Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue4.1997:
Managerial imperatives for the improvement of
school reporting to parents
Clive A.J. Dimmock
The Chine se Unive rsity o f Ho ng Ko ng, Shatin, Ho ng Ko ng
Thomas A. O’Donoghue
The Unive rsity o f We ste rn Australia, Australia
Highlights the importance of
school reporting to parents
and the need for its effective
management, as fundamental
practices underpinning the
central purpose of schools.
Argues that, in spite of the
centrality of reporting to the
core activities of teaching
and learning, current efforts
to secure accountability
appear to focus more on
increasing school accountability to central offices and
school councils than on
addressing much needed and
long overdue improvements in
parent reporting. Identifi es,
through a review of literature
on school reporting to parents, aspects of reporting on
individual student achievement and progress which
need to be rethought in order
to align with developments in
education policy and parental
expectations in the latter half
of the 1990s. Uses the
aspects of reporting in need
of improvement, as elicited
from the literature review, to
generate a set of roles and
responsibilities for school
leaders and administrators to
adopt in improving the reporting process, which, it is
argued, needs to be well
managed and organized if it is
to meet the expectations of
all stakeholders.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 ,4 [ 1997] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Sin ce th e m id-1980s, edu ca tion , a s pa r t of th e
pu blic sector, h a s been su bject to pr essu r e for
in cr ea sed a ccou n ta bility for effectiven ess of
per for m a n ce a n d efficien t u se of r esou r ces.
Th e pu sh for gr ea ter a ccou n ta bility h a s been
m a n ifested in th e settin g of sta n da r ds to m ea su r e th e effectiven ess of th e sch ool system
a n d of in dividu a l sch ools in ter m s of th eir
per for m a n ce, a n d in th e m a k in g of ju dgem en ts a bou t th e efficien cy w ith wh ich pu blic
r esou r ces a r e u sed.
In r e ga r d to th a t pa r t of a ccou n ta bility
r ela ted to effectiven ess of per for m a n ce, it h a s
gen er a lly been th e in ten tion of gover n m en ts
to m a k e sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble in two
w ays. Th e fir st h a s been to m a k e in dividu a l
sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble for th eir a ca dem ic
per for m a n ce to system cen tr es th r ou gh su ch
m ea n s a s system -w ide tests, m on itor in g a n d
eva lu a tion pr ocedu r es a n d exter n a l exa m in a tion s. Th e secon d policy in ten tion cen tr es on
m a k in g sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble for th eir
per for m a n ce to pa r en ts a n d sch ool com m u n ities. Accou n ta bility to sch ool com m u n ities
in volves r epor tin g to sch ool cou n cils, bodies
in ten ded to be r epr esen ta tive of pa r en ts a n d
th e wh ole sch ool com m u n ity. A m or e in dividu a lized for m of a ccou n ta bility to pa r en ts is
r epr esen ted by th e sch ool r epor t on th e per for m a n ce of th eir ch ildr en . In th e per va sive
r estr u ctu r in g of pu blic sch ool system s in th e
Wester n wor ld sin ce th e m id-1980s, gover n m en ts h ave gen er a lly focu sed on esta blish in g
m or e r obu st for m s of sch ool a ccou n ta bility to
th eir cen tr a l offices, m in istr ies a n d edu ca tion depa r tm en ts a n d on esta blish in g a n d
im pr ovin g collective for m s of a ccou n ta bility
to sch ool cou n cils. Rela tively little a tten tion ,
h owever, h a s been pa id to w ays in wh ich
sch ool a ccou n ta bility to pa r en ts a t a n in dividu a l r a th er th a n collective level, m igh t be
im pr oved. Th is n e glect of sch ool a ccou n ta bility a t th e in dividu a l level focu ses on r epor tin g to pa r en ts on ch ildr en ’s sch ool a ch ievem en ts a n d pr ogr ess.
Th is pa per h igh ligh ts th e im por ta n ce of
sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts a n d th e n eed for
its effective m a n a gem en t a s fu n da m en ta l
pr a ctices u n der pin n in g th e cen tr a l pu r pose
of sch ools. It a r gu es th a t, in spite of th e cen tr a lity of r epor tin g to th e cor e a ctivities of
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g, cu r r en t effor ts to
secu r e a ccou n ta bility a ppea r to focu s m or e
on in cr ea sin g sch ool a ccou n ta bility to cen tr a l
offices a n d sch ool cou n cils th a n on a ddr essin g m u ch n eeded a n d lon g over du e im pr ovem en ts in pa r en t r epor tin g. It th en goes on to
iden tify, th r ou gh a r eview of liter a tu r e on
sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts, a spects of r epor tin g on in dividu a l stu den t a ch ievem en t a n d
pr ogr ess wh ich n eed to be r eth ou gh t in or der
to a lign w ith developm en ts in edu ca tion policy a n d pa r en ta l expecta tion s in th e la tter
h a lf of th e 1990s. F in a lly, th e a spects of r epor tin g in n eed of im pr ovem en t, a s elicited fr om
th e liter a tu r e r eview, a r e u sed to gen er a te a
set of r oles a n d r espon sibilities for sch ool
lea der s a n d a dm in istr a tor s to a dopt in
im pr ovin g th e r epor tin g pr ocess, wh ich it is
a r gu ed, n eeds to be well m a n a ged a n d or ga n ized if it is to m eet th e expecta tion s of a ll
sta k eh older s.
The accountability context
Th e r estr u ctu r in g of sch ool system s in r ecen t
yea r s pr ovides th e con text for tigh ter
a ccou n ta bility of sch ools to th eir system
cen tr es. E m ph a sis pla ced on decen tr a liza tion , devolu tion a n d sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t h ave n ecessa r ily been cou n ter ba la n ced
by dem a n ds on m or e a u ton om ou s sch ools to
r en der a ccou n ts for th eir per for m a n ce to
th eir cen tr a l a dm in istr a tive offices. In a ddition , pu blic scepticism over edu ca tion a l sta n da r ds h a s for ced policy m a k er s to exa m in e
th e u se of system -level a ssessm en t to r espon d
to ca lls for m or e in for m a tion a bou t levels of
stu den t a ch ievem en t. Th e per ceived declin e
in “sta n da r ds” h a s r esu lted in pr essu r e to
in tr odu ce system -w ide a ssessm en t pr ocedu r es, u su a lly in th e for m of exter n a l exa m in a tion s or tests. Sch ool a ccou n ta bility to
system cen tr es th r ou gh r elia n ce on system w ide m on itor in g a n d testin g is pr oba bly n ow
seen a s su fficien t to sa tisfy th e con cer n s of
m ost in ter ested pa r ties. However, even th is
for m of a ccou n ta bility h a s been ca lled in to
qu estion . For exa m ple, som e[1-3], dispu te th e
pu blic con ception th a t th e r epor tin g of exter n a l exa m in a tion r esu lts by sch ools does a ctu a lly in cr ea se pu blic con fiden ce in th e r esu lts
a n d qu a lifi ca tion s a ch ieved by stu den ts in
[ 149 ]
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
[ 150 ]
sch ool pr ogr a m m es. Th ey cla im th a t it is
difficu lt to esta blish a n y ca u sa l r ela tion sh ip
between edu ca tion a l sta n da r ds a n d th e u se of
exter n a l system -w ide tests. Th ey a lso su ggest
th a t exter n a l exa m in a tion s a lon e do n ot give
a va lid pictu r e of stu den t a ch ievem en t a t
sch ool. Th ey go on to a r gu e th a t exter n a l
exa m in a tion s a lon e a r e n ot su fficien t for
disch a r gin g a ccou n ta bility r espon sibilities.
Th e sa m e a r gu m en t h a s been a dva n ced in
Au str a lia [4], in th e UK[5] a n d in Ca n a da [6].
Ma n y of th e a for em en tion ed cr iticism s a n d
con cer n s w ith r espect to sch ool a ccou n ta bility seem to a r ise beca u se a tten tion h a s been
focu sed on m a k in g sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble
to system cen tr es r a th er th a n on for gin g
closer sch ool-pa r en t a ccou n ta bility r ela tion sh ips a t th e sa m e tim e. Th e fa ct th a t in m ost
societies th er e is a lon g sta n din g tr a dition of
sch ools r epor tin g to pa r en ts on th eir ch ildr en ’s pr ogr ess m ay expla in wh y system
a u th or ities h ave ten ded to focu s on n ewer
for m s of a ccou n ta bility between cen tr e a n d
sch ool, wh er e few existed pr eviou sly. Recen t
developm en ts, h owever, in m a n y system -level
cu r r icu la r policies em ph a size stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es a n d stu den t lea r n in g a ch ievem en ts, m ea su r ed in ter m s of ben ch m a r k s,
levels or sta ges of lea r n in g, a ga in st wh ich
in dividu a l stu den t a tta in m en t ca n be pr ofi led
a n d r ecor ded w ith gr ea ter specificity th a n in
th e pa st. In a ddition , m a n y sch ools a n d cen tr a l offices a r e, in th e la tter h a lf of th e 1990s,
pr om otin g a n ew ser vice-focu sed im a ge, pla cin g th e stu den t a n d pa r en t a t th e cen tr e of
th eir m ission . Th is clien t-[stu den t-] dr iven
a ppr oa ch a ccor ds w ith system policies
em power in g pa r en ts to exer cise th eir pr er oga tive to ch oose m or e ca r efu lly th e sch ool to
wh ich th ey sen d th eir ch ildr en . In th is m a r k et-dr iven , ou tcom es-or ien ted en vir on m en t,
pa r en ts, stu den ts, tea ch er s a n d a dm in istr a tor s a ll h ave a pr essin g n eed for va lid a n d
r elia ble in for m a tion on wh ich to m a k e decision s a n d ch oices. Sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts is a k ey sou r ce of in for m a tion of th is
k in d.
Wh ile th e ca se for im pr ovin g sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts a ppea r s r obu st, we m u st n ot
lose sigh t of th e fa ct th a t th is for m of a ccou n ta bility is n ot w ith ou t its pr oblem s. On th is
m a tter, cogn isa n ce n eeds to be ta k en of th e
a r gu m en ts a dva n ced[2, 7, 8], th a t despite
th er e bein g a lon g tr a dition of sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts, th e m ode of r epor tin g h a s
been , a n d often is, pr oblem a tic. P a r t of th e
pr oblem cen tr es on th e a m biva len ce r e ga r din g th e pu r pose a n d defin ition of sch ool-pa r en t r epor tin g. Th e wor k of Gr iffin a n d N ix[8,
p. 5] is h elpfu l in th is r e ga r d. Th ey sta te th a t
th e ter m “r epor tin g” u su a lly descr ibes th e
for m a l pr ocedu r es w ith in sch ools wh er eby
tea ch er s pr epa r e w r itten sta tem en ts for pa r en ts a bou t stu den t a ch ievem en ts. Th ey a sser t
th a t th is con cept sh ou ld be br oa den ed, a r gu in g th a t r epor tin g is th e pr ocess of tr a n sm ittin g in for m a tion to sta k eh older s to cr ea te a n
aw a r en ess of, a n d in ter est in , th e policies,
goa ls, oper a tion a n d a ch ievem en ts of th e
sch ool, th e stu den ts, th e tea ch er s a n d th e
sch ool com m u n ity in gen er a l. Th ey go on to
pr ovide th e follow in g defin ition : “Repor tin g
is th e pu r posefu l pr ocess of ga th er in g, in ter pr etin g, r ecor din g a n d com m u n ica tin g to
sta k eh older s, in for m a tion on stu den t
pr ogr ess th a t is r ela ted to th e ou tcom es of
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g”.
Managerial imperatives in
reporting to parents
Th e a bove defin ition h igh ligh ts th e fa ct th a t
r epor tin g is essen tia lly bou n ded by m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l con sider a tion s. It is a
cen tr a l a r gu m en t of th is pa per th a t sch ool
a dm in istr a tor s h ave a key r espon sibility in
im plem en tin g a n d m a in ta in in g im pr oved
sch ool r epor tin g pr ocedu r es for a t lea st two
r ea son s, both of wh ich a r e sign a lled in th e
defin ition . F ir st, th e defin ition r ecogn izes th e
pr im e focu s of r epor tin g a s stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es em a n a tin g fr om th e sch ool’s tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g pr ogr a m m e. In th e sa m e
vein , it is th e r epon sibility of sch ool m a n a ger s
a n d a dm in istr ator s, wor k in g w ith th eir tea ch in g sta ff, to secu r e th e best lea r n in g ou tcom es
for th eir stu den ts. Sch ool a dm in istr a tor s a r e
ch a r ged w ith th e r espon sibility for pr ovidin g
th e best qu a lity tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g envir on m en ts for a ll stu den ts, th er eby m a xim izin g
lea r n in g ou tcom es. Repor tin g to pa r en ts on
th e pr ocesses a n d ou tcom es of th eir ch ildr en ’s
lea r n in g a ch ievem en ts is th u s to be seen a s a n
im por ta n t veh icle by wh ich a dm in istr a tor s
ca n fu lfil th eir pr im e fu n ction . Secon d, th e
defin ition r ecogn izes th a t th e sta keh older s in
th e r epor tin g pr ocess in clu de stu den ts, tea ch er s a n d sch ool a dm in istr a tor s, a s well a s pa r en ts. A m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l per spective on r epor tin g is th u s on e wh ich ta kes
cogn isa n ce of th e n eeds of a ll sta k eh older s in
th e pr ocess. In so doin g, it r ecogn izes th a t a
system of r epor tin g h a s to be m a n a ged a n d
or ch estr a ted to sa tisfy a n u m ber of a u dien ces.
In m eetin g sta k eh older s’ expecta tion s, a sou n d
r epor tin g system w ill h ave clea r pu r poses a n d
a im s, be va lid, r elia ble, con sisten t, flexible,
com pr eh en sive, a ccu r ate, com m u n ica ted,
u n der stood, va lu ed, tr u sted, or ga n ized,
r esou r ced, a n d su per vised. In oth er wor ds,
beca u se r epor tin g is bou n ded by th ese m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l con sider a tion s, it
ca n n ot be left to th e discr etion of tea ch er s.
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
In a ddr essin g som e of th ese issu es, th is
pa per is or ga n ized in to th e follow in g section s: pa r en ta l expecta tion s; th e r epor t in th e
con text of oth er sch ool r ecor ds; con ten t; for m a t; tim in g a n d or ga n izin g of r epor tin g pr ocedu r es; in -ser vice tr a in in g of tea ch er s w ith
r espect to r epor tin g; th e r espon ses to r epor tin g fr om pa r en ts, stu den ts a n d tea ch er s; a n d
th e k ey m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l
r espon sibilities of sch ool lea der s to en su r e a n
im pr oved system of r epor tin g is im plem en ted
a n d m a in ta in ed. Th e str u ctu r e of ea ch section is ba sed on r eleva n t liter a tu r e, fr om
wh ich im plica tion s for a dm in istr a tor s a r e
dr aw n in th e fi n a l section of th e pa per, wh er e
it is a r gu ed th a t m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l con sider a tion s a r e im per a tive for
im pr oved r epor tin g pr ocesses gea r ed to m eetin g cu r r en t developm en ts, n eeds a n d expecta tion s of m u ltiple sta k eh older s.
What parents expect from school
reporting
Ta k in g cogn isa n ce of pa r en ta l expecta tion s is
clea r ly im por ta n t in r eth in k in g th e sch ool
r epor tin g pr ocess. Br iggs[9], Br oa dfoot[2] a n d
Weir [10] h ave in vestiga ted wh a t pa r en ts w a n t
fr om sch ool r epor ts. Accor din g to th ese
r esea r ch er s, pa r en ts wou ld lik e:
• m or e in for m a tion th a n pr esen t, pr ovided in
a w r itten r epor t for m a t;
• dia gn ostic a ssessm en t w ith pr oblem s iden tified ea r ly a n d con str u ctive su ggestion s for
fu tu r e a ction ;
• in for m a tion a bou t a wh ole r a n ge of differ en t a spects of a ch ievem en t;
• som e gr a sp of h ow th e in for m a tion is
a r r ived a t a n d wh a t cr iter ia a r e u sed in
or der to k n ow wh eth er th eir ch ildr en a r e
m a k in g sa tisfa ctor y pr ogr ess for th eir a ge;
• to k n ow wh eth er th eir ch ildr en a r e r ea ch in g th eir poten tia l; a n d
• in for m a tion a bou t a ttitu des, va lu es a n d
socia l a dju stm en t.
Ha ll’s[11] stu dy of th e pa r en ts of pr im a r y
sch ool ch ildr en in dica ted th a t pa r en ts a n d
tea ch er s pr efer r ed n a r r a tive r epor ts to
gr a des beca u se th ey wer e seen a s m or e per son a l, less com petitive a n d con veyed m or e
in for m a tion a bou t th eir ch ild’s pr ogr ess.
Lik ew ise, Kin g[12] in a stu dy in th e USA
fou n d th a t pa r en ts of ch ildr en a t th e ea r ly
sta ges of pr im a r y sch ool welcom ed a por tfolio
a ppr oa ch . Th is in clu ded sa m ples of stu den ts’
wor k , tea ch er s’ obser va tion s, a u dio ta pes a n d
ph otos wh ich gave pa r en ts a ta n gible a n d
visu a l pr oof of th eir ch ildr en ’s a ch ievem en ts;
a n exper ien ce th a t fa r su r pa ssed th a t of seein g a letter gr a de on th e r epor t ca r d.
The report in the context of other
school records
Reid [13] h a s r a ised t h e q u est ion of t h e ext en t
t o w h ich t h e p a r en t a l r e p or t a n d in t er n a l
r ecor d s com p lem en t ea ch ot h er, t h e ext en t t o
w h ich on e d u p lica t es t h e ot h er a n d , m os t
im p or t a n t , w h a t in for m a t ion is con t a in ed on
sch ool r ecor d s w h ich is n ot m a d e ava ila ble
t o p a r en t s a n d w h y. Dock in g[14] a r gu ed t h a t
w e sh ou ld n ot for get t h e “secon d a u d ien ce”
of a r e p or t , n a m ely, ot h er t ea ch er s. Re p or t s
a r e u sed t o com m u n ica t e u sefu l in for m a t ion
t o t ea ch er s for w h om t h e in for m a t ion is
h elp fu l in m a k in g p r esen t a n d fu t u r e d ecision s. T h is a ssu m es gr ea t er im p or t a n ce t h e
less fa m ilia r a t ea ch er is w it h a st u d en t . A
fu r t h er issu e con cer n s in for m a t ion on in d iv id u a l st u d en t s wh ich is k e p t in sch ool files
bu t w h ich is n ot m a d e ava ila ble t o p a r en t s in
t h e r e p or t . T h e r ea son s for su ch m ay b e
m a n ifold . On e p ossib ilit y is t h a t in for m a t ion
m ay b e w it h h eld fr om p a r en t s b eca u s e t h e
sch ool con sid er s t h a t t h e ch ild ’s in t er es t s
a r e b est ser ved by so d oin g. T h er e m ay w ell
b e ext en t u a t in g cir cu m st a n ces t o ju st ify
su ch p olicies. H ow ever, w it h fr eed om of
in for m a t ion le gisla t ion , p a r en t s in m a n y
societ ies n ow h ave t h e r igh t t o see sch ool
r ecor d s.
The content of the report
Ma n y a r gu m en t s con cer n in g t h e con t en t of
sch ool r e p or t s d eser ve a lot m or e d eb a t e
t h a n t h ey oft en a t t r a ct . Sh ed lin [15], for
exa m p le, h a s st r essed t h e n eed t o cou n t er b a la n ce t h e q u a n t it a t ive t r en d in r e p or t in g
w it h m or e q u a lit a t ive a p p r oa ch es. Ach ievem en t t est scor es, it is cla im ed , t en d n ot t o
r eflect cr ea t iv it y, cu r iosit y, p er sever a n ce,
flexib ilit y or t r u e t h in k in g a b ilit y. T h er e is a
st r on g ca se for m or e r esea r ch on w h a t t h e
con t en t of r e p or t s sh ou ld b e. Am on g t h e
va r iet y of m a t t er s wor t h in vest iga t in g fu r t h er a r e t h e follow in g:
• Tr a dition a lly, it h a s been com m on pla ce for
sch ool r epor ts to in clu de th e ch ild’s position in ea ch su bject a s well a s a n over a ll
position in th e cla ss; th a t is, a n or m a tive
a ppr oa ch is u sed. However, th e tr en d is for
cr iter ion -r efer en ced r epor tin g to r epla ce
n or m a tive a ppr oa ch es.
• Repor tin g h a s focu sed on for m a tive a n d
su m m a tive a ssessm en t a t th e expen se of
dia gn ostic a ssessm en t. In pa r ticu la r, th er e
h a s been little a tten tion given to pr ovidin g
pa r en ts a n d stu den ts w ith a ppr opr ia te
a dvice ba sed on dia gn ostic m eth ods a n d
su bsequ en t cou n sellin g. F u r th er m or e, we
k n ow ver y little a s to th e m ost a ppr opr ia te
[ 151 ]
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
for m in wh ich su ch a dvice sh ou ld be given ,
pa r ticu la r ly a s to th e a ppr opr ia te for m of
la n gu a ge.
• Th er e is th e qu estion of h ow sch ool r epor tin g ca n be u sed in h elpin g pa r en ts a n d
stu den ts m a k e voca tion a l decision s.
• Li t t le a t t en t i on h a s b een given t o t h e r ole
of s ch ool r e p or t i n g i n p r ed i ct i n g fu t u r e
p er for m a n ce. In p a r t i cu la r, s h ou ld r e p or t i n g b e con cer n ed w i t h giv i n g i n for m a t i on
r e ga r d i n g a p u p i l’s fu t u r e p ot en t i a l p er for m a n ce? T h e ca s e for u s i n g r e p or t i n g m or e
p r oa ct ively i n s et t i n g fu t u r e lea r n i n g
goa ls r a t h er t h a n u s i n g i t s olely r et r os p ect ively t o r ecor d p a s t p er for m a n ce, i s
r obu s t .
In th e r epor tin g pr ocedu r es u sed in th e
Cer tifica te of E du ca tion in Victor ia , Au str a lia , Cook [16, p. 4] iden tified qu estion s
focu sed on th e con ten t of r epor tin g r ela ted to
stu den t a ch ievem en t. He a sk ed:
• Is it possible to descr ibe stu den ts’ a ch ievem en t a dequ a tely a n d a t th e sa m e tim e to
pr ovide u sefu l in for m a tion to m a k e selection , pla cem en t or r ea din ess decision s
a bou t th em ?
• Is it possible for th e r epor tin g of stu den ts’
a ch ievem en ts to be both com pr eh en sive
a n d com pr eh en sible?
• Is th e con su m er dem a n d for sim plicity in
r epor tin g stu den ts’ a ch ievem en t possible if
a ccu r a cy of in for m a tion is r equ ir ed?
• Is it possible to h ave fu ll a n d a ccu r a te in for m a tion a bou t a ll stu den ts wh ile still h avin g
r e ga r d for th e self-esteem of th e low ly
r a n k ed stu den t?
Choice of format
On e a spect of r epor tin g wh ich h a s a ttr a cted a
con sider a ble a m ou n t of a tten tion is th e for m a t of sch ool r epor ts. Th e m a in for m a ts com m on ly u sed a r e:
• sin gle sh eet;
• r epor t book ;
• slip r epor t;
• letter r epor t;
• gr a de ca r d.
A br ief su m m a r y of th e ch a r a cter istics of
ea ch follow s.
S in gle sh eet – su bject t ea ch er s a r e r equ ir ed
t o a ssign a gr a de or m a r k a n d t o w r it e t h eir
com m en t s in t h e boxes pr ovided. To cope
w it h t h e va r iet y of su bject s du e t o opt ion
ch oices, t h e r e por t s for som e yea r s oft en
leave t h e su bject spa ces u n la belled. A sect ion
a t t h e bot t om of t h e sh eet is com plet ed by t h e
for m t u t or a n d fr equ en t ly in clu des t ot a ls of
a bsen ces a n d la t en ess. A sm a ll spa ce is
u su a lly a llowed for a br ief com m en t a n d
[ 152 ]
sign a t u r e by t h e h ea d t ea ch er a n d h ea d of a
la r ger pa st or a l u n it su ch a s a h ou se or yea r.
On m a n y of t h e r e por t s a sm a ll k ey t o t h e
gr a din g is a lso pr ovided.
R epor t b ook – a t its sim plest th e r epor t book
con sists of a ser ies of sin gle sh eet r epor ts
bou n d u n der a cover.
S lip repor t – th is sh ow s a m a r k ed depa r tu r e
fr om th e pr eviou s two. It con sists of a ser ies
of pa ges, on e or m or e of wh ich m igh t be com pleted by ea ch tea ch er, th e wh ole ser ies th en
bein g sta pled togeth er w ith in a th in ca r d
cover.
L etter repor t – th is r esem bles th e sin gle
sh eet r epor t bu t gen er a lly con ta in s n o su bdivision s, con sistin g of a h ea ded pa ge on wh ich
tea ch er s ca n w r ite a t len gth .
Gra d e ca rd – th is con sists of a sin gle piece
of pa per or ligh t ca r d pr ovidin g a list of su bjects togeth er w ith boxes in wh ich to en ter
a ssessm en ts. Th ey con ta in n o spa ce for
tea ch er com m en t. Hen ce, th ey a r e ca lled
“gr a de ca r ds” a n d a r e often u sed to pr ovide
in ter im r epor ts to pa r en ts.
Br iggs[9, p. 47] sta tes th a t th e tr a dition a l
r epor t often la ck s r eleva n t in for m a tion . He
sta tes th a t “in for m a tion a lly poor r epor ts a r e
da m a gin g wh en th e edu ca tion of ch ildr en is
th e issu e, a n d den yin g pa r en ts th e m ea n s of
h elpin g in th is essen tia lly cooper a tive en ter pr ise is self-defea tin g”.
Br oa dfoot[2, p. 101] su m s u p th e situ a tion a s
follow s: “Tr a dition a l r epor ts a r e typica lly too
br ief, too in fr equ en t, too gen er a l, too in a ccu r a te, a n d m a k e in su fficien t r efer en ce to a
sta n da r d. In pa r ticu la r, it is th e ca se th a t ver y
m a n y of th em a r e cou ch ed in la n gu a ge wh ich
h a s a h igh ‘fog r a tin g’”.
Th er e is a lso th e issu e of th e r ela tive m er its
a n d dem er its of or a l r epor tin g a s opposed to
w r itten r epor tin g, a n d th e exten t to wh ich
or a l r epor tin g m igh t su pplem en t or su ppla n t
th e w r itten r epor t. Br iggs[9] a n d Weir [10] in
sepa r a te stu dies r epor ted th a t 85 per cen t of
pa r en ts sh owed a pr efer en ce for w r itten for m a ts. In Weir ’s stu dy, pa r en ts pr efer r ed a
com bin ed w r itten a n d ver ba l for m a t. Weir
goes on to sta te th a t tr a dition a l r epor t ca r ds
a r e m a de u p of a ll too fa m ilia r on e-lin e com m en ts wh ich say n oth in g a n d often cr ea te
n eedless a n xiety a n d disa ppoin tm en t for
m a n y ch ildr en a n d pa r en ts. F a ir ch ild[17]
fou n d th a t for stu den ts w ith a ca dem ic or
beh aviou r pr oblem s tea ch er s ca n su ccessfu lly foster open com m u n ica tion a n d
pa r en ta l in volvem en t th r ou gh th e u se of a
da ily r epor t ca r d system in a ssocia tion w ith
stu den t con fer en ces.
Th er e a ppea r to be a n u m ber of con sider a tion s w ith r espect to ch oice of for m a t. Som e
a dvoca te a r a n ge of differ en t for m a ts to m eet
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specific pu r poses. Am on g th e va r iety of specific pu r poses a r e th e follow in g:
• “settlin g-in r epor ts” for n ew ly en r olled
stu den ts a t a n y level;
• “spon ta n eou s” r epor ts for th ose wh ose
per for m a n ces sh ow dr a m a tic im pr ovem en t
or deter ior a tion ;
• sch ool leaver r epor ts, gea r ed m or e to th e
n eeds of pr ospective em ployer s or colle ge
en tr a n ce r equ ir em en ts.
Given th e r a n ge of pu r poses of sch ool r epor tin g, Affler ba ch a n d Sa m m on s[18] in a stu dy
in th e USA, con clu de som ewh a t pessim istica lly th a t it m ay be difficu lt or im possible to
cr ea te th e idea l r epor t ca r d w ith in or a cr oss
sch ools or distr icts.
Mor e op t im ist ica lly, Br oa d foot [2] st a t es
t h a t p a r en t a l in volvem en t m ay w ell im p r ove
con fid en ce in sch ool a ch ievem en t . H ow ever,
su ch in volvem en t sh ou ld b e b a sed on
in for m ed d ia logu e. Su ch d ia logu e ca n on ly
t a k e p la ce if p a r en t s a r e given t h e n ecessa r y
in for m a t ion t h r ou gh r e p or t s. Cou p led w it h
t h is is Weir ’s[10] a r gu m en t t h a t t h e b est
sy s t em of r e p or t in g is on e w h ich is d evelop ed w it h t h e p u r p ose of com m u n ica t ion in
m in d , t a k in g in t o a ccou n t t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics of t h e loca l com m u n it y. Gr iffin a n d
N ix[8] a dvoca t e t h a t sch ools a n d p a r en t s
n eed t o exa m in e w r it t en r e p or t for m a t s
closely t o en su r e t h a t t h e st y le of r e p or t in
op er a t ion is r eleva n t t o t h em b ot h . As Br oa d foot [2, p. 103] st a t es: “We w a n t t o est a blish
a n d com m u n ica t e t o p a r en t s t h e n ot ion t h a t
w e a r e look in g for a p a r t n er sh ip b et w een u s
a n d t h em in t h e cu r r icu lu m a n d m or e a n d
m or e fr eq u en t ly in r e p or t in g”.
On e w ay for w a r d is su ggested by Miles[19],
wh o docu m en ted th e pr ocess a sch ool com m u n ity took wh en it beca m e obviou s th a t th e
sch ool r epor tin g system w a s n ot va lu ed by
pa r en ts. Th ey h eld m eetin gs a t wh ich th ey
pr esen ted pa r en ts w ith a va r iety of r epor tin g
system s. P a r en ts a n d tea ch er s th en developed
th e r epor tin g for m a t th a t best su ited th eir
n eeds.
M or e r ecen t ly, Dav i es a n d Sk i n n er [20, p.
123] h ave a r gu ed t h a t “t h e w ay for w a r d li es
i n s ch ools d ev i s i n g t h ei r ow n for m s of w r i t t en r e p or t s t o p a r en t s w h i ch s t eer a m i d d le
li n e b et w een p r es en t i n g s o m u ch i n for m a t i on t h a t p a r en t s a r e over w h elm ed , m i s i n t er p r et i t or d o n ot gr a s p i t s s i gn i fi ca n ce,
a n d giv i n g s o li t t le i n for m a t i on t h a t t h e
r e p or t d oes n ot a d d t o w h a t t h ey k n ow
a lr ea dy. If t h i s for m a t ive r e p or t i n g ca n op en
t h e w ay t o p a r en t s b ei n g a ble t o p lay a m or e
m ea n i n gfu l r ole i n t h ei r ch i ld r en ’s s ch oolb a s ed ed u ca t i on , t h en p r ogr es s w i ll h ave
b een m a d e”.
The timing and organization of the
reporting procedure
Issu es r ela ted to tim in g a n d or ga n iza tion of
r epor tin g closely over la p w ith m a tter s con cer n in g con ten t a n d pu r pose discu ssed in th e
pr eviou s section . Som e of th e m or e im por ta n t
issu es a r e ca ptu r ed by th e follow in g qu estion s.
Im por ta n t decision poin ts: in wh a t w ays
ca n r epor tin g su ppor t im pr oved decision
m a k in g a ffectin g cr u cia l sta ges in a ch ild’s
sch oolin g? Th e Wich ita Un ified Sch ool Distr ict Stu dy[21] str essed th e im por ta n ce of
pa r en ts bein g in for m ed by th e fifth week of
th e fir st qu a r ter if th eir ch ildr en a r e clea r ly
fa ilin g in cla ss.
Th e tim in g of r epor ts:to wh a t exten t does
th e en d-of-yea r r epor t sta n d on its ow n ?
Sh ou ld it be su pplem en ted by r epor ts a t oth er
tim es of th e yea r ? Wh en a r e th e m ost a ppr opr ia te “oth er tim es” for va r iou s a ge gr ou ps
a n d pu r poses? Wh y sh ou ld r epor ts often be
lim ited to th e en d of ter m a n d sen t h om e on
th e la st day? Wh a t a r e th e pr os a n d con s of
th is conven tion a l pr a ctice? Tea ch er s in Ta iw a n sen d da ily r epor ts h om e to pa r en ts ( is
th is im possible for Wester n sch ools?) Is th er e
a ca se for sta gger in g r epor ts th r ou gh ou t th e
yea r, so th a t differ en t stu den ts r eceive r epor ts
a t differ en t tim es of th e yea r, per h a ps a ccor din g to th eir lea r n in g a ch ievem en ts, or la ck
th er eof ?
How tim e-con su m in g is r epor t w r itin g for
tea ch er s? Reid[13, p. 8] h igh ligh ts th e fa ct th a t
th e tr a dition a l for m of r epor tin g gives r ise to
con sider a ble pr essu r e on tea ch er s a t pa r ticu la r tim es in th e a ca dem ic yea r. Sh e con clu ded
th a t th e m or e r epor ts tea ch er s h a d to com plete, th e less tim e th ey spen t on ea ch .
Teacher in-service needs related to
reporting
Wh olesa le r eth in k in g of r epor tin g pr ocedu r es wou ld r equ ir e th e sk illin g of tea ch er s.
In deed, som e eviden ce su ggests th a t m ost
tea ch er s h ave r eceived little or n o tr a in in g in
deliver in g pr esen t m odes of r epor tin g. A
stu dy by Affler ba ch a n d Sa m m on s[18] in th e
USA, for exa m ple, in dica ted th a t:
• few tea ch er s r epor ted r eceivin g a n y tr a in in g to h elp th em w r ite r epor t ca r ds;
• few tea ch er s wer e in volved in th e developm en t of th e r epor t ca r ds wh ich th ey wer e
r equ ir ed to u se;
• tea ch er s r epor ted w r itin g r epor t ca r ds for a
w ide va r iety of pu r poses a n d a u dien ces;
• th e m or e th e r epor t ca r d a ccom m oda ted
tea ch er s’ k n ow ledge, th e m or e it w a s
va lu ed.
[ 153 ]
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Am on g th e n ew developm en ts in r epor tin g
for wh ich tea ch er s a ppea r to r equ ir e gr ea ter
sk illin g th r ou gh th e pr ovision of in -ser vice
tr a in in g, a r e th e follow in g:
• in cor por a tion of ou tcom e sta tem en ts a n d
a ssessm en t pr ofi les in r epor tin g;
• a ssessm en t tech n iqu es a n d str a te gies –
for m a tive, su m m a tive a n d dia gn ostic;
• settin g of lea r n in g goa ls a s a m ea n s of
im pr ovin g fu tu r e per for m a n ce ba sed on
pa st a n d pr esen t per for m a n ce;
• tea ch er -pa r en t in ter view in g sk ills;
• tea ch er s’ discu ssion of r epor ts w ith pa r en ts;
• tea ch er s’ discu ssion of r epor ts w ith pu pils.
Th er e a lso seem s to be a ca se for a dvoca tin g
m or e pa r en t edu ca tion w ith r espect to r epor tin g. Dock in g[14, p. 336], for exa m ple, h a s
a r gu ed th a t wh ile th er e is gen er a l a ccepta n ce
by pa r en ts of th e u se of th e “aver a ge” a s a
sta n da r d, su ch a ccepta n ce is too often u n in for m ed a n d r efl ects pr efer en ce for th e k n ow n
a n d fa m ilia r tr a dition a l r epor tin g pr a ctices.
An y ch a n ge fr om th is tr a dition w ill r equ ir e
pa r en t edu ca tion a n d a gen er a l pu blic r ela tion s exer cise to in for m oth er in ter ested
pa r ties, su ch a s em ployer s.
Responses and reactions to the
school report
After th e com pletion of th e r epor t a n d its
deliver y h om e to th e pa r en t, th er e is th e m a tter of su bsequ en t r ea ction to it on th e pa r t
of th e pa r en t, stu den t a n d tea ch er. Som e
r espon ses a r e ca ptu r ed in th e follow in g
stu dies.
Parent reaction
Davies a n d Sk in n er [20] fou n d th a t pa r en ts
a tta ch gr ea t im por ta n ce to h avin g good r ela tion sh ips w ith sch ools a n d th a t w r itten for m s
of r epor tin g a r e seen a s on ly pa r t of th e r ela tion sh ip. Con sequ en tly, if r epor tin g is to
con tr ibu te to th e r ela tion sh ip m or e gen er a lly,
it m u st pr ovide a ddition a l a n d distin ctive
in for m a tion . Seein g r epor tin g a s a th r ee-w ay
r ela tion sh ip between pa r en t, pu pil a n d
tea ch er, a ll of wh om sh ou ld togeth er discu ss
th e sch ool r epor t a n d pla n fu tu r e objectives,
is con sider ed cr u cia l. Th e pr ocess sh ou ld
in clu de pr oblem -solvin g sk ills, cr ea tive
th in k in g, cr itica l th in k in g, a n d th e a bility to
get a lon g well w ith oth er s a s well a s u n der sta n din g of su bject m a tter.
Ku er sten [22] fou n d th a t pa r en ts’ r ea ction s
to r epor t ca r ds ca n be sever e, em otion a l a n d
occa sion a lly, even a bu sive. He a r gu es for
ca m pa ign s to give pa r en ts a dvice a s to h ow to
r espon d positively to poor r epor ts. N e ga tive
r espon ses fr om pa r en ts to ba d r epor ts ca n do
[ 154 ]
con sider a ble da m a ge to a ch ild’s self-esteem .
Th ey ca n a lso ca u se con sider a ble str ess to
ch ildr en a n d lea d to th eir a ssocia tin g sch oolin g w ith feelin gs of fa ilu r e.
Reid[13] h a s dem on str a ted th a t in elicitin g
r espon ses fr om pa r en ts, th e w r itten slip h a s a
disa ppoin tin gly low ta k e-u p by pa r en ts
a lth ou gh it w a s fou n d th a t th is m eth od h a d
con sider a ble poten tia l a s a m ea n s of h om esch ool dia logu e wh er e steps wer e ta k en to
en cou r a ge pa r en ts to u se it. Sh e con clu ded
th a t both th e ph r a sin g u sed in in vitin g pa r en ts to r eply a n d th e a m ou n t of spa ce a lloca ted for th eir com m en ts m igh t in flu en ce
wh eth er pa r en ts decided to r espon d.
Oth er issu es r ela ted to pa r en t r espon ses
a n d wh ich a r e wor th y of n ote a r e r a ised by
th e follow in g qu estion s.
• P a r en ts’ even in gs follow in g r epor ts. Wh a t
a r e th e pu r poses of pa r en t-tea ch er
even in gs? To wh a t exten t sh ou ld th ey be
con cer n ed w ith follow in g-u p th e con ten ts of
th e sch ool r epor t? How soon a fter th e issu in g of th e r epor t sh ou ld th ey ta k e pla ce?
• Or ga n iza tion of pa r en ts’ even in gs. How
sh ou ld th e pa r en t-tea ch er even in gs be or ga n ized? Wh a t is th e im por ta n ce of con sider in g su ch m a tter s a s sea tin g, tim e per fa m ily,
pr iva cy?
• Ca pita lizin g on pa r en ts’ positive r ea ction s.
Ma n y pa r en ts becom e positively disposed
tow a r ds bein g in volved in th eir ch ildr en ’s
edu ca tion a s a r esu lt of r eceivin g th e sch ool
r epor t. However, wh a t gu idelin es ca n be
developed to ca pita lize on th is? Wh a t a dvice
ca n be given to pa r en ts? How ca n tea ch er s
wor k w ith pa r en ts to fu r th er th e in ter ests
of th eir ch ildr en ?
Student reaction
Sin ce th e sch ool r epor t cen tr es on stu den t
per for m a n ce, it is su r pr isin g th a t so little
r esea r ch h a s been con du cted on h ow stu den ts
per ceive th e r epor tin g pr ocess. Im por ta n t
qu estion s a r isin g in th is r espect a r e:
• Do r epor ts m a tter to stu den ts?
• Wh a t is th e effect of good r epor ts?
• Wh a t is th e effect of ba d r epor ts?
• How ca n sch ools ca pita lize on good a n d ba d
r epor ts?
• How im por ta n t is it for stu den ts to discu ss
th e r epor t w ith pa r en ts a n d to discu ss th e
r epor t w ith tea ch er s?
In on e of th e few stu dies con du cted on stu den t r espon ses to r epor tin g, Reid[13, p. 7]
con clu ded: “A fi n din g wh ich em er ges clea r ly
fr om th e eviden ce a n d wh ich deser ves u n der lin in g is th a t th e r epor t m a tter s to stu den ts.
N ea r ly a ll th e stu den ts stu died fou n d som e
u sefu l in for m a tion in th e r epor t a n d it w a s
w idely discu ssed w ith fr ien ds a s well a s
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
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pa r en ts”. In a fu r th er en cou r a gin g con clu sion w ith r e ga r d to stu den t r ea ction , Reid[13
p. 7] sta tes: “in th e sh or t ter m a t lea st, th e
r epor t stim u la ted th e in ten tion to ch a n ge
beh aviou r. Both good a n d ba d r epor ts wer e
effective in pr odu cin g a r esolu tion to wor k
h a r der, w ith ba d r epor ts th e seem in gly
str on ger stim u lu s (bu t w ith th e da n ger a lso of
in du cin g despa ir )”.
In a n in sigh tfu l stu dy, Ah m a n n a n d
Glock [23, p. 418] in dica te th a t th e va lu e of th e
r epor t in cr ea ses a s th e stu den t is h elped to
u n der sta n d wh a t it m ea n s. Th ey sta te th a t
stu den ts a r e n ot u su a lly a ble m ea n in gfu lly
a n d va lidly to a ssess th em selves, bu t th a t th is
n eed n ot be a per m a n en t in a bility. Stu den ts
a r e n ot ta u gh t by tea ch er s to a ssess th em selves, a n d ten d to r ely in stea d on th e ju dgem en ts of oth er s. Ah m a n n a n d Glock convin cin gly a r gu e th a t stu den ts a r e r a r ely in volved
in settin g goa ls, m on itor in g th eir ow n
pr ogr ess, m a k in g decision s, dr aw in g con clu sion s a n d r epor tin g on th eir ow n
per for m a n ce.
Teachers’ reactions
Th e r ole of tea ch er s on ce th e r epor t h a s been
com pleted is often su r pr isin gly lim ited.
Reid[13, p. 87], for exa m ple, h a s con clu ded:
“Th e fin din gs of th is stu dy poin t to th e som ewh a t biza r r e situ a tion wh er e stu den ts discu ss th eir r epor t w idely w ith th eir fr ien ds,
a lm ost u n iver sa lly w ith pa r en ts or
gu a r dia n s, bu t in m a n y ca ses n ot a t a ll w ith
th eir tea ch er s”. Ra r ely do tea ch er s a ppea r to
u se stu den t r epor ts to set fu tu r e lea r n in g
goa ls, a poin t a lr ea dy m a de.Tea ch er s a r e
m or e lik ely to discu ss th e r epor t w ith pa r en ts
on a su bsequ en t occa sion , a lth ou gh th e a tten da n ce of pa r en ts a t su ch m eetin gs ca n be
extr em ely va r ia ble. In th is r espect, Br oa dfoot[2, p. 486] a r gu es for “in ter im su m m a r y
docu m en ts” for pu pils a n d pa r en ts wh ich
m ay be pr ovided a t cer ta in tim es in th e stu den ts’ sch ool ca r eer to h elp to docu m en t both
wh a t th e pu pil h a s a ch ieved in a w ide r a n ge
of a ctivities a n d th e in dividu a l ta r gets wh ich
h ave been a gr eed between pu pil a n d tea ch er
for th e fu tu r e.
Managerial responsibilities in
improving school reporting
E viden ce fr om th e for e goin g liter a tu r e a ttests
to th e n eed to r eth in k sch ool r epor tin g pr ocedu r es to pa r en ts. On e pr oblem is th a t n ot a ll
of th e eviden ce is con sisten t in r evea lin g
clea r dir ection s for im pr ovem en t. Som e pa r en ts, for exa m ple, expr ess a view th a t th ey
wou ld lik e to k n ow th eir ch ild’s position in
cla ss, a fea tu r e of sch ool r epor tin g wh ich h a s
becom e less com m on of la te. Oth er s disa gr ee,
citin g th e n e ga tive effects of su ch a pr a ctice
in lower in g th e m or a le of stu den ts wh o a r e
low ly pla ced. Differ en ces of view a r e often
u sed a s excu ses for in a ction , wh en a m or e
a ppr opr ia te r espon se to va r yin g pa r en ta l a n d
sta k eh older expecta tion s of th e r epor tin g
pr ocess a n d its ou tcom es wou ld be to a tten d
to th em in m or e flexible a n d r espon sive w ays.
E viden ce fr om th e liter a tu r e r eviewed a lso
lea ds to th e con clu sion th a t im pr ovem en ts in
r epor tin g a r e u n lik ely u n less th ey a r e seen
w ith in a m a n a ger ia l con text. Th er e m ay be a
m iscon ception th a t r epor tin g is essen tia lly a
tea ch er -pa r en t pr oblem wh en , in fa ct, it is a
wh ole-sch ool issu e w ith sign ifi ca n t m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l im plica tion s. Accepta n ce of r espon sibility for m a n a gin g th e
r epor tin g system a n d im pr ovem en ts a n d
ch a n ges m a de to it a r e im per a tives for sch ool
a dm in istr a tor s. Specifica lly, th is stu dy su ggests six w ays in wh ich a dm in istr a tor s ca n
pr om ote im pr ovem en t in sch ool r epor tin g
pr ocedu r es to pa r en ts.
F ir st, sch ool a dm in istr a tor s h ave a r espon sibility for br in gin g togeth er m em ber s of th e
sch ool com m u n ity in or der to pr om ote discu ssion on sch ool r epor tin g a n d w ays in
wh ich it ca n best m eet th eir expecta tion s.
Th is spr in gs fr om a r ea liza tion th a t r epor tin g
ser ves th e r espective in ter ests of stu den ts,
pa r en ts a n d tea ch er s. P r esen t r epor tin g pr ocedu r es m ay n ot be sa tisfyin g th e expecta tion s of a n y on e or a ll of th ese th r ee gr ou ps.
It is a lso lik ely th a t n o sin gle blu epr in t for
r epor tin g w ill be a ppr opr ia te for a ll com m u n ities. Sch ools situ a ted in socio-econ om ic
a r ea s wh er e th e occu pa tion a l str u ctu r e
dem a n ds sh ift wor k , for exa m ple, m ay fin d
little pa r en ta l in ter est in pa r en t even in gs.
Lik ew ise, wh er e th e cu stom s of a pa r ticu la r
socia l gr ou p expr ess a dislik e for, or pla ce a
low pr ior ity on , eith er th e w r itten wor d, or
fa ce to fa ce m eetin gs, th en a sch ool m ay n eed
to a dju st its r epor tin g sch em e a ccor din gly.
Secon d, a dm in istr a tor s ca n play a cr u cia l
r ole in r edefin in g th e pu r pose of sch ool-pa r en t r epor tin g a n d r econ ceptu a lizin g its pla ce
w ith in a cu r r icu lu m con text. As lea der s of
th eir sch ool com m u n ities, a dm in istr a tor s
ca n ta k e r espon sibility for pr om otin g a n ew
vision a n d per spective of r epor tin g wh ile a t
th e sa m e tim e a dvoca tin g th a t con ven tion a l
th in k in g be disca r ded. Tr a dition a lly, r epor tin g is seen a s a fin a l discr ete sta ge in th e
cu r r icu lu m pr ocess. Ma n y tea ch er s, for
in sta n ce, a r e in clin ed to view th e edu ca tive
pr ocess in lin ea r a lgor ith m ic ter m s: th ey
tea ch th e stu den t; th e stu den t lea r n s; th e
stu den t is tested; a n d th e sch ool r epor t to
pa r en ts on th e stu den t’s per for m a n ce th en
follow s a s th e fi n a l step in a lin ea r pr ocess.
Repor tin g th u s pr ovides sn a psh ots of stu den t
[ 155 ]
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
per for m a n ce a t cer ta in poin ts in tim e. Th is
con ven tion a l view dim in ish es th e r ea l im por ta n ce of r epor tin g. A n ew m odel is r equ ir ed
wh ich sees r epor tin g a s a n in te gr a l sta ge in
th e cu r r icu lu m -tea ch in g-lea r n in g-testin gfeedba ck cycle. Resea r ch on effective in str u ction [24] r evea ls th e positive effects of feedba ck a n d r ein for cem en t on lea r n in g. Repor tin g sh ou ld m or e a ccu r a tely be seen a s a n on goin g, con tin u ou s pr ocess ca pita lizin g on th e
feedba ck -r ein for cem en t ben efits of th is cycle.
Recen t developm en ts in cu r r icu lu m or ga n iza tion a n d design in m a n y pu blic sch ool system s len d su ppor t to a n ew in te gr a ted m odel
of r epor tin g a s pa r t of a cu r r icu lu m -tea ch in glea r n in g cycle. In th ese pu blic sch ool system s, th e tr a dition a l tea ch in g sylla bu s docu m en ts spellin g ou t th e su bject con ten t wh ich
tea ch er s a r e expected to tea ch a r e bein g
r epla ced by m or e deta iled lea r n in g ou tcom e
docu m en ts specifyin g th e k n ow ledge, sk ills
a n d a ttitu des wh ich stu den ts a r e expected to
lea r n . Th er e is a sw itch of em ph a sis fr om
cu r r icu la fr a m ed in tea ch in g ter m s to lea r n in g pr ocesses a n d ou tcom es. Mor eover, th e
lea r n in g ou tcom es for ea ch a r ea of lea r n in g
a r e often expr essed in levels or sta ges a ccor din g to expected a tta in m en ts for stu den ts a t
differ en t a ges a n d sta ges of developm en t. For
ea ch level or sta ge, pr ofi les of a tta in m en t a r e
u su a lly developed, a llow in g th e pr ogr ess of
in dividu a l stu den ts to be tr a ced a n d m on itor ed in con sider a ble deta il over tim e. Th ese
developm en ts in cu r r icu lu m design a r e con du cive to a m odel of r epor tin g wh ich in tegr a tes it w ith cu r r icu lu m , tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g a n d wh ich r ea lizes its poten tia l a s
a n essen tia l pr a ctice in pr om otin g lea r n in g
r a th er th a n a s a fin a l discr ete sn a psh ot
r ecor d of a stu den t’s a tta in m en t.
“… T h e in tegra tiv e m od el of repor tin g b ein g a dvoca ted , togeth er
w ith tren d s tow a rd s cu r r icu la d efi n ed in ter m s of lea r n in g
ou tcom es a n d profi les, stron gly su ppor ts a m ore fu tu r istic,
proa ctiv e, goa l settin g or ien ta tion … ”
A n ew per spective on r epor tin g wh ich sees it
a s a n in te gr a l pa r t of a cu r r icu lu m -tea ch in glea r n in g cycle is r ein for ced fu r th er by eviden ce fr om th e liter a tu r e r eviewed a n d by
cu r r en t th in k in g on effective lea r n in g, both
of wh ich testify to its poten tia l for pr om otin g
lea r n in g r a th er th a n m er ely a ctin g a s a
r ecor d of pa st a ch ievem en t. Th e liter a tu r e,
for exa m ple, dem on str a tes th a t r epor tin g is
pr esen tly gea r ed to su m m a tive a ssessm en t,
som ewh a t to for m a tive a ssessm en t a n d m u ch
less to dia gn ostic a ssessm en t. Its poten tia l a s
a n a id to lea r n in g th u s r em a in s r ela tively
u n der developed. Ca pita lizin g on th e dia gn ostic ca pa city of r epor tin g wou ld a lso en a ble it
[ 156 ]
to lock in to goa l settin g, a well su ppor ted
a spect of cu r r en t lea r n in g th eor y. A con sider a ble body of r esea r ch n ow su ppor ts th e effica cy of settin g lea r n in g goa ls for in dividu a l
stu den ts. If r epor tin g beca m e m or e dia gn ostic, it cou ld a t th e sa m e tim e be u sed in a
m or e fu tu r istic a n d pr oa ctive ca pa city.
In stea d of ju st r ecor din g stu den ts’ pa st per for m a n ce, r epor tin g cou ld becom e m or e dia gn ostic a s a ba sis for its m or e effective u se in
settin g fu tu r e lea r n in g goa ls. Used a s a n
in str u m en t of goa l settin g in th is w ay, r epor tin g wou ld r equ ir e ca r efu l a n d well con sider ed
dia gn oses of stu den t lea r n in g a bilities, th eir
r a tes of pr ogr ess a n d fu tu r e lea r n in g poten tia l. Th e in te gr a tive m odel of r epor tin g bein g
a dvoca ted, togeth er w ith tr en ds tow a r ds
cu r r icu la defin ed in ter m s of lea r n in g ou tcom es a n d pr ofiles, str on gly su ppor ts a m or e
fu tu r istic, pr oa ctive, goa l settin g or ien ta tion .
Sch ool a dm in istr a tor s h ave a cr u cia l r ole in
pr epa r in g th e cu ltu r e for, a n d su bsequ en tly
im plem en tin g, th is n ew a ppr oa ch to r epor tin g in th eir sch ool com m u n ities.
Th ir d, a dm in istr a tor s h ave a r espon sibility
for en su r in g th a t a ll pa r ties in volved h ave
su fficien t tim e for th e deliver y of a qu a lity
r epor tin g pr ocess. Stu dies on r epor tin g typica lly r evea l th a t tea ch er s’ com pla in ts cen tr e
on a la ck of tim e a s th e m a in obsta cle to oper a tin g a n im pr oved r epor tin g system . Th e
in te gr a l m odel of r epor tin g a dvoca ted h er e
dem a n ds a m ple tim e for k eepin g deta iled
in for m a tion a n d lea r n in g pr ofiles on ea ch
stu den t, a s well a s for pr epa r in g m or e dia gn ostic r epor ts. Th ese, in tu r n , for m th e ba sis
for
school reporting to parents
Clive A.J. Dimmock
The Chine se Unive rsity o f Ho ng Ko ng, Shatin, Ho ng Ko ng
Thomas A. O’Donoghue
The Unive rsity o f We ste rn Australia, Australia
Highlights the importance of
school reporting to parents
and the need for its effective
management, as fundamental
practices underpinning the
central purpose of schools.
Argues that, in spite of the
centrality of reporting to the
core activities of teaching
and learning, current efforts
to secure accountability
appear to focus more on
increasing school accountability to central offices and
school councils than on
addressing much needed and
long overdue improvements in
parent reporting. Identifi es,
through a review of literature
on school reporting to parents, aspects of reporting on
individual student achievement and progress which
need to be rethought in order
to align with developments in
education policy and parental
expectations in the latter half
of the 1990s. Uses the
aspects of reporting in need
of improvement, as elicited
from the literature review, to
generate a set of roles and
responsibilities for school
leaders and administrators to
adopt in improving the reporting process, which, it is
argued, needs to be well
managed and organized if it is
to meet the expectations of
all stakeholders.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 ,4 [ 1997] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Sin ce th e m id-1980s, edu ca tion , a s pa r t of th e
pu blic sector, h a s been su bject to pr essu r e for
in cr ea sed a ccou n ta bility for effectiven ess of
per for m a n ce a n d efficien t u se of r esou r ces.
Th e pu sh for gr ea ter a ccou n ta bility h a s been
m a n ifested in th e settin g of sta n da r ds to m ea su r e th e effectiven ess of th e sch ool system
a n d of in dividu a l sch ools in ter m s of th eir
per for m a n ce, a n d in th e m a k in g of ju dgem en ts a bou t th e efficien cy w ith wh ich pu blic
r esou r ces a r e u sed.
In r e ga r d to th a t pa r t of a ccou n ta bility
r ela ted to effectiven ess of per for m a n ce, it h a s
gen er a lly been th e in ten tion of gover n m en ts
to m a k e sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble in two
w ays. Th e fir st h a s been to m a k e in dividu a l
sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble for th eir a ca dem ic
per for m a n ce to system cen tr es th r ou gh su ch
m ea n s a s system -w ide tests, m on itor in g a n d
eva lu a tion pr ocedu r es a n d exter n a l exa m in a tion s. Th e secon d policy in ten tion cen tr es on
m a k in g sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble for th eir
per for m a n ce to pa r en ts a n d sch ool com m u n ities. Accou n ta bility to sch ool com m u n ities
in volves r epor tin g to sch ool cou n cils, bodies
in ten ded to be r epr esen ta tive of pa r en ts a n d
th e wh ole sch ool com m u n ity. A m or e in dividu a lized for m of a ccou n ta bility to pa r en ts is
r epr esen ted by th e sch ool r epor t on th e per for m a n ce of th eir ch ildr en . In th e per va sive
r estr u ctu r in g of pu blic sch ool system s in th e
Wester n wor ld sin ce th e m id-1980s, gover n m en ts h ave gen er a lly focu sed on esta blish in g
m or e r obu st for m s of sch ool a ccou n ta bility to
th eir cen tr a l offices, m in istr ies a n d edu ca tion depa r tm en ts a n d on esta blish in g a n d
im pr ovin g collective for m s of a ccou n ta bility
to sch ool cou n cils. Rela tively little a tten tion ,
h owever, h a s been pa id to w ays in wh ich
sch ool a ccou n ta bility to pa r en ts a t a n in dividu a l r a th er th a n collective level, m igh t be
im pr oved. Th is n e glect of sch ool a ccou n ta bility a t th e in dividu a l level focu ses on r epor tin g to pa r en ts on ch ildr en ’s sch ool a ch ievem en ts a n d pr ogr ess.
Th is pa per h igh ligh ts th e im por ta n ce of
sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts a n d th e n eed for
its effective m a n a gem en t a s fu n da m en ta l
pr a ctices u n der pin n in g th e cen tr a l pu r pose
of sch ools. It a r gu es th a t, in spite of th e cen tr a lity of r epor tin g to th e cor e a ctivities of
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g, cu r r en t effor ts to
secu r e a ccou n ta bility a ppea r to focu s m or e
on in cr ea sin g sch ool a ccou n ta bility to cen tr a l
offices a n d sch ool cou n cils th a n on a ddr essin g m u ch n eeded a n d lon g over du e im pr ovem en ts in pa r en t r epor tin g. It th en goes on to
iden tify, th r ou gh a r eview of liter a tu r e on
sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts, a spects of r epor tin g on in dividu a l stu den t a ch ievem en t a n d
pr ogr ess wh ich n eed to be r eth ou gh t in or der
to a lign w ith developm en ts in edu ca tion policy a n d pa r en ta l expecta tion s in th e la tter
h a lf of th e 1990s. F in a lly, th e a spects of r epor tin g in n eed of im pr ovem en t, a s elicited fr om
th e liter a tu r e r eview, a r e u sed to gen er a te a
set of r oles a n d r espon sibilities for sch ool
lea der s a n d a dm in istr a tor s to a dopt in
im pr ovin g th e r epor tin g pr ocess, wh ich it is
a r gu ed, n eeds to be well m a n a ged a n d or ga n ized if it is to m eet th e expecta tion s of a ll
sta k eh older s.
The accountability context
Th e r estr u ctu r in g of sch ool system s in r ecen t
yea r s pr ovides th e con text for tigh ter
a ccou n ta bility of sch ools to th eir system
cen tr es. E m ph a sis pla ced on decen tr a liza tion , devolu tion a n d sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t h ave n ecessa r ily been cou n ter ba la n ced
by dem a n ds on m or e a u ton om ou s sch ools to
r en der a ccou n ts for th eir per for m a n ce to
th eir cen tr a l a dm in istr a tive offices. In a ddition , pu blic scepticism over edu ca tion a l sta n da r ds h a s for ced policy m a k er s to exa m in e
th e u se of system -level a ssessm en t to r espon d
to ca lls for m or e in for m a tion a bou t levels of
stu den t a ch ievem en t. Th e per ceived declin e
in “sta n da r ds” h a s r esu lted in pr essu r e to
in tr odu ce system -w ide a ssessm en t pr ocedu r es, u su a lly in th e for m of exter n a l exa m in a tion s or tests. Sch ool a ccou n ta bility to
system cen tr es th r ou gh r elia n ce on system w ide m on itor in g a n d testin g is pr oba bly n ow
seen a s su fficien t to sa tisfy th e con cer n s of
m ost in ter ested pa r ties. However, even th is
for m of a ccou n ta bility h a s been ca lled in to
qu estion . For exa m ple, som e[1-3], dispu te th e
pu blic con ception th a t th e r epor tin g of exter n a l exa m in a tion r esu lts by sch ools does a ctu a lly in cr ea se pu blic con fiden ce in th e r esu lts
a n d qu a lifi ca tion s a ch ieved by stu den ts in
[ 149 ]
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
[ 150 ]
sch ool pr ogr a m m es. Th ey cla im th a t it is
difficu lt to esta blish a n y ca u sa l r ela tion sh ip
between edu ca tion a l sta n da r ds a n d th e u se of
exter n a l system -w ide tests. Th ey a lso su ggest
th a t exter n a l exa m in a tion s a lon e do n ot give
a va lid pictu r e of stu den t a ch ievem en t a t
sch ool. Th ey go on to a r gu e th a t exter n a l
exa m in a tion s a lon e a r e n ot su fficien t for
disch a r gin g a ccou n ta bility r espon sibilities.
Th e sa m e a r gu m en t h a s been a dva n ced in
Au str a lia [4], in th e UK[5] a n d in Ca n a da [6].
Ma n y of th e a for em en tion ed cr iticism s a n d
con cer n s w ith r espect to sch ool a ccou n ta bility seem to a r ise beca u se a tten tion h a s been
focu sed on m a k in g sch ools m or e a ccou n ta ble
to system cen tr es r a th er th a n on for gin g
closer sch ool-pa r en t a ccou n ta bility r ela tion sh ips a t th e sa m e tim e. Th e fa ct th a t in m ost
societies th er e is a lon g sta n din g tr a dition of
sch ools r epor tin g to pa r en ts on th eir ch ildr en ’s pr ogr ess m ay expla in wh y system
a u th or ities h ave ten ded to focu s on n ewer
for m s of a ccou n ta bility between cen tr e a n d
sch ool, wh er e few existed pr eviou sly. Recen t
developm en ts, h owever, in m a n y system -level
cu r r icu la r policies em ph a size stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es a n d stu den t lea r n in g a ch ievem en ts, m ea su r ed in ter m s of ben ch m a r k s,
levels or sta ges of lea r n in g, a ga in st wh ich
in dividu a l stu den t a tta in m en t ca n be pr ofi led
a n d r ecor ded w ith gr ea ter specificity th a n in
th e pa st. In a ddition , m a n y sch ools a n d cen tr a l offices a r e, in th e la tter h a lf of th e 1990s,
pr om otin g a n ew ser vice-focu sed im a ge, pla cin g th e stu den t a n d pa r en t a t th e cen tr e of
th eir m ission . Th is clien t-[stu den t-] dr iven
a ppr oa ch a ccor ds w ith system policies
em power in g pa r en ts to exer cise th eir pr er oga tive to ch oose m or e ca r efu lly th e sch ool to
wh ich th ey sen d th eir ch ildr en . In th is m a r k et-dr iven , ou tcom es-or ien ted en vir on m en t,
pa r en ts, stu den ts, tea ch er s a n d a dm in istr a tor s a ll h ave a pr essin g n eed for va lid a n d
r elia ble in for m a tion on wh ich to m a k e decision s a n d ch oices. Sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts is a k ey sou r ce of in for m a tion of th is
k in d.
Wh ile th e ca se for im pr ovin g sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts a ppea r s r obu st, we m u st n ot
lose sigh t of th e fa ct th a t th is for m of a ccou n ta bility is n ot w ith ou t its pr oblem s. On th is
m a tter, cogn isa n ce n eeds to be ta k en of th e
a r gu m en ts a dva n ced[2, 7, 8], th a t despite
th er e bein g a lon g tr a dition of sch ool r epor tin g to pa r en ts, th e m ode of r epor tin g h a s
been , a n d often is, pr oblem a tic. P a r t of th e
pr oblem cen tr es on th e a m biva len ce r e ga r din g th e pu r pose a n d defin ition of sch ool-pa r en t r epor tin g. Th e wor k of Gr iffin a n d N ix[8,
p. 5] is h elpfu l in th is r e ga r d. Th ey sta te th a t
th e ter m “r epor tin g” u su a lly descr ibes th e
for m a l pr ocedu r es w ith in sch ools wh er eby
tea ch er s pr epa r e w r itten sta tem en ts for pa r en ts a bou t stu den t a ch ievem en ts. Th ey a sser t
th a t th is con cept sh ou ld be br oa den ed, a r gu in g th a t r epor tin g is th e pr ocess of tr a n sm ittin g in for m a tion to sta k eh older s to cr ea te a n
aw a r en ess of, a n d in ter est in , th e policies,
goa ls, oper a tion a n d a ch ievem en ts of th e
sch ool, th e stu den ts, th e tea ch er s a n d th e
sch ool com m u n ity in gen er a l. Th ey go on to
pr ovide th e follow in g defin ition : “Repor tin g
is th e pu r posefu l pr ocess of ga th er in g, in ter pr etin g, r ecor din g a n d com m u n ica tin g to
sta k eh older s, in for m a tion on stu den t
pr ogr ess th a t is r ela ted to th e ou tcom es of
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g”.
Managerial imperatives in
reporting to parents
Th e a bove defin ition h igh ligh ts th e fa ct th a t
r epor tin g is essen tia lly bou n ded by m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l con sider a tion s. It is a
cen tr a l a r gu m en t of th is pa per th a t sch ool
a dm in istr a tor s h ave a key r espon sibility in
im plem en tin g a n d m a in ta in in g im pr oved
sch ool r epor tin g pr ocedu r es for a t lea st two
r ea son s, both of wh ich a r e sign a lled in th e
defin ition . F ir st, th e defin ition r ecogn izes th e
pr im e focu s of r epor tin g a s stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es em a n a tin g fr om th e sch ool’s tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g pr ogr a m m e. In th e sa m e
vein , it is th e r epon sibility of sch ool m a n a ger s
a n d a dm in istr ator s, wor k in g w ith th eir tea ch in g sta ff, to secu r e th e best lea r n in g ou tcom es
for th eir stu den ts. Sch ool a dm in istr a tor s a r e
ch a r ged w ith th e r espon sibility for pr ovidin g
th e best qu a lity tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g envir on m en ts for a ll stu den ts, th er eby m a xim izin g
lea r n in g ou tcom es. Repor tin g to pa r en ts on
th e pr ocesses a n d ou tcom es of th eir ch ildr en ’s
lea r n in g a ch ievem en ts is th u s to be seen a s a n
im por ta n t veh icle by wh ich a dm in istr a tor s
ca n fu lfil th eir pr im e fu n ction . Secon d, th e
defin ition r ecogn izes th a t th e sta keh older s in
th e r epor tin g pr ocess in clu de stu den ts, tea ch er s a n d sch ool a dm in istr a tor s, a s well a s pa r en ts. A m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l per spective on r epor tin g is th u s on e wh ich ta kes
cogn isa n ce of th e n eeds of a ll sta k eh older s in
th e pr ocess. In so doin g, it r ecogn izes th a t a
system of r epor tin g h a s to be m a n a ged a n d
or ch estr a ted to sa tisfy a n u m ber of a u dien ces.
In m eetin g sta k eh older s’ expecta tion s, a sou n d
r epor tin g system w ill h ave clea r pu r poses a n d
a im s, be va lid, r elia ble, con sisten t, flexible,
com pr eh en sive, a ccu r ate, com m u n ica ted,
u n der stood, va lu ed, tr u sted, or ga n ized,
r esou r ced, a n d su per vised. In oth er wor ds,
beca u se r epor tin g is bou n ded by th ese m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l con sider a tion s, it
ca n n ot be left to th e discr etion of tea ch er s.
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
In a ddr essin g som e of th ese issu es, th is
pa per is or ga n ized in to th e follow in g section s: pa r en ta l expecta tion s; th e r epor t in th e
con text of oth er sch ool r ecor ds; con ten t; for m a t; tim in g a n d or ga n izin g of r epor tin g pr ocedu r es; in -ser vice tr a in in g of tea ch er s w ith
r espect to r epor tin g; th e r espon ses to r epor tin g fr om pa r en ts, stu den ts a n d tea ch er s; a n d
th e k ey m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l
r espon sibilities of sch ool lea der s to en su r e a n
im pr oved system of r epor tin g is im plem en ted
a n d m a in ta in ed. Th e str u ctu r e of ea ch section is ba sed on r eleva n t liter a tu r e, fr om
wh ich im plica tion s for a dm in istr a tor s a r e
dr aw n in th e fi n a l section of th e pa per, wh er e
it is a r gu ed th a t m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l con sider a tion s a r e im per a tive for
im pr oved r epor tin g pr ocesses gea r ed to m eetin g cu r r en t developm en ts, n eeds a n d expecta tion s of m u ltiple sta k eh older s.
What parents expect from school
reporting
Ta k in g cogn isa n ce of pa r en ta l expecta tion s is
clea r ly im por ta n t in r eth in k in g th e sch ool
r epor tin g pr ocess. Br iggs[9], Br oa dfoot[2] a n d
Weir [10] h ave in vestiga ted wh a t pa r en ts w a n t
fr om sch ool r epor ts. Accor din g to th ese
r esea r ch er s, pa r en ts wou ld lik e:
• m or e in for m a tion th a n pr esen t, pr ovided in
a w r itten r epor t for m a t;
• dia gn ostic a ssessm en t w ith pr oblem s iden tified ea r ly a n d con str u ctive su ggestion s for
fu tu r e a ction ;
• in for m a tion a bou t a wh ole r a n ge of differ en t a spects of a ch ievem en t;
• som e gr a sp of h ow th e in for m a tion is
a r r ived a t a n d wh a t cr iter ia a r e u sed in
or der to k n ow wh eth er th eir ch ildr en a r e
m a k in g sa tisfa ctor y pr ogr ess for th eir a ge;
• to k n ow wh eth er th eir ch ildr en a r e r ea ch in g th eir poten tia l; a n d
• in for m a tion a bou t a ttitu des, va lu es a n d
socia l a dju stm en t.
Ha ll’s[11] stu dy of th e pa r en ts of pr im a r y
sch ool ch ildr en in dica ted th a t pa r en ts a n d
tea ch er s pr efer r ed n a r r a tive r epor ts to
gr a des beca u se th ey wer e seen a s m or e per son a l, less com petitive a n d con veyed m or e
in for m a tion a bou t th eir ch ild’s pr ogr ess.
Lik ew ise, Kin g[12] in a stu dy in th e USA
fou n d th a t pa r en ts of ch ildr en a t th e ea r ly
sta ges of pr im a r y sch ool welcom ed a por tfolio
a ppr oa ch . Th is in clu ded sa m ples of stu den ts’
wor k , tea ch er s’ obser va tion s, a u dio ta pes a n d
ph otos wh ich gave pa r en ts a ta n gible a n d
visu a l pr oof of th eir ch ildr en ’s a ch ievem en ts;
a n exper ien ce th a t fa r su r pa ssed th a t of seein g a letter gr a de on th e r epor t ca r d.
The report in the context of other
school records
Reid [13] h a s r a ised t h e q u est ion of t h e ext en t
t o w h ich t h e p a r en t a l r e p or t a n d in t er n a l
r ecor d s com p lem en t ea ch ot h er, t h e ext en t t o
w h ich on e d u p lica t es t h e ot h er a n d , m os t
im p or t a n t , w h a t in for m a t ion is con t a in ed on
sch ool r ecor d s w h ich is n ot m a d e ava ila ble
t o p a r en t s a n d w h y. Dock in g[14] a r gu ed t h a t
w e sh ou ld n ot for get t h e “secon d a u d ien ce”
of a r e p or t , n a m ely, ot h er t ea ch er s. Re p or t s
a r e u sed t o com m u n ica t e u sefu l in for m a t ion
t o t ea ch er s for w h om t h e in for m a t ion is
h elp fu l in m a k in g p r esen t a n d fu t u r e d ecision s. T h is a ssu m es gr ea t er im p or t a n ce t h e
less fa m ilia r a t ea ch er is w it h a st u d en t . A
fu r t h er issu e con cer n s in for m a t ion on in d iv id u a l st u d en t s wh ich is k e p t in sch ool files
bu t w h ich is n ot m a d e ava ila ble t o p a r en t s in
t h e r e p or t . T h e r ea son s for su ch m ay b e
m a n ifold . On e p ossib ilit y is t h a t in for m a t ion
m ay b e w it h h eld fr om p a r en t s b eca u s e t h e
sch ool con sid er s t h a t t h e ch ild ’s in t er es t s
a r e b est ser ved by so d oin g. T h er e m ay w ell
b e ext en t u a t in g cir cu m st a n ces t o ju st ify
su ch p olicies. H ow ever, w it h fr eed om of
in for m a t ion le gisla t ion , p a r en t s in m a n y
societ ies n ow h ave t h e r igh t t o see sch ool
r ecor d s.
The content of the report
Ma n y a r gu m en t s con cer n in g t h e con t en t of
sch ool r e p or t s d eser ve a lot m or e d eb a t e
t h a n t h ey oft en a t t r a ct . Sh ed lin [15], for
exa m p le, h a s st r essed t h e n eed t o cou n t er b a la n ce t h e q u a n t it a t ive t r en d in r e p or t in g
w it h m or e q u a lit a t ive a p p r oa ch es. Ach ievem en t t est scor es, it is cla im ed , t en d n ot t o
r eflect cr ea t iv it y, cu r iosit y, p er sever a n ce,
flexib ilit y or t r u e t h in k in g a b ilit y. T h er e is a
st r on g ca se for m or e r esea r ch on w h a t t h e
con t en t of r e p or t s sh ou ld b e. Am on g t h e
va r iet y of m a t t er s wor t h in vest iga t in g fu r t h er a r e t h e follow in g:
• Tr a dition a lly, it h a s been com m on pla ce for
sch ool r epor ts to in clu de th e ch ild’s position in ea ch su bject a s well a s a n over a ll
position in th e cla ss; th a t is, a n or m a tive
a ppr oa ch is u sed. However, th e tr en d is for
cr iter ion -r efer en ced r epor tin g to r epla ce
n or m a tive a ppr oa ch es.
• Repor tin g h a s focu sed on for m a tive a n d
su m m a tive a ssessm en t a t th e expen se of
dia gn ostic a ssessm en t. In pa r ticu la r, th er e
h a s been little a tten tion given to pr ovidin g
pa r en ts a n d stu den ts w ith a ppr opr ia te
a dvice ba sed on dia gn ostic m eth ods a n d
su bsequ en t cou n sellin g. F u r th er m or e, we
k n ow ver y little a s to th e m ost a ppr opr ia te
[ 151 ]
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
for m in wh ich su ch a dvice sh ou ld be given ,
pa r ticu la r ly a s to th e a ppr opr ia te for m of
la n gu a ge.
• Th er e is th e qu estion of h ow sch ool r epor tin g ca n be u sed in h elpin g pa r en ts a n d
stu den ts m a k e voca tion a l decision s.
• Li t t le a t t en t i on h a s b een given t o t h e r ole
of s ch ool r e p or t i n g i n p r ed i ct i n g fu t u r e
p er for m a n ce. In p a r t i cu la r, s h ou ld r e p or t i n g b e con cer n ed w i t h giv i n g i n for m a t i on
r e ga r d i n g a p u p i l’s fu t u r e p ot en t i a l p er for m a n ce? T h e ca s e for u s i n g r e p or t i n g m or e
p r oa ct ively i n s et t i n g fu t u r e lea r n i n g
goa ls r a t h er t h a n u s i n g i t s olely r et r os p ect ively t o r ecor d p a s t p er for m a n ce, i s
r obu s t .
In th e r epor tin g pr ocedu r es u sed in th e
Cer tifica te of E du ca tion in Victor ia , Au str a lia , Cook [16, p. 4] iden tified qu estion s
focu sed on th e con ten t of r epor tin g r ela ted to
stu den t a ch ievem en t. He a sk ed:
• Is it possible to descr ibe stu den ts’ a ch ievem en t a dequ a tely a n d a t th e sa m e tim e to
pr ovide u sefu l in for m a tion to m a k e selection , pla cem en t or r ea din ess decision s
a bou t th em ?
• Is it possible for th e r epor tin g of stu den ts’
a ch ievem en ts to be both com pr eh en sive
a n d com pr eh en sible?
• Is th e con su m er dem a n d for sim plicity in
r epor tin g stu den ts’ a ch ievem en t possible if
a ccu r a cy of in for m a tion is r equ ir ed?
• Is it possible to h ave fu ll a n d a ccu r a te in for m a tion a bou t a ll stu den ts wh ile still h avin g
r e ga r d for th e self-esteem of th e low ly
r a n k ed stu den t?
Choice of format
On e a spect of r epor tin g wh ich h a s a ttr a cted a
con sider a ble a m ou n t of a tten tion is th e for m a t of sch ool r epor ts. Th e m a in for m a ts com m on ly u sed a r e:
• sin gle sh eet;
• r epor t book ;
• slip r epor t;
• letter r epor t;
• gr a de ca r d.
A br ief su m m a r y of th e ch a r a cter istics of
ea ch follow s.
S in gle sh eet – su bject t ea ch er s a r e r equ ir ed
t o a ssign a gr a de or m a r k a n d t o w r it e t h eir
com m en t s in t h e boxes pr ovided. To cope
w it h t h e va r iet y of su bject s du e t o opt ion
ch oices, t h e r e por t s for som e yea r s oft en
leave t h e su bject spa ces u n la belled. A sect ion
a t t h e bot t om of t h e sh eet is com plet ed by t h e
for m t u t or a n d fr equ en t ly in clu des t ot a ls of
a bsen ces a n d la t en ess. A sm a ll spa ce is
u su a lly a llowed for a br ief com m en t a n d
[ 152 ]
sign a t u r e by t h e h ea d t ea ch er a n d h ea d of a
la r ger pa st or a l u n it su ch a s a h ou se or yea r.
On m a n y of t h e r e por t s a sm a ll k ey t o t h e
gr a din g is a lso pr ovided.
R epor t b ook – a t its sim plest th e r epor t book
con sists of a ser ies of sin gle sh eet r epor ts
bou n d u n der a cover.
S lip repor t – th is sh ow s a m a r k ed depa r tu r e
fr om th e pr eviou s two. It con sists of a ser ies
of pa ges, on e or m or e of wh ich m igh t be com pleted by ea ch tea ch er, th e wh ole ser ies th en
bein g sta pled togeth er w ith in a th in ca r d
cover.
L etter repor t – th is r esem bles th e sin gle
sh eet r epor t bu t gen er a lly con ta in s n o su bdivision s, con sistin g of a h ea ded pa ge on wh ich
tea ch er s ca n w r ite a t len gth .
Gra d e ca rd – th is con sists of a sin gle piece
of pa per or ligh t ca r d pr ovidin g a list of su bjects togeth er w ith boxes in wh ich to en ter
a ssessm en ts. Th ey con ta in n o spa ce for
tea ch er com m en t. Hen ce, th ey a r e ca lled
“gr a de ca r ds” a n d a r e often u sed to pr ovide
in ter im r epor ts to pa r en ts.
Br iggs[9, p. 47] sta tes th a t th e tr a dition a l
r epor t often la ck s r eleva n t in for m a tion . He
sta tes th a t “in for m a tion a lly poor r epor ts a r e
da m a gin g wh en th e edu ca tion of ch ildr en is
th e issu e, a n d den yin g pa r en ts th e m ea n s of
h elpin g in th is essen tia lly cooper a tive en ter pr ise is self-defea tin g”.
Br oa dfoot[2, p. 101] su m s u p th e situ a tion a s
follow s: “Tr a dition a l r epor ts a r e typica lly too
br ief, too in fr equ en t, too gen er a l, too in a ccu r a te, a n d m a k e in su fficien t r efer en ce to a
sta n da r d. In pa r ticu la r, it is th e ca se th a t ver y
m a n y of th em a r e cou ch ed in la n gu a ge wh ich
h a s a h igh ‘fog r a tin g’”.
Th er e is a lso th e issu e of th e r ela tive m er its
a n d dem er its of or a l r epor tin g a s opposed to
w r itten r epor tin g, a n d th e exten t to wh ich
or a l r epor tin g m igh t su pplem en t or su ppla n t
th e w r itten r epor t. Br iggs[9] a n d Weir [10] in
sepa r a te stu dies r epor ted th a t 85 per cen t of
pa r en ts sh owed a pr efer en ce for w r itten for m a ts. In Weir ’s stu dy, pa r en ts pr efer r ed a
com bin ed w r itten a n d ver ba l for m a t. Weir
goes on to sta te th a t tr a dition a l r epor t ca r ds
a r e m a de u p of a ll too fa m ilia r on e-lin e com m en ts wh ich say n oth in g a n d often cr ea te
n eedless a n xiety a n d disa ppoin tm en t for
m a n y ch ildr en a n d pa r en ts. F a ir ch ild[17]
fou n d th a t for stu den ts w ith a ca dem ic or
beh aviou r pr oblem s tea ch er s ca n su ccessfu lly foster open com m u n ica tion a n d
pa r en ta l in volvem en t th r ou gh th e u se of a
da ily r epor t ca r d system in a ssocia tion w ith
stu den t con fer en ces.
Th er e a ppea r to be a n u m ber of con sider a tion s w ith r espect to ch oice of for m a t. Som e
a dvoca te a r a n ge of differ en t for m a ts to m eet
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
specific pu r poses. Am on g th e va r iety of specific pu r poses a r e th e follow in g:
• “settlin g-in r epor ts” for n ew ly en r olled
stu den ts a t a n y level;
• “spon ta n eou s” r epor ts for th ose wh ose
per for m a n ces sh ow dr a m a tic im pr ovem en t
or deter ior a tion ;
• sch ool leaver r epor ts, gea r ed m or e to th e
n eeds of pr ospective em ployer s or colle ge
en tr a n ce r equ ir em en ts.
Given th e r a n ge of pu r poses of sch ool r epor tin g, Affler ba ch a n d Sa m m on s[18] in a stu dy
in th e USA, con clu de som ewh a t pessim istica lly th a t it m ay be difficu lt or im possible to
cr ea te th e idea l r epor t ca r d w ith in or a cr oss
sch ools or distr icts.
Mor e op t im ist ica lly, Br oa d foot [2] st a t es
t h a t p a r en t a l in volvem en t m ay w ell im p r ove
con fid en ce in sch ool a ch ievem en t . H ow ever,
su ch in volvem en t sh ou ld b e b a sed on
in for m ed d ia logu e. Su ch d ia logu e ca n on ly
t a k e p la ce if p a r en t s a r e given t h e n ecessa r y
in for m a t ion t h r ou gh r e p or t s. Cou p led w it h
t h is is Weir ’s[10] a r gu m en t t h a t t h e b est
sy s t em of r e p or t in g is on e w h ich is d evelop ed w it h t h e p u r p ose of com m u n ica t ion in
m in d , t a k in g in t o a ccou n t t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics of t h e loca l com m u n it y. Gr iffin a n d
N ix[8] a dvoca t e t h a t sch ools a n d p a r en t s
n eed t o exa m in e w r it t en r e p or t for m a t s
closely t o en su r e t h a t t h e st y le of r e p or t in
op er a t ion is r eleva n t t o t h em b ot h . As Br oa d foot [2, p. 103] st a t es: “We w a n t t o est a blish
a n d com m u n ica t e t o p a r en t s t h e n ot ion t h a t
w e a r e look in g for a p a r t n er sh ip b et w een u s
a n d t h em in t h e cu r r icu lu m a n d m or e a n d
m or e fr eq u en t ly in r e p or t in g”.
On e w ay for w a r d is su ggested by Miles[19],
wh o docu m en ted th e pr ocess a sch ool com m u n ity took wh en it beca m e obviou s th a t th e
sch ool r epor tin g system w a s n ot va lu ed by
pa r en ts. Th ey h eld m eetin gs a t wh ich th ey
pr esen ted pa r en ts w ith a va r iety of r epor tin g
system s. P a r en ts a n d tea ch er s th en developed
th e r epor tin g for m a t th a t best su ited th eir
n eeds.
M or e r ecen t ly, Dav i es a n d Sk i n n er [20, p.
123] h ave a r gu ed t h a t “t h e w ay for w a r d li es
i n s ch ools d ev i s i n g t h ei r ow n for m s of w r i t t en r e p or t s t o p a r en t s w h i ch s t eer a m i d d le
li n e b et w een p r es en t i n g s o m u ch i n for m a t i on t h a t p a r en t s a r e over w h elm ed , m i s i n t er p r et i t or d o n ot gr a s p i t s s i gn i fi ca n ce,
a n d giv i n g s o li t t le i n for m a t i on t h a t t h e
r e p or t d oes n ot a d d t o w h a t t h ey k n ow
a lr ea dy. If t h i s for m a t ive r e p or t i n g ca n op en
t h e w ay t o p a r en t s b ei n g a ble t o p lay a m or e
m ea n i n gfu l r ole i n t h ei r ch i ld r en ’s s ch oolb a s ed ed u ca t i on , t h en p r ogr es s w i ll h ave
b een m a d e”.
The timing and organization of the
reporting procedure
Issu es r ela ted to tim in g a n d or ga n iza tion of
r epor tin g closely over la p w ith m a tter s con cer n in g con ten t a n d pu r pose discu ssed in th e
pr eviou s section . Som e of th e m or e im por ta n t
issu es a r e ca ptu r ed by th e follow in g qu estion s.
Im por ta n t decision poin ts: in wh a t w ays
ca n r epor tin g su ppor t im pr oved decision
m a k in g a ffectin g cr u cia l sta ges in a ch ild’s
sch oolin g? Th e Wich ita Un ified Sch ool Distr ict Stu dy[21] str essed th e im por ta n ce of
pa r en ts bein g in for m ed by th e fifth week of
th e fir st qu a r ter if th eir ch ildr en a r e clea r ly
fa ilin g in cla ss.
Th e tim in g of r epor ts:to wh a t exten t does
th e en d-of-yea r r epor t sta n d on its ow n ?
Sh ou ld it be su pplem en ted by r epor ts a t oth er
tim es of th e yea r ? Wh en a r e th e m ost a ppr opr ia te “oth er tim es” for va r iou s a ge gr ou ps
a n d pu r poses? Wh y sh ou ld r epor ts often be
lim ited to th e en d of ter m a n d sen t h om e on
th e la st day? Wh a t a r e th e pr os a n d con s of
th is conven tion a l pr a ctice? Tea ch er s in Ta iw a n sen d da ily r epor ts h om e to pa r en ts ( is
th is im possible for Wester n sch ools?) Is th er e
a ca se for sta gger in g r epor ts th r ou gh ou t th e
yea r, so th a t differ en t stu den ts r eceive r epor ts
a t differ en t tim es of th e yea r, per h a ps a ccor din g to th eir lea r n in g a ch ievem en ts, or la ck
th er eof ?
How tim e-con su m in g is r epor t w r itin g for
tea ch er s? Reid[13, p. 8] h igh ligh ts th e fa ct th a t
th e tr a dition a l for m of r epor tin g gives r ise to
con sider a ble pr essu r e on tea ch er s a t pa r ticu la r tim es in th e a ca dem ic yea r. Sh e con clu ded
th a t th e m or e r epor ts tea ch er s h a d to com plete, th e less tim e th ey spen t on ea ch .
Teacher in-service needs related to
reporting
Wh olesa le r eth in k in g of r epor tin g pr ocedu r es wou ld r equ ir e th e sk illin g of tea ch er s.
In deed, som e eviden ce su ggests th a t m ost
tea ch er s h ave r eceived little or n o tr a in in g in
deliver in g pr esen t m odes of r epor tin g. A
stu dy by Affler ba ch a n d Sa m m on s[18] in th e
USA, for exa m ple, in dica ted th a t:
• few tea ch er s r epor ted r eceivin g a n y tr a in in g to h elp th em w r ite r epor t ca r ds;
• few tea ch er s wer e in volved in th e developm en t of th e r epor t ca r ds wh ich th ey wer e
r equ ir ed to u se;
• tea ch er s r epor ted w r itin g r epor t ca r ds for a
w ide va r iety of pu r poses a n d a u dien ces;
• th e m or e th e r epor t ca r d a ccom m oda ted
tea ch er s’ k n ow ledge, th e m or e it w a s
va lu ed.
[ 153 ]
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
Am on g th e n ew developm en ts in r epor tin g
for wh ich tea ch er s a ppea r to r equ ir e gr ea ter
sk illin g th r ou gh th e pr ovision of in -ser vice
tr a in in g, a r e th e follow in g:
• in cor por a tion of ou tcom e sta tem en ts a n d
a ssessm en t pr ofi les in r epor tin g;
• a ssessm en t tech n iqu es a n d str a te gies –
for m a tive, su m m a tive a n d dia gn ostic;
• settin g of lea r n in g goa ls a s a m ea n s of
im pr ovin g fu tu r e per for m a n ce ba sed on
pa st a n d pr esen t per for m a n ce;
• tea ch er -pa r en t in ter view in g sk ills;
• tea ch er s’ discu ssion of r epor ts w ith pa r en ts;
• tea ch er s’ discu ssion of r epor ts w ith pu pils.
Th er e a lso seem s to be a ca se for a dvoca tin g
m or e pa r en t edu ca tion w ith r espect to r epor tin g. Dock in g[14, p. 336], for exa m ple, h a s
a r gu ed th a t wh ile th er e is gen er a l a ccepta n ce
by pa r en ts of th e u se of th e “aver a ge” a s a
sta n da r d, su ch a ccepta n ce is too often u n in for m ed a n d r efl ects pr efer en ce for th e k n ow n
a n d fa m ilia r tr a dition a l r epor tin g pr a ctices.
An y ch a n ge fr om th is tr a dition w ill r equ ir e
pa r en t edu ca tion a n d a gen er a l pu blic r ela tion s exer cise to in for m oth er in ter ested
pa r ties, su ch a s em ployer s.
Responses and reactions to the
school report
After th e com pletion of th e r epor t a n d its
deliver y h om e to th e pa r en t, th er e is th e m a tter of su bsequ en t r ea ction to it on th e pa r t
of th e pa r en t, stu den t a n d tea ch er. Som e
r espon ses a r e ca ptu r ed in th e follow in g
stu dies.
Parent reaction
Davies a n d Sk in n er [20] fou n d th a t pa r en ts
a tta ch gr ea t im por ta n ce to h avin g good r ela tion sh ips w ith sch ools a n d th a t w r itten for m s
of r epor tin g a r e seen a s on ly pa r t of th e r ela tion sh ip. Con sequ en tly, if r epor tin g is to
con tr ibu te to th e r ela tion sh ip m or e gen er a lly,
it m u st pr ovide a ddition a l a n d distin ctive
in for m a tion . Seein g r epor tin g a s a th r ee-w ay
r ela tion sh ip between pa r en t, pu pil a n d
tea ch er, a ll of wh om sh ou ld togeth er discu ss
th e sch ool r epor t a n d pla n fu tu r e objectives,
is con sider ed cr u cia l. Th e pr ocess sh ou ld
in clu de pr oblem -solvin g sk ills, cr ea tive
th in k in g, cr itica l th in k in g, a n d th e a bility to
get a lon g well w ith oth er s a s well a s u n der sta n din g of su bject m a tter.
Ku er sten [22] fou n d th a t pa r en ts’ r ea ction s
to r epor t ca r ds ca n be sever e, em otion a l a n d
occa sion a lly, even a bu sive. He a r gu es for
ca m pa ign s to give pa r en ts a dvice a s to h ow to
r espon d positively to poor r epor ts. N e ga tive
r espon ses fr om pa r en ts to ba d r epor ts ca n do
[ 154 ]
con sider a ble da m a ge to a ch ild’s self-esteem .
Th ey ca n a lso ca u se con sider a ble str ess to
ch ildr en a n d lea d to th eir a ssocia tin g sch oolin g w ith feelin gs of fa ilu r e.
Reid[13] h a s dem on str a ted th a t in elicitin g
r espon ses fr om pa r en ts, th e w r itten slip h a s a
disa ppoin tin gly low ta k e-u p by pa r en ts
a lth ou gh it w a s fou n d th a t th is m eth od h a d
con sider a ble poten tia l a s a m ea n s of h om esch ool dia logu e wh er e steps wer e ta k en to
en cou r a ge pa r en ts to u se it. Sh e con clu ded
th a t both th e ph r a sin g u sed in in vitin g pa r en ts to r eply a n d th e a m ou n t of spa ce a lloca ted for th eir com m en ts m igh t in flu en ce
wh eth er pa r en ts decided to r espon d.
Oth er issu es r ela ted to pa r en t r espon ses
a n d wh ich a r e wor th y of n ote a r e r a ised by
th e follow in g qu estion s.
• P a r en ts’ even in gs follow in g r epor ts. Wh a t
a r e th e pu r poses of pa r en t-tea ch er
even in gs? To wh a t exten t sh ou ld th ey be
con cer n ed w ith follow in g-u p th e con ten ts of
th e sch ool r epor t? How soon a fter th e issu in g of th e r epor t sh ou ld th ey ta k e pla ce?
• Or ga n iza tion of pa r en ts’ even in gs. How
sh ou ld th e pa r en t-tea ch er even in gs be or ga n ized? Wh a t is th e im por ta n ce of con sider in g su ch m a tter s a s sea tin g, tim e per fa m ily,
pr iva cy?
• Ca pita lizin g on pa r en ts’ positive r ea ction s.
Ma n y pa r en ts becom e positively disposed
tow a r ds bein g in volved in th eir ch ildr en ’s
edu ca tion a s a r esu lt of r eceivin g th e sch ool
r epor t. However, wh a t gu idelin es ca n be
developed to ca pita lize on th is? Wh a t a dvice
ca n be given to pa r en ts? How ca n tea ch er s
wor k w ith pa r en ts to fu r th er th e in ter ests
of th eir ch ildr en ?
Student reaction
Sin ce th e sch ool r epor t cen tr es on stu den t
per for m a n ce, it is su r pr isin g th a t so little
r esea r ch h a s been con du cted on h ow stu den ts
per ceive th e r epor tin g pr ocess. Im por ta n t
qu estion s a r isin g in th is r espect a r e:
• Do r epor ts m a tter to stu den ts?
• Wh a t is th e effect of good r epor ts?
• Wh a t is th e effect of ba d r epor ts?
• How ca n sch ools ca pita lize on good a n d ba d
r epor ts?
• How im por ta n t is it for stu den ts to discu ss
th e r epor t w ith pa r en ts a n d to discu ss th e
r epor t w ith tea ch er s?
In on e of th e few stu dies con du cted on stu den t r espon ses to r epor tin g, Reid[13, p. 7]
con clu ded: “A fi n din g wh ich em er ges clea r ly
fr om th e eviden ce a n d wh ich deser ves u n der lin in g is th a t th e r epor t m a tter s to stu den ts.
N ea r ly a ll th e stu den ts stu died fou n d som e
u sefu l in for m a tion in th e r epor t a n d it w a s
w idely discu ssed w ith fr ien ds a s well a s
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
pa r en ts”. In a fu r th er en cou r a gin g con clu sion w ith r e ga r d to stu den t r ea ction , Reid[13
p. 7] sta tes: “in th e sh or t ter m a t lea st, th e
r epor t stim u la ted th e in ten tion to ch a n ge
beh aviou r. Both good a n d ba d r epor ts wer e
effective in pr odu cin g a r esolu tion to wor k
h a r der, w ith ba d r epor ts th e seem in gly
str on ger stim u lu s (bu t w ith th e da n ger a lso of
in du cin g despa ir )”.
In a n in sigh tfu l stu dy, Ah m a n n a n d
Glock [23, p. 418] in dica te th a t th e va lu e of th e
r epor t in cr ea ses a s th e stu den t is h elped to
u n der sta n d wh a t it m ea n s. Th ey sta te th a t
stu den ts a r e n ot u su a lly a ble m ea n in gfu lly
a n d va lidly to a ssess th em selves, bu t th a t th is
n eed n ot be a per m a n en t in a bility. Stu den ts
a r e n ot ta u gh t by tea ch er s to a ssess th em selves, a n d ten d to r ely in stea d on th e ju dgem en ts of oth er s. Ah m a n n a n d Glock convin cin gly a r gu e th a t stu den ts a r e r a r ely in volved
in settin g goa ls, m on itor in g th eir ow n
pr ogr ess, m a k in g decision s, dr aw in g con clu sion s a n d r epor tin g on th eir ow n
per for m a n ce.
Teachers’ reactions
Th e r ole of tea ch er s on ce th e r epor t h a s been
com pleted is often su r pr isin gly lim ited.
Reid[13, p. 87], for exa m ple, h a s con clu ded:
“Th e fin din gs of th is stu dy poin t to th e som ewh a t biza r r e situ a tion wh er e stu den ts discu ss th eir r epor t w idely w ith th eir fr ien ds,
a lm ost u n iver sa lly w ith pa r en ts or
gu a r dia n s, bu t in m a n y ca ses n ot a t a ll w ith
th eir tea ch er s”. Ra r ely do tea ch er s a ppea r to
u se stu den t r epor ts to set fu tu r e lea r n in g
goa ls, a poin t a lr ea dy m a de.Tea ch er s a r e
m or e lik ely to discu ss th e r epor t w ith pa r en ts
on a su bsequ en t occa sion , a lth ou gh th e a tten da n ce of pa r en ts a t su ch m eetin gs ca n be
extr em ely va r ia ble. In th is r espect, Br oa dfoot[2, p. 486] a r gu es for “in ter im su m m a r y
docu m en ts” for pu pils a n d pa r en ts wh ich
m ay be pr ovided a t cer ta in tim es in th e stu den ts’ sch ool ca r eer to h elp to docu m en t both
wh a t th e pu pil h a s a ch ieved in a w ide r a n ge
of a ctivities a n d th e in dividu a l ta r gets wh ich
h ave been a gr eed between pu pil a n d tea ch er
for th e fu tu r e.
Managerial responsibilities in
improving school reporting
E viden ce fr om th e for e goin g liter a tu r e a ttests
to th e n eed to r eth in k sch ool r epor tin g pr ocedu r es to pa r en ts. On e pr oblem is th a t n ot a ll
of th e eviden ce is con sisten t in r evea lin g
clea r dir ection s for im pr ovem en t. Som e pa r en ts, for exa m ple, expr ess a view th a t th ey
wou ld lik e to k n ow th eir ch ild’s position in
cla ss, a fea tu r e of sch ool r epor tin g wh ich h a s
becom e less com m on of la te. Oth er s disa gr ee,
citin g th e n e ga tive effects of su ch a pr a ctice
in lower in g th e m or a le of stu den ts wh o a r e
low ly pla ced. Differ en ces of view a r e often
u sed a s excu ses for in a ction , wh en a m or e
a ppr opr ia te r espon se to va r yin g pa r en ta l a n d
sta k eh older expecta tion s of th e r epor tin g
pr ocess a n d its ou tcom es wou ld be to a tten d
to th em in m or e flexible a n d r espon sive w ays.
E viden ce fr om th e liter a tu r e r eviewed a lso
lea ds to th e con clu sion th a t im pr ovem en ts in
r epor tin g a r e u n lik ely u n less th ey a r e seen
w ith in a m a n a ger ia l con text. Th er e m ay be a
m iscon ception th a t r epor tin g is essen tia lly a
tea ch er -pa r en t pr oblem wh en , in fa ct, it is a
wh ole-sch ool issu e w ith sign ifi ca n t m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza tion a l im plica tion s. Accepta n ce of r espon sibility for m a n a gin g th e
r epor tin g system a n d im pr ovem en ts a n d
ch a n ges m a de to it a r e im per a tives for sch ool
a dm in istr a tor s. Specifica lly, th is stu dy su ggests six w ays in wh ich a dm in istr a tor s ca n
pr om ote im pr ovem en t in sch ool r epor tin g
pr ocedu r es to pa r en ts.
F ir st, sch ool a dm in istr a tor s h ave a r espon sibility for br in gin g togeth er m em ber s of th e
sch ool com m u n ity in or der to pr om ote discu ssion on sch ool r epor tin g a n d w ays in
wh ich it ca n best m eet th eir expecta tion s.
Th is spr in gs fr om a r ea liza tion th a t r epor tin g
ser ves th e r espective in ter ests of stu den ts,
pa r en ts a n d tea ch er s. P r esen t r epor tin g pr ocedu r es m ay n ot be sa tisfyin g th e expecta tion s of a n y on e or a ll of th ese th r ee gr ou ps.
It is a lso lik ely th a t n o sin gle blu epr in t for
r epor tin g w ill be a ppr opr ia te for a ll com m u n ities. Sch ools situ a ted in socio-econ om ic
a r ea s wh er e th e occu pa tion a l str u ctu r e
dem a n ds sh ift wor k , for exa m ple, m ay fin d
little pa r en ta l in ter est in pa r en t even in gs.
Lik ew ise, wh er e th e cu stom s of a pa r ticu la r
socia l gr ou p expr ess a dislik e for, or pla ce a
low pr ior ity on , eith er th e w r itten wor d, or
fa ce to fa ce m eetin gs, th en a sch ool m ay n eed
to a dju st its r epor tin g sch em e a ccor din gly.
Secon d, a dm in istr a tor s ca n play a cr u cia l
r ole in r edefin in g th e pu r pose of sch ool-pa r en t r epor tin g a n d r econ ceptu a lizin g its pla ce
w ith in a cu r r icu lu m con text. As lea der s of
th eir sch ool com m u n ities, a dm in istr a tor s
ca n ta k e r espon sibility for pr om otin g a n ew
vision a n d per spective of r epor tin g wh ile a t
th e sa m e tim e a dvoca tin g th a t con ven tion a l
th in k in g be disca r ded. Tr a dition a lly, r epor tin g is seen a s a fin a l discr ete sta ge in th e
cu r r icu lu m pr ocess. Ma n y tea ch er s, for
in sta n ce, a r e in clin ed to view th e edu ca tive
pr ocess in lin ea r a lgor ith m ic ter m s: th ey
tea ch th e stu den t; th e stu den t lea r n s; th e
stu den t is tested; a n d th e sch ool r epor t to
pa r en ts on th e stu den t’s per for m a n ce th en
follow s a s th e fi n a l step in a lin ea r pr ocess.
Repor tin g th u s pr ovides sn a psh ots of stu den t
[ 155 ]
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and
Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue
Manage rial impe rative s fo r
the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l
re po rting to pare nts
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
per for m a n ce a t cer ta in poin ts in tim e. Th is
con ven tion a l view dim in ish es th e r ea l im por ta n ce of r epor tin g. A n ew m odel is r equ ir ed
wh ich sees r epor tin g a s a n in te gr a l sta ge in
th e cu r r icu lu m -tea ch in g-lea r n in g-testin gfeedba ck cycle. Resea r ch on effective in str u ction [24] r evea ls th e positive effects of feedba ck a n d r ein for cem en t on lea r n in g. Repor tin g sh ou ld m or e a ccu r a tely be seen a s a n on goin g, con tin u ou s pr ocess ca pita lizin g on th e
feedba ck -r ein for cem en t ben efits of th is cycle.
Recen t developm en ts in cu r r icu lu m or ga n iza tion a n d design in m a n y pu blic sch ool system s len d su ppor t to a n ew in te gr a ted m odel
of r epor tin g a s pa r t of a cu r r icu lu m -tea ch in glea r n in g cycle. In th ese pu blic sch ool system s, th e tr a dition a l tea ch in g sylla bu s docu m en ts spellin g ou t th e su bject con ten t wh ich
tea ch er s a r e expected to tea ch a r e bein g
r epla ced by m or e deta iled lea r n in g ou tcom e
docu m en ts specifyin g th e k n ow ledge, sk ills
a n d a ttitu des wh ich stu den ts a r e expected to
lea r n . Th er e is a sw itch of em ph a sis fr om
cu r r icu la fr a m ed in tea ch in g ter m s to lea r n in g pr ocesses a n d ou tcom es. Mor eover, th e
lea r n in g ou tcom es for ea ch a r ea of lea r n in g
a r e often expr essed in levels or sta ges a ccor din g to expected a tta in m en ts for stu den ts a t
differ en t a ges a n d sta ges of developm en t. For
ea ch level or sta ge, pr ofi les of a tta in m en t a r e
u su a lly developed, a llow in g th e pr ogr ess of
in dividu a l stu den ts to be tr a ced a n d m on itor ed in con sider a ble deta il over tim e. Th ese
developm en ts in cu r r icu lu m design a r e con du cive to a m odel of r epor tin g wh ich in tegr a tes it w ith cu r r icu lu m , tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g a n d wh ich r ea lizes its poten tia l a s
a n essen tia l pr a ctice in pr om otin g lea r n in g
r a th er th a n a s a fin a l discr ete sn a psh ot
r ecor d of a stu den t’s a tta in m en t.
“… T h e in tegra tiv e m od el of repor tin g b ein g a dvoca ted , togeth er
w ith tren d s tow a rd s cu r r icu la d efi n ed in ter m s of lea r n in g
ou tcom es a n d profi les, stron gly su ppor ts a m ore fu tu r istic,
proa ctiv e, goa l settin g or ien ta tion … ”
A n ew per spective on r epor tin g wh ich sees it
a s a n in te gr a l pa r t of a cu r r icu lu m -tea ch in glea r n in g cycle is r ein for ced fu r th er by eviden ce fr om th e liter a tu r e r eviewed a n d by
cu r r en t th in k in g on effective lea r n in g, both
of wh ich testify to its poten tia l for pr om otin g
lea r n in g r a th er th a n m er ely a ctin g a s a
r ecor d of pa st a ch ievem en t. Th e liter a tu r e,
for exa m ple, dem on str a tes th a t r epor tin g is
pr esen tly gea r ed to su m m a tive a ssessm en t,
som ewh a t to for m a tive a ssessm en t a n d m u ch
less to dia gn ostic a ssessm en t. Its poten tia l a s
a n a id to lea r n in g th u s r em a in s r ela tively
u n der developed. Ca pita lizin g on th e dia gn ostic ca pa city of r epor tin g wou ld a lso en a ble it
[ 156 ]
to lock in to goa l settin g, a well su ppor ted
a spect of cu r r en t lea r n in g th eor y. A con sider a ble body of r esea r ch n ow su ppor ts th e effica cy of settin g lea r n in g goa ls for in dividu a l
stu den ts. If r epor tin g beca m e m or e dia gn ostic, it cou ld a t th e sa m e tim e be u sed in a
m or e fu tu r istic a n d pr oa ctive ca pa city.
In stea d of ju st r ecor din g stu den ts’ pa st per for m a n ce, r epor tin g cou ld becom e m or e dia gn ostic a s a ba sis for its m or e effective u se in
settin g fu tu r e lea r n in g goa ls. Used a s a n
in str u m en t of goa l settin g in th is w ay, r epor tin g wou ld r equ ir e ca r efu l a n d well con sider ed
dia gn oses of stu den t lea r n in g a bilities, th eir
r a tes of pr ogr ess a n d fu tu r e lea r n in g poten tia l. Th e in te gr a tive m odel of r epor tin g bein g
a dvoca ted, togeth er w ith tr en ds tow a r ds
cu r r icu la defin ed in ter m s of lea r n in g ou tcom es a n d pr ofiles, str on gly su ppor ts a m or e
fu tu r istic, pr oa ctive, goa l settin g or ien ta tion .
Sch ool a dm in istr a tor s h ave a cr u cia l r ole in
pr epa r in g th e cu ltu r e for, a n d su bsequ en tly
im plem en tin g, th is n ew a ppr oa ch to r epor tin g in th eir sch ool com m u n ities.
Th ir d, a dm in istr a tor s h ave a r espon sibility
for en su r in g th a t a ll pa r ties in volved h ave
su fficien t tim e for th e deliver y of a qu a lity
r epor tin g pr ocess. Stu dies on r epor tin g typica lly r evea l th a t tea ch er s’ com pla in ts cen tr e
on a la ck of tim e a s th e m a in obsta cle to oper a tin g a n im pr oved r epor tin g system . Th e
in te gr a l m odel of r epor tin g a dvoca ted h er e
dem a n ds a m ple tim e for k eepin g deta iled
in for m a tion a n d lea r n in g pr ofiles on ea ch
stu den t, a s well a s for pr epa r in g m or e dia gn ostic r epor ts. Th ese, in tu r n , for m th e ba sis
for