om th ese
pr ogr a m m es h a d con sider a ble th eor etica l
k n ow ledge bu t few dem on str a ble a pplied
sk ills wh ich pr epa r ed th em for th e r a pidly
ch a n gin g m a n a ger ia l wor k pla ce.
Future management training
In r ecen t yea r s th er e h ave been in cr ea sin g
ca lls for ch a n ges in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g
a ppr oa ch es both in gen er a l m a n a gem en t
fields a n d for edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tor s
[1-11].
F u tu r e m a n a gem en t tr a in in g, we a r e
in for m ed, sh ou ld in clu de a ll or som e of th e
follow in g ch a r a cter istics:
• u se of wor k pla ce-ba sed pr oblem solvin g,
w ith stu den ts wor k in g on r ea l pr oblem s or
issu es;
• developm en t of com peten ces for dea lin g
w ith r a pid a n d con tin u ou s ch a n ge;
• colla bor a tive tea m wor k pr a ctices;
• developm en t of in ter per son a l, people m a n a gem en t sk ills – especia lly th ose n eeded to
r esolve com plex pr oblem s;
• oppor tu n ity for self-developm en t;
• tr a in in g wh ich h a s a n a ca dem ic a n d
a pplied lea r n in g m ix a n d r edu ces th e ga p
between th eor y a n d pr a ctice;
• a focu s on th e pr ocess of m a n a gem en t
r a th er th a n th e con ten t;
• cr itica l r eflection on pr a ctice; a n d
• pr a ctice wh ich r esu lts in da ta -ba sed ch a n ge
im plem en ta tion .
Robin son [1] a dds to th is th a t if lea der s of
th ese pr ogr a m m es h ope to in flu en ce th e
th in k in g of pa r ticipa n ts, let a lon e th eir pr a ctice, th ey n eed to:
…exa m in e cr itica lly th e u tility, a pplica bility
a n d eth ics of th e im plicit th eor ies of cou r se
pa r ticipa n ts a s well a s in vite sim ila r exa m in a tion of th e th eor ies th ey th em selves a dvoca te. Given th a t cou r se m em ber ’s th eor ies
a r e la r gely im plicit, th eir exa m in a tion m u st
pr oceed by pr ogr essive u n cover in g of th e
a ssu m ption s th a t in for m th eir discu ssion
a n d cr itiqu e of th e m a ter ia l of th e cou r se
[1, p. 26].
Sh e con clu des th a t it is n ot th e pr esen ce of
th eor y th a t is pr oblem a tic bu t th e fa ilu r e to
exa m in e it w ith in th e con text of th e th eor ies
of a ction wh ich in for m th e pa r ticipa n t’s ow n
pr a ctice. Sh e a dvoca tes a type of in -ser vice
edu ca tion for edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tor s
wh ich is sim u lta n eou sly h igh ly th eor etica l
a n d h igh ly pr a ctica l.
[ 19 ]
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h
in sc ho o l se nio r manage me nt
training
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 9 –2 4
Action r esea r ch is a n a ppr oa ch wh ich ca n
be in cor por a ted in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g to
in te gr a te th eor y a n d pr a ctice. It m ay poten tia lly in clu de a ll of th e ch a r a cter istics
descr ibed a bove.
Action research: relationship to
action learning and experiential
learning
Action r esea r ch , a ter m coin ed by Ku r t Lew in
in th e 1940s, is va r iou sly defi n ed a n d
descr ibed. Th e sh or test a n d m ost str a igh tfor w a r d defin ition of a ction r esea r ch is given by
E lliott[12, p. 69] a s “th e stu dy of a socia l situ a tion w ith a view to im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of
a ction w ith in it”.
Th e r ea der is r efer r ed to Abr a h a m [13] for
a n exten sive su m m a r y of con flictin g in ter pr eta tion s of a ction r esea r ch . Abr a h a m con fi r m s
th a t idea s a bou t wh a t con stitu tes a ction
r esea r ch a r e m a n y a n d va r ied bu t con clu des
th a t it is a m eth od “in wh ich m em ber s of a n
or ga n isa tion wor k colla bor a tively w ith a
fa cilita tor (th e r esea r ch er ) to a ddr ess pr oblem s th a t a r e of con cer n to th e gr ou p”[13,
p. 23].
Peter s a n d Robin son [14] iden tify th r ee
m in im a l r equ ir em en ts for a ction r esea r ch
com m on to a selection of th e con tem por a r y
liter a tu r e. Th ese a r e:
1 a pr oblem -focu sed ch a n ge or ien ta tion ;
2 iter a tive sta ges of pla n n in g, a ction , fa ctfin din g a n d r efl ection ; a n d
3 th e colla bor a tive ch a r a cter istic.
Wh ile th ese th r ee con dition s wer e sh a r ed by
a ll th e w r iter s su r veyed, Peter s a n d Robin son
distin gu ish between m ost com m en ta tor s wh o
su bscr ibe to a “wea k ver sion ” of a ction
r esea r ch (a s a r esea r ch str a te gy), a n d a tr io of
r esea r ch er s wh o h ave sou gh t to develop a
“str on g ver sion ” th a t em ph a sizes th e em a n cipa tor y poten tia l of th e m eth od.
In th e m a n a gem en t con text, Per r y a n d
Zu ber -Sk er r itt[6, p. 18] su m m a r ize a ction
r esea r ch a s in volvin g gr ou ps of m a n a ger s
wor k in g on r ea l pr oblem s in com plex a n d
dyn a m ic situ a tion s wh er e th e socia l
pr ocesses of lea r n in g a bou t th ese situ a tion s
is in extr ica bly lin k ed w ith th e a cts of ch a n gin g th ose situ a tion s.
Action learning
Action lea r n in g is a n otion a k in to a ction
r esea r ch . Its developm en t is a ttr ibu ted to th e
wor k of Re g Reva n s sin ce th e 1930s. It h a s
m a n y sim ila r ities to a ction r esea r ch a t a
ph ilosoph ica l level bu t differ s fr om it in th a t
th er e is n o obliga tion to m a k e fi n din gs pu blic.
In a ction lea r n in g th er e is gr ea ter em ph a sis
pla ced on lea r n in g th a n a ction per se, a n d th e
[ 20 ]
sta n da r ds of da ta collection a n d va lida tion
a r e less r igor ou s th a n in a ction r esea r ch . Th e
over a ll goa l of a ction lea r n in g is th e developm en t of qu estion in g in sigh t.
Both a ction r esea r ch a n d a ction lea r n in g
a r e a ppr oa ch es wh ich a im to n a r r ow th e ga p
between th eor y a n d pr a ctice. Th ey a dh er e to
th e pr in ciples of a n on -positivist, or a lter n a tive, in ter pr eta tive r esea r ch pa r a digm , in
wh ich pr a ctition er u n der sta n din g of pr oblem s is given pr om in en ce. In th ese
a ppr oa ch es, th e pr a ctition er -r esea r ch er colla bor a tively pa r ticipa tes in th e even ts bein g
stu died a n d explicitly a ck n ow ledges th e w ay
in wh ich th ey a r e im plica ted in th ese even ts.
Th e pr edom in a n tly (bu t n ot a lw ays) qu a lita tive da ta collected a r e in ter pr eted, a n a lysed
a n d r efl ected on togeth er by r esea r ch er a n d
pa r ticipa n ts, wh o com pr ise a colla bor a tive
gr ou p. Su ch a n a ppr oa ch , th er efor e, r ejects
th e positivist su bject-r esea r ch er distin ction
a n d va lu e-fr ee espou sa ls.
Experiential learning theory underpinning
action research and action learning
Un lik e tr a dition a l lea r n in g, wh ich in volves
in dividu a ls r eceivin g in for m a tion , a n d th en
a pplyin g th is th eor y to a situ a tion or pr oblem , a ction r esea r ch a n d a ction lea r n in g
in volve exper ien tia l lea r n in g cycles[15]. In
th is type of lea r n in g k n ow ledge is ga in ed
fr om obser va tion s, qu estion in g a n d r eflection
r ela ted to con cr ete exper ien ce or a ction . Th is
lea ds to gen er a liza tion s or th e for m u la tion of
a bstr a ct con cepts, th e im plica tion s of wh ich
a r e tested in n ew situ a tion s. A n ew con cr ete
exper ien ce th en occu r s, followed by a n oth er
cycle of lea r n in g. Un der sta n din g, im pr ovem en t, a n d tr a n sfor m a tion of th e specific situ a tion in wh ich th e gr ou p a r e wor k in g is th e
u ltim a te ou tcom e of th ese lea r n in g cycles.
Our interpretation of action
research
In ou r pr a ctice we defi n e a ction r esea r ch a s
a n a pplied a ppr oa ch for r esolvin g or ga n iza tion a l pr oblem s colla bor a tively. In th e m odel
we u se (F igu r e 1) it in volves th r ee m a jor
ph a ses or cycles of a ctivity. E a ch cyclic ph a se
in cor por a tes steps of pla n n in g, a ctin g,
obser vin g a n d r eflectin g:
• Cycle on e: exa m in in g a n existin g pr oblem ;
• Cycle two: in ter ven in g to im pr ove pr a ctice;
• Cycle th r ee: eva lu a tin g th e effectiven ess of
ch a n ge.
Action r esea r ch is a n edu ca tive a n d developm en ta l pr ocess. We believe it is effective
wh en :
• r efl ective pr a ctice is da ta -ba sed;
• m u ltiple per spectives a r e a ck n ow ledged;
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h
in sc ho o l se nio r manage me nt
training
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 9 –2 4
• cr itiqu e is ba sed on explicit n or m s a n d
th eor ies of a ction .
P a r ticipa n t r esea r ch er s a r e r equ ir ed to pla n
a n d pr esen t a for m a l pr oposa l a n d to r epor t
for m a lly on th e pr oject dem on str a tin g a pplica tion of th eir k n ow ledge a n d sk ills a s a ction
r esea r ch er s. F igu r e 1 illu str a tes th e
spir a llin g a ppr oa ch to ch a n ge a n d im pr ovem en t a dopted in th is m odel.
Support – in theory and practice –
for action research incorporated in
management training
Support evidence
Th e va lu e of eith er a ction r esea r ch , or th e
closely a ffilia ted a ction lea r n in g pr ocess, in
m a n a gem en t tr a in in g h a s su ppor t fr om sever a l w r iter s.
Cu n n in gton a n d Tr evor -Rober ts, for exa m ple, sta te th a t:
…th e Action Lea r n in g pr ocess … pr ovides
th e on ly fea sible veh icle for lea r n in g com peten cies a ssocia ted w ith gen er a l m a n a gem en t a n d m u st th er efor e for m pa r t of th e
developm en t of th e lea der s of tom or r ow [16,
p. 46].
Figure 1
A frame wo rk fo r ac tio n re se arc h
Sor oh a n ’s[10] r ecen t a r ticle in dica tes th a t
th is sh ift is a lr ea dy occu r r in g, wh en sh e
r epor ts th a t a ction lea r n in g is pr oba bly th e
favou r ed str a te gy for execu tive edu ca tion
th ese days. F u r th er su ppor t for th e im plem en ta tion of a ction lea r n in g a n d a ction
r esea r ch in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g com es
fr om Ca la br ese a n d Ba r tz[17], Per r y a n d
Zu ber -Sk er r itt[6,18] a n d Zu ber -Sk er r itt[19].
Th er e a r e con fl ictin g a ccou n ts of th e de gr ee
of in cor por a tion of a ction r esea r ch in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es. Zu ber Sk er r itt[19] r epor ts th a t th e on ly aw a r d-bea r in g, postgr a du a te m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es sh e is aw a r e of, wh ich a r e
gen u in ely ba sed on th e a ction lea r n in g ph ilosoph y, a r e th e MBA a n d P h D pr ogr a m m es
offer ed by th e In ter n a tion a l Ma n a gem en t
Cen tr es wor ldw ide. Th is differ s fr om a n ecdota l eviden ce, both in N ew Zea la n d a n d Au str a lia , wh ich in dica tes th a t sever a l gr a du a te
m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es in cor por a te a ction lea r n in g or a ction r esea r ch pr ojects. Th ese con flictin g a ccou n ts su ggest th a t
in cr ea sed n etwor k in g a n d colla bor a tion is
r equ ir ed between pr ogr a m m e lea der s wh o
w ish to be better in for m ed a bou t su ccessfu l
in itia tives in cu r r en t pr ovision . In N ew
Zea la n d, th e Action Resea r ch N etwor k (esta blish ed by P iggot-Ir vin e in 1993) pr oposes to
fa cilita te su ch dia logu e, a n d to esta blish a
r e gister of m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m es in cor por a tin g a ction r esea r ch .
Re po rt
Pla n
Re fle c t
Ac t
Evaluatio n o f inte rve ntio n
Re
fle c t
Ob se r ve
Re fle c t
Pla n
Ac t
Cyc le two
Inte rve ntio n
R
e fle
ct
Pla n
Re fle c t
Ob se r ve
Ac t
Re c o nnaissanc e o f the
pro ble m situatio n
Re
fle c t
De fine issue
Cyc le thre e
Ob se r ve
Cyc le o ne
Institutionally-based management training
projects in Australasia
Th er e a r e n ow sever a l exa m ples of m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es in Au str a lia
in cor por a tin g a ction r esea r ch . At th e Un iver sity of Qu een sla n d a ser ies of a ction lea r n in g
pr ojects h a s been im plem en ted wh ich h ave
th e goa l of im pr ovin g m a n a gem en t
pr a ctices[11]. J a m es Cook Un iver sity, Sou th
Au str a lia Un iver sity, Sw in bu r n e Un iver sity
of Tech n ology a n d th e Roya l Melbou r n e In stitu te of Tech n ology (RMIT) a r e fu r th er exa m ples of Au str a lia n u n iver sities wh ich h ave
im plem en ted m a n a gem en t tr a in in g
pr ogr a m m es ba sed on a ction lea r n in g or
a ction r esea r ch . Th e su ppor t for th ese la tter
pr ogr a m m es a r ose fr om th e Au str a lia n Vice
Ch a n cellor s’ Com m ittee (AVCC) in itia tive
wh ich esta blish ed a sta ff developm en t a n d
tr a in in g pr ogr a m m e[20] to im pr ove m a n a gem en t tr a in in g th r ou gh th e poolin g of
r esou r ces, in ter -u n iver sity n etwor k in g, a n d
en h a n ced deliver y. Cou r ses for execu tives
con du cted a t th e Br isba n e-ba sed Cen tr e for
Str a te gic Lea der s[21], a n d th e N ew Sou th
Wa les N a tion a l P a r k s a n d Wildlife Ser vice[22]
a r e fu r th er exa m ples of pr ogr a m m es wh ich
[ 21 ]
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h
in sc ho o l se nio r manage me nt
training
con ta in a ction r esea r ch com pon en ts. How ever, a ll of th ese pr ogr a m m es h ave a n in ter n a l in stitu tion a l focu s, a n d n on e of th em is
aw a r d bea r in g.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 9 –2 4
Award-bearing programmes in Australasia
J oh n son [3] ou tlin es th e Un iver sity of N ew
Sou th Wa les aw a r d-bea r in g pr ogr a m m e for
sen ior a dm in istr a tor s of sch ools – th e Cer tifica te in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t. He descr ibes th is
a s em ph a sizin g pr a ctica l pr epa r a tion for
sch ool m a n a gem en t th r ou gh th e in cor por a tion of ca se stu dies, sim u la tion s a n d r ole
plays. Assign m en ts focu s on th e a dm in istr a tor s’ ow n sch ools. P r ogr a m m e goa ls in clu de
foster in g a n a lysis, r efl ection , cr itica l r ea ction s a n d sk ills. J oh n son sta tes th a t th e pr ogr a m m e h a s m u ch in com m on w ith th e
a ction lea r n in g m odel[3, p. 13].
Robin son , a t th e Un iver sity of Au ck la n d,
dir ects a Ma ster ’s pr ogr a m m e wh ich h a s a n
a ction r esea r ch pa per. Th e Un iver sity Cer tifica te in Sch ool Lea der sh ip offer ed by th e con tin u in g edu ca tion depa r tm en t a t Au ck la n d
Un iver sity is a n oth er exa m ple of a
pr ogr a m m e wh ich in clu des a n a ction
r esea r ch com pon en t.
In ou r pr a ctice a s edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t
developer s a t UN ITE C In stitu te of Tech n ology, a ction r esea r ch is in cor por a ted a s a
m a jor com pon en t of a pa r t-tim e, two-yea r
aw a r d-bea r in g cou r se, Diplom a in Sch ool
Ma n a gem en t, for sen ior m a n a ger s of sch ools.
Management development through
action research
Th e diplom a pr ogr a m m e is in ten ded to
in cr ea se th e k n ow ledge a n d sk ills of sch ool
pr in cipa ls a n d th ose a spir in g to pr in cipa lsh ip. Tow a r ds th e en d of th e fir st yea r of
stu dy, pa r ticipa n ts a r e in tr odu ced to th e
n otion of a ction r esea r ch a s a tool for th e
sim u lta n eou s r esolu tion of or ga n iza tion a l
pr oblem s a n d for m a n a gem en t developm en t.
Th ey su bsequ en tly pla n a n a ction r esea r ch
pr oject to im plem en t in th eir sch ools over th e
cou r se of th e follow in g yea r. Repor tin g on th e
a ction r esea r ch stu dy is th e fi n a l for m a l
r equ ir em en t of th e Diplom a in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e.
The rationale for teaching action research
A r esea r ch com pon en t esta blish es th e sta tu s
of th e pr ogr a m m e a s a h igh er edu ca tion ,
pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion for pr a ctition er s.
Un der ta k in g a ction r esea r ch sh ou ld m a k e it
possible for a pa r ticipa n t to r esolve a r ea l
m a n a gem en t pr oblem in th e sch ool. To do
th is, or even to a ttem pt to do th is, both
r esea r ch sk ills a n d cr itica l r efl ection sk ills,
[ 22 ]
wh ich ca n be pr a ctised in th e pr ogr a m m e
settin g w ith th e h elp of a su per visin g lectu r er, m u st be developed. We h ope th a t th e
ben efits of th ese sk ills r em a in lon g a fter th e
for m a l stu dy pr ogr a m m e is com pleted. Th e
cycles of r esea r ch a ctivity con du cted in th e
stu dy u n it a r e in ten ded to fl ow on in to fu r th er cycles. As Kin g a n d Lon n qu ist sta te:
Th e r eflection of on e cycle becom es th e
pr oblem fr a m in g of th e n ext cycle, so th a t,
on ce in itia ted, a ction r esea r ch is tech n ica lly
a n on goin g pr ocess, distin gu ish ed fr om
eva lu a tion pr ocesses th a t en d a fter a ccom plish in g a given ta sk [23, p. 5].
Idea lly, th e lesson s lea r n ed in ca r r yin g ou t a n
a ction r esea r ch pr oject w ill n ot on ly lea d on
to fu r th er cycles of r esea r ch in th e sa m e pr oblem a r ea bu t cou ld a lso be tr a n sfer a ble to
oth er pr oblem a tic m a n a gem en t situ a tion s
wh ich ca ll for a system a tic a n d su sta in ed
a ppr oa ch to r esolvin g sign ifi ca n t issu es.
Emphasis on management topics
Beca u se th e diplom a is a qu a lifica tion for
sch ool m a n a ger s, pa r ticipa n ts a r e r equ ir ed to
ch oose a topic w ith a m a n a gem en t focu s,
r a th er th a n a tea ch in g focu s. Action r esea r ch
is pr esen ted a s a pr oblem -ba sed r esea r ch
m eth odology wh ich focu ses on a r ea l pr oblem
a n d a im s to gen er a te r esu lts th a t lea d to r eleva n t a n d colla bor a tive ch a n ge th a t h a s a
dir ect im pa ct on th e m a n a gem en t of edu ca tion . In th e fir st yea r of diplom a stu dy th e
pa r ticipa n ts a r e exa m in in g a n d iden tifyin g
r eleva n t th eor y a n d discover in g th eir ow n
th eor ies of pr a ctice.
An u n der lyin g th em e in th e UN ITE C
a ppr oa ch is th e em ph a sis on developin g
n or m s of or ga n iza tion a l lea r n in g wh ich
cou ld lea d to er r or detection a n d cor r ection
th r ou gh cr itica l a n d colla bor a tive r eflection .
Th e diplom a cu r r icu lu m offer s oppor tu n ity
to lea r n a pr oblem -solvin g a ppr oa ch wh ich
dea ls w ith difficu lt issu es fr om a th eor y of
a ction per spective[23]. Su ch lea r n in g en a bles
pa r ticipa n ts to discover h ow th ey a n d oth er s
m igh t in a dver ten tly be im plica ted in pr oblem
m a in ten a n ce wh ile avow in g th eir gen u in e
com m itm en t to pr oblem r esolu tion .
Th e a ction r esea r ch pr oject pr ovides a
m ea n s for con du ctin g a n in -depth exa m in a tion of m a n a gem en t pr a ctice in th e sch ool;
pr efer a bly a pr a ctice in wh ich th e pa r ticipa n t
is closely in volved, a n d a pr a ctice th a t is pr oblem a tic in eith er a n eu tr a l or a n e ga tive
sen se[8]. Th er efor e, pa r ticipa n ts m u st ch oose
topics th a t a llow th em to exa m in e th eir ow n
m a n a gem en t pr a ctice a s well a s th e pr a ctice
of oth er s wh er e a ga p is per ceived between
cu r r en t a n d desir a ble pr a ctice. Th e specific
focu s th a t th e pr ogr a m m e dem a n ds on a m a n a gem en t issu e ca n cr ea te ch a llen ges for pa r ticipa n ts beca u se a close in vestiga tion of a
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h
in sc ho o l se nio r manage me nt
training
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 9 –2 4
pr oblem a tic m a n a gem en t pr a ctice in th e
sch ool ca n be a ver y th r ea ten in g n otion for a ll
con cer n ed.
Organizing action research
In tea ch in g a ction r esea r ch ou r a im is to
dem ystify th e m eth ods a n d pr ocesses, a n d
pr om ote th e va lu es a n d th e a spir a tion s of
a ction r esea r ch a s a m ea n s for or ga n iza tion a l
lea r n in g wh ich ca n be m a n a ged in a for m a lized w ay. Action r esea r ch in to m a n a gem en t
pr oblem s sh ou ld be a tool th a t is u n der stood
by a n d is a ccessible to m a n a ger s a t a ll levels
in th e or ga n iza tion .
A formal process
We m a k e n o a pology for th e fa ct th a t th e
pr ocess descr ibed in ou r tea ch in g m odel is
for m a lly or ga n ized a n d n eeds to be ca r efu lly
m a n a ged by th e stu den t. Beca u se th e stu den tr esea r ch er s h old sen ior position s in sch ools,
it is in evita ble th a t im plem en ta tion of th is
m odel (see F igu r e 1) ten ds to be h ier a r ch ica l.
Th e for m a lity a n d or ga n ized a ppr oa ch of th is
fr a m ewor k is ju stifi a ble in ou r opin ion
beca u se it is n ecessa r y to m a k e ou r expecta tion s a n d th e r esea r ch possibilities explicit to
pa r ticipa n ts. With in th is str u ctu r ed fr a m ewor k , stu den ts a r e en cou r a ged to a dopt a n
a ppr opr ia te a n d w ide r a n ge of da ta ga th er in g
a n d r eflective tech n iqu es w ith a colla bor a tive
gr ou p. Th ey a r e a lso en cou r a ged to be flexible
a n d r espon sive to th e u n iqu en ess of ea ch
r esea r ch con text, a n d to r ecogn ize a n d a r ticu la te lim ita tion s of th e pr ocess a n d th eir ow n
pr a ctice a s th ey en cou n ter a n d su r m ou n t
difficu lties.
It is eviden t th a t a n or ga n ized, dir ective
a ppr oa ch is a t odds w ith a section of th e
a ction r esea r ch liter a tu r e th a t su ppor ts a
m or e flu id, or ga n ic view of th e m eth odology:
a view con sisten t w ith n otion s of gr ou ps
pa r ticipa tin g in liber a tin g discou r se to
r esolve m u tu a l pr oblem s a n d to a ch ieve a n
em a n cipa tor y ou tcom e. Th e tr a n sfor m a tive
(th a t is, ch a n ged th in k in g; ch a n ged a ction )
im per a tive th a t u n der pin s ou r r esea r ch
m odel is con cer n ed less w ith a cr itiqu e a n d
a lter a tion of socia l or politica l or der a n d
power r ela tion s a n d m or e w ith a colla bor a tive cr itiqu e of per son a l a n d or ga n iza tion a l
th eor ies of a ction th a t gu ide pr a ctice[24].
Collaborative challenges
Wh eth er th e stu den t is a r esea r ch er -pa r ticipa n t w ith in a n a ction r esea r ch tea m or a cts
to fa cilita te a tea m r esea r ch effor t, ou r exper ien ce sh ow s th a t sever a l difficu lties h ave to
be over com e in r ela tion to th e dem a n din g
tea m a ppr oa ch r equ ir em en t. In spite of
espou sa ls of colle gia lity a n d colla bor a tion on
pr ojects, ou r stu den t r esea r ch er s fin d th a t in
pr a ctice th eir collea gu es a r e extr em ely bu sy
wh en it com es to fin din g tim e to pa r ticipa te
in a n a ction r esea r ch gr ou p. E ven wh en existin g colla bor a tive ch a n n els – su ch a s m eetin gs
sch edu les a n d esta blish ed ta sk tea m s – a r e
u sed, th ey u su a lly fin d th em selves h avin g to
play a con sider a ble m otiva tin g r ole. Th ey fin d
th a t th ey h ave to m ove th e iter a tive pr ocess
for w a r d vigor ou sly if th ey w ish to sh ow eviden ce of a ction a n d ch a n ge beca u se
collea gu es n eed a de gr ee of pr essu r e to be
exer ted to en su r e th a t th in gs h a ppen wh en
th er e is a pr oblem to be solved.
The action research project requirements
To qu a lify a s a ction r esea r ch , ou r stu den ts’
pr ojects m u st m eet th e cr iter ia for a ction
r esea r ch im plicit in th e m odel th a t fr a m es th e
a ppr oa ch u sed a t UN ITE C. An effective a ction
r esea r ch pr oject is con du cted a ccor din g to a n
a gr eed pr oposa l. It is su per vised a n d r epor ted
on in a m a n n er wh ich dem on str a tes th a t:
• th e pr oblem situ a tion in volves a m a n a gem en t issu e;
• th e pr oject h a s clea r a im s a n d well-for m u la ted r esea r ch qu estion s;
• a colla bor a tive a ppr oa ch is u sed, a n d issu es
of eth ics a n d va lida tion h ave been a tten ded
to;
• th e pr oblem situ a tion h a s been exa m in ed
a n d a n a lysed, en com pa ssin g a r eview of th e
r eleva n t liter a tu r e;
• a n in ter ven tion str a te gy h a s been im plem en ted;
• th e effectiven ess of th e in ter ven tion is eva lu a ted;
• discu ssion of im plica tion s of th e fin din gs
h a s led to th e dr aw in g of con clu sion s a n d
th e for m u la tion of r ecom m en da tion s;
• th e m eth odology is u n der stood a n d a pplied
a ppr opr ia tely.
Participant outcomes
Th e UN ITE C Diplom a in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t
h a s been offer ed sin ce 1990. In th is tim e well
over 100 stu den ts of edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t
h ave con du cted a for m of r esea r ch wh ich is
in ten ded to h ave a n im m edia te im pa ct on th e
effectiven ess of th eir or ga n iza tion s. We
believe th a t m ost pa r ticipa n ts in ou r pr ogr a m m e h ave m et th e lea r n in g ch a llen ges we
set ou t to cr ea te for th em to a ver y h igh sta n da r d. In th eir tu r n , th ey h ave cr ea ted ch a llen ges for ch a n ge in th eir sch ools. Th ey h ave
a ddr essed a sign ifica n t m a n a gem en t pr oblem
a n d th ey h ave a cqu ir ed sk ills; a n d even m or e
im por ta n tly, th ey h ave, in a n u m ber of ca ses,
a dopted m en ta l m odes[25,26] wh ich a llow a n d
[ 23 ]
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h
in sc ho o l se nio r manage me nt
training
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 9 –2 4
en cou r a ge colla bor a tive, da ta -ba sed in qu ir y
to becom e a cu ltu r a l n or m in th eir sch ools.
Conclusion
E ffective edu ca tion a l lea der s sh ou ld be
equ ipped w ith m a n a gem en t com peten ces
wh ich w ill en a ble th em to solve n ew a n d
ch a llen gin g pr oblem s a n d pr ovide lea der sh ip
in a fr a m ewor k of or ga n iza tion a l lea r n in g.
By a ssistin g m a n a ger s to r efl ect on cu r r en t
issu es a n d pr a ctice, a n d to a lter th ese on th e
ba sis of th eor y th a t gu ides “best pr a ctice”,
a ction r esea r ch pr ocesses en cou r a ge th em to
develop a s m a n a ger s a n d to m a k e u se of a
system a tic, pr oblem -ba sed a ppr oa ch for
im pr ovem en t.
Th is pa per h a s discu ssed h ow on e h igh er
edu ca tion in stitu tion in cor por a tes a ction
r esea r ch to foster m a n a gem en t developm en t
in a n aw a r d-bea r in g pr ogr a m m e. Th e w r iter s
a r e in ter ested in th e com m en ts a n d con jectu r e of oth er s in volved in tr a in in g m a n a ger s,
a n d h ope th a t discu ssion a n d deba te on th e
ch a llen ges a n d su ccesses of u sin g a ction
r esea r ch a s a tool for m a n a gem en t developm en t w ill pr ovide gr ist for th e m ill of lea r n in g in th e a ction r esea r ch com m u n ity.
References
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pr ogr a m m es”, High er Ed u ca tion , Vol. 23, 1992,
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7 Peter s, T.J . a n d Wa ter m a n , R.H., In S ea rch of
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R esea rch for th e Im prov em en t of Pra ctice,
Per ga m on P r ess, Oxfor d, 1993.
[ 24 ]
9 Sm ith , A., “A qu estion of de gr ees”, M a n a gem en t, Au gu st 1994, pp. 81-3.
10 Sor oh a n , E .G., “We do: th er efor e we lea r n ”,
T ra in in g a n d Dev elopm en t, Vol. 47 N o. 10, 1993,
pp. 47-55.
11 Zu ber -Sk er r itt, O., “Ma n a gem en t developm en t
a n d a ca dem ic sta ff developm en t th r ou gh
a ction lea r n in g a n d a ction r esea r ch ”, Ed u ca tion T ra in in g a n d T ech n olog y In ter n a tion a l,
Vol. 27 N o. 4, 1990, pp. 327-47.
12 E lliot, J ., A ction R esea rch for Ed u ca tion a l
Ch a n ge, Open Un iver sity P r ess, Milton
Keyn es, 1991.
13 Abr a h a m , S., Ex plora tor y A ction R esea rch for
M a n a ger Dev elopm en t, Action Lea r n in g,
Action Resea r ch & P r ocess Ma n a gem en t Associa tion (ALARP M) In c. a n d Giba r a n Ma n a gem en t Con su lta n ts P ty Ltd, Upper Mt Gr ava tt,
Au str a lia , 1994.
14 Peter s, M. a n d Robin son , V., “Th e or igin s a n d
sta tu s of a ction r esea r ch ”, T h e J ou r n a l of
A pplied B eh a viou ra l S cien ce, Vol. 2 N o. 1, 1984,
pp. 9-24.
15 Kolb, D., Ex per ien tia l L ea r n in g: Ex per ien ce a s
th e S ou rce of L ea r n in g a n d Dev elopm en t, P r en tice-Ha ll, E n glewood Cliffs, N J , 1984.
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pp. 37-47.
17 Ca la br ese, R.L. a n d Ba r tz, D.E ., “P r epa r in g
sch ool a dm in istr a tor s: a n a ction lea r n in g
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1990.
18 Per r y, C. a n d Zu ber -Sk er r itt, O., “Doctor a tes by
a ction r esea r ch for sen ior pr a ctisin g m a n a ger s”, M a n a gem en t L ea r n in g, Vol. 25 N o. 2,
1994, pp. 341-64.
19 Zu ber -Sk er r itt, O., A ction R esea rch in High er
Ed u ca tion – Ex a m ples a n d R efl ection s, Koga n
P a ge, Lon don , 1992.
20 Au str a lia n Vice Ch a n cellor s’ Com m ittee
(AVCC), S ta ff Dev elopm en t a n d T ra in in g Progra m Dev elopm en t B u lletin s, N os 1-4, Un iver sity of Qu een sla n d, Br isba n e, 1993.
21 Ca stello, M. a n d Hen r ick s, V., “E xecu tives a s
a ction lea r n er s”, Proceed in gs of th e First World
Con gress on A ction a n d Process M a n a gem en t,
Vol. 2, 1991, pp. 135-46.
22 Leigh , E ., Br ow n , B., Gor r ie, R. a n d Sh eppa r d,
B., “Meta ph or s, m a gic a n d or ga n isa tion a l
ch a n ge”, Proceed in gs of th e 2n d World Con gress
on A ction L ea r n in g, 1992.
23 Kin g, J .A. a n d Lon n qu ist, M.P., T h e Fu tu re of
Collab ora tiv e A ction R esea rch : Prom ises, Prob lem s a n d Prospects, E RIC Repor t, US Depa r tm en t of E du ca tion , Wa sh in gton , DC, 1994.
24 Ar gyr is, C. a n d Sch on , D.A., Orga n isa tion a l
L ea r n in g: A T h eor y of A ction Perspectiv e, Addison Wesley, Sydn ey, 1978.
25 Ca r dn o, C.E .M., “Dea lin g w ith dilem m a s: a
cr itica l a n d colla bor a tive a ppr oa ch to sta ff
a ppr a isa l in two sch ools”, u n pu blish ed P h D
th esis: Un iver sity of Au ck la n d, 1994.
26 Sen ge, P., T h e Fifth Disciplin e: T h e A r t a n d
Pra ctice of th e L ea r n in g Orga n isa tion , Ra n dom
Hou se, Lon don , 1990.
management training
Carol Cardno
He ad o f the Educ atio n Manage me nt Ce ntre
Eileen Piggot-Irvine
Le c ture r in the Educ atio n Manage me nt Ce ntre at UNITEC Institute o f
Te c hno lo gy, Auc kland, Ne w Z e aland
Outlines how an action
research approach can be
used for management training and education. The
emphasis on developing
competence in problemsolving processes, using
action research, is supported
by the literature and this is
illustrated by several examples of institutional projects
and award-bearing
programmes. Details how the
authors’ interpretation of
action research, in the school
management training context, can both challenge and
develop educational leaders.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [ 1996] 1 9 –2 4
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
What training do school managers
need?
Parallels with the business arena
In th e cu r r en t post-edu ca tion -r efor m er a in
N ew Zea la n d, sch ool m a n a ger s (pr in cipa ls,
a n d oth er sen ior a dm in istr a tor s) a r e in cr ea sin gly r equ ir ed to fu lfil expa n ded a n d ch a llen gin g r oles a ssocia ted w ith th e self-m a n a gem en t of sch ools. Th e r ole of a sch ool pr in cipa l
is on er ou s a n d a m bigu ou s a n d in volves
sim u lta n eou sly a dm in ister in g sch ool oper a tion s in clu din g fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t,
a ppoin tin g sta ff, a ppr a isin g a n d developin g
tea ch er s, su per visin g in str u ction , bein g
a ccessible to a n d lia isin g w ith a ll sta k eh older s, dele ga tin g r espon sibility, str a te gic pla n n in g a n d policy developm en t, m a r k etin g,
vision in g, a n d so on . Ma n y of th ese r oles n ow
closely pa r a llel th ose of m a n a ger s in th e
w ider bu sin ess a r en a a n d r equ ir e lea der sh ip
to in flu en ce ch a n ge. Ma n a gem en t, in th e
sen se wh ich we u se it, en com pa sses lea der sh ip a s a cen tr a l fea tu r e of effective m a n a gem en t. It is ou r con ten tion , th er efor e, th a t th e
ch a n ges r equ ested in gen er a l m a n a gem en t
tr a in in g n ow a pply equ a lly to edu ca tion a l
a dm in istr a tor s.
Traditional training
Tr a dition a lly som e tr a in in g for edu ca tion a l
a dm in istr a tor s h a s been ava ila ble th r ou gh
u n iver sity-led, th eor etica lly-or ien ted cou r ses
th a t tea ch a n u m ber of well-k n ow n th eor ies
a n d en cou r a ge discu ssion of h ow th ese idea s
m igh t a pply to th e pr a ctition er ’s ow n con text.
Robin son [1] h a s exa m in ed th e tr en d aw ay
fr om th is typica l tr a in in g to a m or e colle gia l
a n d pr a ctica l in -ser vice m odel wh ich is cu r r en tly favou r ed by pr a ctition er s. Sh e a r gu es,
h owever, th a t “to su ggest a fa lse dich otom y
between th eor y a n d pr a ctice sever ely lim its
both types of pr ovision ”[1, p. 25].
In th e pa st, explicitly th eor etica l, con ten t
ba sed pr ogr a m m es h ave pr im a r ily been con cer n ed w ith th e tr a n sm ission of k n ow ledge
a n d sk ills fr om th e exper t to th e n ovice, w ith
little a tten tion pa id to th e a pplica tion of th is
k n ow ledge in th e wor k con text of th ese m a n a ger s. Con sequ en tly, gr a du a tes fr om th ese
pr ogr a m m es h a d con sider a ble th eor etica l
k n ow ledge bu t few dem on str a ble a pplied
sk ills wh ich pr epa r ed th em for th e r a pidly
ch a n gin g m a n a ger ia l wor k pla ce.
Future management training
In r ecen t yea r s th er e h ave been in cr ea sin g
ca lls for ch a n ges in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g
a ppr oa ch es both in gen er a l m a n a gem en t
fields a n d for edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tor s
[1-11].
F u tu r e m a n a gem en t tr a in in g, we a r e
in for m ed, sh ou ld in clu de a ll or som e of th e
follow in g ch a r a cter istics:
• u se of wor k pla ce-ba sed pr oblem solvin g,
w ith stu den ts wor k in g on r ea l pr oblem s or
issu es;
• developm en t of com peten ces for dea lin g
w ith r a pid a n d con tin u ou s ch a n ge;
• colla bor a tive tea m wor k pr a ctices;
• developm en t of in ter per son a l, people m a n a gem en t sk ills – especia lly th ose n eeded to
r esolve com plex pr oblem s;
• oppor tu n ity for self-developm en t;
• tr a in in g wh ich h a s a n a ca dem ic a n d
a pplied lea r n in g m ix a n d r edu ces th e ga p
between th eor y a n d pr a ctice;
• a focu s on th e pr ocess of m a n a gem en t
r a th er th a n th e con ten t;
• cr itica l r eflection on pr a ctice; a n d
• pr a ctice wh ich r esu lts in da ta -ba sed ch a n ge
im plem en ta tion .
Robin son [1] a dds to th is th a t if lea der s of
th ese pr ogr a m m es h ope to in flu en ce th e
th in k in g of pa r ticipa n ts, let a lon e th eir pr a ctice, th ey n eed to:
…exa m in e cr itica lly th e u tility, a pplica bility
a n d eth ics of th e im plicit th eor ies of cou r se
pa r ticipa n ts a s well a s in vite sim ila r exa m in a tion of th e th eor ies th ey th em selves a dvoca te. Given th a t cou r se m em ber ’s th eor ies
a r e la r gely im plicit, th eir exa m in a tion m u st
pr oceed by pr ogr essive u n cover in g of th e
a ssu m ption s th a t in for m th eir discu ssion
a n d cr itiqu e of th e m a ter ia l of th e cou r se
[1, p. 26].
Sh e con clu des th a t it is n ot th e pr esen ce of
th eor y th a t is pr oblem a tic bu t th e fa ilu r e to
exa m in e it w ith in th e con text of th e th eor ies
of a ction wh ich in for m th e pa r ticipa n t’s ow n
pr a ctice. Sh e a dvoca tes a type of in -ser vice
edu ca tion for edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tor s
wh ich is sim u lta n eou sly h igh ly th eor etica l
a n d h igh ly pr a ctica l.
[ 19 ]
Caro l Cardno
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Action r esea r ch is a n a ppr oa ch wh ich ca n
be in cor por a ted in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g to
in te gr a te th eor y a n d pr a ctice. It m ay poten tia lly in clu de a ll of th e ch a r a cter istics
descr ibed a bove.
Action research: relationship to
action learning and experiential
learning
Action r esea r ch , a ter m coin ed by Ku r t Lew in
in th e 1940s, is va r iou sly defi n ed a n d
descr ibed. Th e sh or test a n d m ost str a igh tfor w a r d defin ition of a ction r esea r ch is given by
E lliott[12, p. 69] a s “th e stu dy of a socia l situ a tion w ith a view to im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of
a ction w ith in it”.
Th e r ea der is r efer r ed to Abr a h a m [13] for
a n exten sive su m m a r y of con flictin g in ter pr eta tion s of a ction r esea r ch . Abr a h a m con fi r m s
th a t idea s a bou t wh a t con stitu tes a ction
r esea r ch a r e m a n y a n d va r ied bu t con clu des
th a t it is a m eth od “in wh ich m em ber s of a n
or ga n isa tion wor k colla bor a tively w ith a
fa cilita tor (th e r esea r ch er ) to a ddr ess pr oblem s th a t a r e of con cer n to th e gr ou p”[13,
p. 23].
Peter s a n d Robin son [14] iden tify th r ee
m in im a l r equ ir em en ts for a ction r esea r ch
com m on to a selection of th e con tem por a r y
liter a tu r e. Th ese a r e:
1 a pr oblem -focu sed ch a n ge or ien ta tion ;
2 iter a tive sta ges of pla n n in g, a ction , fa ctfin din g a n d r efl ection ; a n d
3 th e colla bor a tive ch a r a cter istic.
Wh ile th ese th r ee con dition s wer e sh a r ed by
a ll th e w r iter s su r veyed, Peter s a n d Robin son
distin gu ish between m ost com m en ta tor s wh o
su bscr ibe to a “wea k ver sion ” of a ction
r esea r ch (a s a r esea r ch str a te gy), a n d a tr io of
r esea r ch er s wh o h ave sou gh t to develop a
“str on g ver sion ” th a t em ph a sizes th e em a n cipa tor y poten tia l of th e m eth od.
In th e m a n a gem en t con text, Per r y a n d
Zu ber -Sk er r itt[6, p. 18] su m m a r ize a ction
r esea r ch a s in volvin g gr ou ps of m a n a ger s
wor k in g on r ea l pr oblem s in com plex a n d
dyn a m ic situ a tion s wh er e th e socia l
pr ocesses of lea r n in g a bou t th ese situ a tion s
is in extr ica bly lin k ed w ith th e a cts of ch a n gin g th ose situ a tion s.
Action learning
Action lea r n in g is a n otion a k in to a ction
r esea r ch . Its developm en t is a ttr ibu ted to th e
wor k of Re g Reva n s sin ce th e 1930s. It h a s
m a n y sim ila r ities to a ction r esea r ch a t a
ph ilosoph ica l level bu t differ s fr om it in th a t
th er e is n o obliga tion to m a k e fi n din gs pu blic.
In a ction lea r n in g th er e is gr ea ter em ph a sis
pla ced on lea r n in g th a n a ction per se, a n d th e
[ 20 ]
sta n da r ds of da ta collection a n d va lida tion
a r e less r igor ou s th a n in a ction r esea r ch . Th e
over a ll goa l of a ction lea r n in g is th e developm en t of qu estion in g in sigh t.
Both a ction r esea r ch a n d a ction lea r n in g
a r e a ppr oa ch es wh ich a im to n a r r ow th e ga p
between th eor y a n d pr a ctice. Th ey a dh er e to
th e pr in ciples of a n on -positivist, or a lter n a tive, in ter pr eta tive r esea r ch pa r a digm , in
wh ich pr a ctition er u n der sta n din g of pr oblem s is given pr om in en ce. In th ese
a ppr oa ch es, th e pr a ctition er -r esea r ch er colla bor a tively pa r ticipa tes in th e even ts bein g
stu died a n d explicitly a ck n ow ledges th e w ay
in wh ich th ey a r e im plica ted in th ese even ts.
Th e pr edom in a n tly (bu t n ot a lw ays) qu a lita tive da ta collected a r e in ter pr eted, a n a lysed
a n d r efl ected on togeth er by r esea r ch er a n d
pa r ticipa n ts, wh o com pr ise a colla bor a tive
gr ou p. Su ch a n a ppr oa ch , th er efor e, r ejects
th e positivist su bject-r esea r ch er distin ction
a n d va lu e-fr ee espou sa ls.
Experiential learning theory underpinning
action research and action learning
Un lik e tr a dition a l lea r n in g, wh ich in volves
in dividu a ls r eceivin g in for m a tion , a n d th en
a pplyin g th is th eor y to a situ a tion or pr oblem , a ction r esea r ch a n d a ction lea r n in g
in volve exper ien tia l lea r n in g cycles[15]. In
th is type of lea r n in g k n ow ledge is ga in ed
fr om obser va tion s, qu estion in g a n d r eflection
r ela ted to con cr ete exper ien ce or a ction . Th is
lea ds to gen er a liza tion s or th e for m u la tion of
a bstr a ct con cepts, th e im plica tion s of wh ich
a r e tested in n ew situ a tion s. A n ew con cr ete
exper ien ce th en occu r s, followed by a n oth er
cycle of lea r n in g. Un der sta n din g, im pr ovem en t, a n d tr a n sfor m a tion of th e specific situ a tion in wh ich th e gr ou p a r e wor k in g is th e
u ltim a te ou tcom e of th ese lea r n in g cycles.
Our interpretation of action
research
In ou r pr a ctice we defi n e a ction r esea r ch a s
a n a pplied a ppr oa ch for r esolvin g or ga n iza tion a l pr oblem s colla bor a tively. In th e m odel
we u se (F igu r e 1) it in volves th r ee m a jor
ph a ses or cycles of a ctivity. E a ch cyclic ph a se
in cor por a tes steps of pla n n in g, a ctin g,
obser vin g a n d r eflectin g:
• Cycle on e: exa m in in g a n existin g pr oblem ;
• Cycle two: in ter ven in g to im pr ove pr a ctice;
• Cycle th r ee: eva lu a tin g th e effectiven ess of
ch a n ge.
Action r esea r ch is a n edu ca tive a n d developm en ta l pr ocess. We believe it is effective
wh en :
• r efl ective pr a ctice is da ta -ba sed;
• m u ltiple per spectives a r e a ck n ow ledged;
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
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• cr itiqu e is ba sed on explicit n or m s a n d
th eor ies of a ction .
P a r ticipa n t r esea r ch er s a r e r equ ir ed to pla n
a n d pr esen t a for m a l pr oposa l a n d to r epor t
for m a lly on th e pr oject dem on str a tin g a pplica tion of th eir k n ow ledge a n d sk ills a s a ction
r esea r ch er s. F igu r e 1 illu str a tes th e
spir a llin g a ppr oa ch to ch a n ge a n d im pr ovem en t a dopted in th is m odel.
Support – in theory and practice –
for action research incorporated in
management training
Support evidence
Th e va lu e of eith er a ction r esea r ch , or th e
closely a ffilia ted a ction lea r n in g pr ocess, in
m a n a gem en t tr a in in g h a s su ppor t fr om sever a l w r iter s.
Cu n n in gton a n d Tr evor -Rober ts, for exa m ple, sta te th a t:
…th e Action Lea r n in g pr ocess … pr ovides
th e on ly fea sible veh icle for lea r n in g com peten cies a ssocia ted w ith gen er a l m a n a gem en t a n d m u st th er efor e for m pa r t of th e
developm en t of th e lea der s of tom or r ow [16,
p. 46].
Figure 1
A frame wo rk fo r ac tio n re se arc h
Sor oh a n ’s[10] r ecen t a r ticle in dica tes th a t
th is sh ift is a lr ea dy occu r r in g, wh en sh e
r epor ts th a t a ction lea r n in g is pr oba bly th e
favou r ed str a te gy for execu tive edu ca tion
th ese days. F u r th er su ppor t for th e im plem en ta tion of a ction lea r n in g a n d a ction
r esea r ch in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g com es
fr om Ca la br ese a n d Ba r tz[17], Per r y a n d
Zu ber -Sk er r itt[6,18] a n d Zu ber -Sk er r itt[19].
Th er e a r e con fl ictin g a ccou n ts of th e de gr ee
of in cor por a tion of a ction r esea r ch in m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es. Zu ber Sk er r itt[19] r epor ts th a t th e on ly aw a r d-bea r in g, postgr a du a te m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es sh e is aw a r e of, wh ich a r e
gen u in ely ba sed on th e a ction lea r n in g ph ilosoph y, a r e th e MBA a n d P h D pr ogr a m m es
offer ed by th e In ter n a tion a l Ma n a gem en t
Cen tr es wor ldw ide. Th is differ s fr om a n ecdota l eviden ce, both in N ew Zea la n d a n d Au str a lia , wh ich in dica tes th a t sever a l gr a du a te
m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es in cor por a te a ction lea r n in g or a ction r esea r ch pr ojects. Th ese con flictin g a ccou n ts su ggest th a t
in cr ea sed n etwor k in g a n d colla bor a tion is
r equ ir ed between pr ogr a m m e lea der s wh o
w ish to be better in for m ed a bou t su ccessfu l
in itia tives in cu r r en t pr ovision . In N ew
Zea la n d, th e Action Resea r ch N etwor k (esta blish ed by P iggot-Ir vin e in 1993) pr oposes to
fa cilita te su ch dia logu e, a n d to esta blish a
r e gister of m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m es in cor por a tin g a ction r esea r ch .
Re po rt
Pla n
Re fle c t
Ac t
Evaluatio n o f inte rve ntio n
Re
fle c t
Ob se r ve
Re fle c t
Pla n
Ac t
Cyc le two
Inte rve ntio n
R
e fle
ct
Pla n
Re fle c t
Ob se r ve
Ac t
Re c o nnaissanc e o f the
pro ble m situatio n
Re
fle c t
De fine issue
Cyc le thre e
Ob se r ve
Cyc le o ne
Institutionally-based management training
projects in Australasia
Th er e a r e n ow sever a l exa m ples of m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es in Au str a lia
in cor por a tin g a ction r esea r ch . At th e Un iver sity of Qu een sla n d a ser ies of a ction lea r n in g
pr ojects h a s been im plem en ted wh ich h ave
th e goa l of im pr ovin g m a n a gem en t
pr a ctices[11]. J a m es Cook Un iver sity, Sou th
Au str a lia Un iver sity, Sw in bu r n e Un iver sity
of Tech n ology a n d th e Roya l Melbou r n e In stitu te of Tech n ology (RMIT) a r e fu r th er exa m ples of Au str a lia n u n iver sities wh ich h ave
im plem en ted m a n a gem en t tr a in in g
pr ogr a m m es ba sed on a ction lea r n in g or
a ction r esea r ch . Th e su ppor t for th ese la tter
pr ogr a m m es a r ose fr om th e Au str a lia n Vice
Ch a n cellor s’ Com m ittee (AVCC) in itia tive
wh ich esta blish ed a sta ff developm en t a n d
tr a in in g pr ogr a m m e[20] to im pr ove m a n a gem en t tr a in in g th r ou gh th e poolin g of
r esou r ces, in ter -u n iver sity n etwor k in g, a n d
en h a n ced deliver y. Cou r ses for execu tives
con du cted a t th e Br isba n e-ba sed Cen tr e for
Str a te gic Lea der s[21], a n d th e N ew Sou th
Wa les N a tion a l P a r k s a n d Wildlife Ser vice[22]
a r e fu r th er exa m ples of pr ogr a m m es wh ich
[ 21 ]
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h
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con ta in a ction r esea r ch com pon en ts. How ever, a ll of th ese pr ogr a m m es h ave a n in ter n a l in stitu tion a l focu s, a n d n on e of th em is
aw a r d bea r in g.
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Award-bearing programmes in Australasia
J oh n son [3] ou tlin es th e Un iver sity of N ew
Sou th Wa les aw a r d-bea r in g pr ogr a m m e for
sen ior a dm in istr a tor s of sch ools – th e Cer tifica te in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t. He descr ibes th is
a s em ph a sizin g pr a ctica l pr epa r a tion for
sch ool m a n a gem en t th r ou gh th e in cor por a tion of ca se stu dies, sim u la tion s a n d r ole
plays. Assign m en ts focu s on th e a dm in istr a tor s’ ow n sch ools. P r ogr a m m e goa ls in clu de
foster in g a n a lysis, r efl ection , cr itica l r ea ction s a n d sk ills. J oh n son sta tes th a t th e pr ogr a m m e h a s m u ch in com m on w ith th e
a ction lea r n in g m odel[3, p. 13].
Robin son , a t th e Un iver sity of Au ck la n d,
dir ects a Ma ster ’s pr ogr a m m e wh ich h a s a n
a ction r esea r ch pa per. Th e Un iver sity Cer tifica te in Sch ool Lea der sh ip offer ed by th e con tin u in g edu ca tion depa r tm en t a t Au ck la n d
Un iver sity is a n oth er exa m ple of a
pr ogr a m m e wh ich in clu des a n a ction
r esea r ch com pon en t.
In ou r pr a ctice a s edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t
developer s a t UN ITE C In stitu te of Tech n ology, a ction r esea r ch is in cor por a ted a s a
m a jor com pon en t of a pa r t-tim e, two-yea r
aw a r d-bea r in g cou r se, Diplom a in Sch ool
Ma n a gem en t, for sen ior m a n a ger s of sch ools.
Management development through
action research
Th e diplom a pr ogr a m m e is in ten ded to
in cr ea se th e k n ow ledge a n d sk ills of sch ool
pr in cipa ls a n d th ose a spir in g to pr in cipa lsh ip. Tow a r ds th e en d of th e fir st yea r of
stu dy, pa r ticipa n ts a r e in tr odu ced to th e
n otion of a ction r esea r ch a s a tool for th e
sim u lta n eou s r esolu tion of or ga n iza tion a l
pr oblem s a n d for m a n a gem en t developm en t.
Th ey su bsequ en tly pla n a n a ction r esea r ch
pr oject to im plem en t in th eir sch ools over th e
cou r se of th e follow in g yea r. Repor tin g on th e
a ction r esea r ch stu dy is th e fi n a l for m a l
r equ ir em en t of th e Diplom a in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t pr ogr a m m e.
The rationale for teaching action research
A r esea r ch com pon en t esta blish es th e sta tu s
of th e pr ogr a m m e a s a h igh er edu ca tion ,
pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion for pr a ctition er s.
Un der ta k in g a ction r esea r ch sh ou ld m a k e it
possible for a pa r ticipa n t to r esolve a r ea l
m a n a gem en t pr oblem in th e sch ool. To do
th is, or even to a ttem pt to do th is, both
r esea r ch sk ills a n d cr itica l r efl ection sk ills,
[ 22 ]
wh ich ca n be pr a ctised in th e pr ogr a m m e
settin g w ith th e h elp of a su per visin g lectu r er, m u st be developed. We h ope th a t th e
ben efits of th ese sk ills r em a in lon g a fter th e
for m a l stu dy pr ogr a m m e is com pleted. Th e
cycles of r esea r ch a ctivity con du cted in th e
stu dy u n it a r e in ten ded to fl ow on in to fu r th er cycles. As Kin g a n d Lon n qu ist sta te:
Th e r eflection of on e cycle becom es th e
pr oblem fr a m in g of th e n ext cycle, so th a t,
on ce in itia ted, a ction r esea r ch is tech n ica lly
a n on goin g pr ocess, distin gu ish ed fr om
eva lu a tion pr ocesses th a t en d a fter a ccom plish in g a given ta sk [23, p. 5].
Idea lly, th e lesson s lea r n ed in ca r r yin g ou t a n
a ction r esea r ch pr oject w ill n ot on ly lea d on
to fu r th er cycles of r esea r ch in th e sa m e pr oblem a r ea bu t cou ld a lso be tr a n sfer a ble to
oth er pr oblem a tic m a n a gem en t situ a tion s
wh ich ca ll for a system a tic a n d su sta in ed
a ppr oa ch to r esolvin g sign ifi ca n t issu es.
Emphasis on management topics
Beca u se th e diplom a is a qu a lifica tion for
sch ool m a n a ger s, pa r ticipa n ts a r e r equ ir ed to
ch oose a topic w ith a m a n a gem en t focu s,
r a th er th a n a tea ch in g focu s. Action r esea r ch
is pr esen ted a s a pr oblem -ba sed r esea r ch
m eth odology wh ich focu ses on a r ea l pr oblem
a n d a im s to gen er a te r esu lts th a t lea d to r eleva n t a n d colla bor a tive ch a n ge th a t h a s a
dir ect im pa ct on th e m a n a gem en t of edu ca tion . In th e fir st yea r of diplom a stu dy th e
pa r ticipa n ts a r e exa m in in g a n d iden tifyin g
r eleva n t th eor y a n d discover in g th eir ow n
th eor ies of pr a ctice.
An u n der lyin g th em e in th e UN ITE C
a ppr oa ch is th e em ph a sis on developin g
n or m s of or ga n iza tion a l lea r n in g wh ich
cou ld lea d to er r or detection a n d cor r ection
th r ou gh cr itica l a n d colla bor a tive r eflection .
Th e diplom a cu r r icu lu m offer s oppor tu n ity
to lea r n a pr oblem -solvin g a ppr oa ch wh ich
dea ls w ith difficu lt issu es fr om a th eor y of
a ction per spective[23]. Su ch lea r n in g en a bles
pa r ticipa n ts to discover h ow th ey a n d oth er s
m igh t in a dver ten tly be im plica ted in pr oblem
m a in ten a n ce wh ile avow in g th eir gen u in e
com m itm en t to pr oblem r esolu tion .
Th e a ction r esea r ch pr oject pr ovides a
m ea n s for con du ctin g a n in -depth exa m in a tion of m a n a gem en t pr a ctice in th e sch ool;
pr efer a bly a pr a ctice in wh ich th e pa r ticipa n t
is closely in volved, a n d a pr a ctice th a t is pr oblem a tic in eith er a n eu tr a l or a n e ga tive
sen se[8]. Th er efor e, pa r ticipa n ts m u st ch oose
topics th a t a llow th em to exa m in e th eir ow n
m a n a gem en t pr a ctice a s well a s th e pr a ctice
of oth er s wh er e a ga p is per ceived between
cu r r en t a n d desir a ble pr a ctice. Th e specific
focu s th a t th e pr ogr a m m e dem a n ds on a m a n a gem en t issu e ca n cr ea te ch a llen ges for pa r ticipa n ts beca u se a close in vestiga tion of a
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
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pr oblem a tic m a n a gem en t pr a ctice in th e
sch ool ca n be a ver y th r ea ten in g n otion for a ll
con cer n ed.
Organizing action research
In tea ch in g a ction r esea r ch ou r a im is to
dem ystify th e m eth ods a n d pr ocesses, a n d
pr om ote th e va lu es a n d th e a spir a tion s of
a ction r esea r ch a s a m ea n s for or ga n iza tion a l
lea r n in g wh ich ca n be m a n a ged in a for m a lized w ay. Action r esea r ch in to m a n a gem en t
pr oblem s sh ou ld be a tool th a t is u n der stood
by a n d is a ccessible to m a n a ger s a t a ll levels
in th e or ga n iza tion .
A formal process
We m a k e n o a pology for th e fa ct th a t th e
pr ocess descr ibed in ou r tea ch in g m odel is
for m a lly or ga n ized a n d n eeds to be ca r efu lly
m a n a ged by th e stu den t. Beca u se th e stu den tr esea r ch er s h old sen ior position s in sch ools,
it is in evita ble th a t im plem en ta tion of th is
m odel (see F igu r e 1) ten ds to be h ier a r ch ica l.
Th e for m a lity a n d or ga n ized a ppr oa ch of th is
fr a m ewor k is ju stifi a ble in ou r opin ion
beca u se it is n ecessa r y to m a k e ou r expecta tion s a n d th e r esea r ch possibilities explicit to
pa r ticipa n ts. With in th is str u ctu r ed fr a m ewor k , stu den ts a r e en cou r a ged to a dopt a n
a ppr opr ia te a n d w ide r a n ge of da ta ga th er in g
a n d r eflective tech n iqu es w ith a colla bor a tive
gr ou p. Th ey a r e a lso en cou r a ged to be flexible
a n d r espon sive to th e u n iqu en ess of ea ch
r esea r ch con text, a n d to r ecogn ize a n d a r ticu la te lim ita tion s of th e pr ocess a n d th eir ow n
pr a ctice a s th ey en cou n ter a n d su r m ou n t
difficu lties.
It is eviden t th a t a n or ga n ized, dir ective
a ppr oa ch is a t odds w ith a section of th e
a ction r esea r ch liter a tu r e th a t su ppor ts a
m or e flu id, or ga n ic view of th e m eth odology:
a view con sisten t w ith n otion s of gr ou ps
pa r ticipa tin g in liber a tin g discou r se to
r esolve m u tu a l pr oblem s a n d to a ch ieve a n
em a n cipa tor y ou tcom e. Th e tr a n sfor m a tive
(th a t is, ch a n ged th in k in g; ch a n ged a ction )
im per a tive th a t u n der pin s ou r r esea r ch
m odel is con cer n ed less w ith a cr itiqu e a n d
a lter a tion of socia l or politica l or der a n d
power r ela tion s a n d m or e w ith a colla bor a tive cr itiqu e of per son a l a n d or ga n iza tion a l
th eor ies of a ction th a t gu ide pr a ctice[24].
Collaborative challenges
Wh eth er th e stu den t is a r esea r ch er -pa r ticipa n t w ith in a n a ction r esea r ch tea m or a cts
to fa cilita te a tea m r esea r ch effor t, ou r exper ien ce sh ow s th a t sever a l difficu lties h ave to
be over com e in r ela tion to th e dem a n din g
tea m a ppr oa ch r equ ir em en t. In spite of
espou sa ls of colle gia lity a n d colla bor a tion on
pr ojects, ou r stu den t r esea r ch er s fin d th a t in
pr a ctice th eir collea gu es a r e extr em ely bu sy
wh en it com es to fin din g tim e to pa r ticipa te
in a n a ction r esea r ch gr ou p. E ven wh en existin g colla bor a tive ch a n n els – su ch a s m eetin gs
sch edu les a n d esta blish ed ta sk tea m s – a r e
u sed, th ey u su a lly fin d th em selves h avin g to
play a con sider a ble m otiva tin g r ole. Th ey fin d
th a t th ey h ave to m ove th e iter a tive pr ocess
for w a r d vigor ou sly if th ey w ish to sh ow eviden ce of a ction a n d ch a n ge beca u se
collea gu es n eed a de gr ee of pr essu r e to be
exer ted to en su r e th a t th in gs h a ppen wh en
th er e is a pr oblem to be solved.
The action research project requirements
To qu a lify a s a ction r esea r ch , ou r stu den ts’
pr ojects m u st m eet th e cr iter ia for a ction
r esea r ch im plicit in th e m odel th a t fr a m es th e
a ppr oa ch u sed a t UN ITE C. An effective a ction
r esea r ch pr oject is con du cted a ccor din g to a n
a gr eed pr oposa l. It is su per vised a n d r epor ted
on in a m a n n er wh ich dem on str a tes th a t:
• th e pr oblem situ a tion in volves a m a n a gem en t issu e;
• th e pr oject h a s clea r a im s a n d well-for m u la ted r esea r ch qu estion s;
• a colla bor a tive a ppr oa ch is u sed, a n d issu es
of eth ics a n d va lida tion h ave been a tten ded
to;
• th e pr oblem situ a tion h a s been exa m in ed
a n d a n a lysed, en com pa ssin g a r eview of th e
r eleva n t liter a tu r e;
• a n in ter ven tion str a te gy h a s been im plem en ted;
• th e effectiven ess of th e in ter ven tion is eva lu a ted;
• discu ssion of im plica tion s of th e fin din gs
h a s led to th e dr aw in g of con clu sion s a n d
th e for m u la tion of r ecom m en da tion s;
• th e m eth odology is u n der stood a n d a pplied
a ppr opr ia tely.
Participant outcomes
Th e UN ITE C Diplom a in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t
h a s been offer ed sin ce 1990. In th is tim e well
over 100 stu den ts of edu ca tion a l m a n a gem en t
h ave con du cted a for m of r esea r ch wh ich is
in ten ded to h ave a n im m edia te im pa ct on th e
effectiven ess of th eir or ga n iza tion s. We
believe th a t m ost pa r ticipa n ts in ou r pr ogr a m m e h ave m et th e lea r n in g ch a llen ges we
set ou t to cr ea te for th em to a ver y h igh sta n da r d. In th eir tu r n , th ey h ave cr ea ted ch a llen ges for ch a n ge in th eir sch ools. Th ey h ave
a ddr essed a sign ifica n t m a n a gem en t pr oblem
a n d th ey h ave a cqu ir ed sk ills; a n d even m or e
im por ta n tly, th ey h ave, in a n u m ber of ca ses,
a dopted m en ta l m odes[25,26] wh ich a llow a n d
[ 23 ]
Caro l Cardno
and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine
Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h
in sc ho o l se nio r manage me nt
training
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 9 –2 4
en cou r a ge colla bor a tive, da ta -ba sed in qu ir y
to becom e a cu ltu r a l n or m in th eir sch ools.
Conclusion
E ffective edu ca tion a l lea der s sh ou ld be
equ ipped w ith m a n a gem en t com peten ces
wh ich w ill en a ble th em to solve n ew a n d
ch a llen gin g pr oblem s a n d pr ovide lea der sh ip
in a fr a m ewor k of or ga n iza tion a l lea r n in g.
By a ssistin g m a n a ger s to r efl ect on cu r r en t
issu es a n d pr a ctice, a n d to a lter th ese on th e
ba sis of th eor y th a t gu ides “best pr a ctice”,
a ction r esea r ch pr ocesses en cou r a ge th em to
develop a s m a n a ger s a n d to m a k e u se of a
system a tic, pr oblem -ba sed a ppr oa ch for
im pr ovem en t.
Th is pa per h a s discu ssed h ow on e h igh er
edu ca tion in stitu tion in cor por a tes a ction
r esea r ch to foster m a n a gem en t developm en t
in a n aw a r d-bea r in g pr ogr a m m e. Th e w r iter s
a r e in ter ested in th e com m en ts a n d con jectu r e of oth er s in volved in tr a in in g m a n a ger s,
a n d h ope th a t discu ssion a n d deba te on th e
ch a llen ges a n d su ccesses of u sin g a ction
r esea r ch a s a tool for m a n a gem en t developm en t w ill pr ovide gr ist for th e m ill of lea r n in g in th e a ction r esea r ch com m u n ity.
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