An Analysis Of Subordinate Conjunction Found In “One Day” Novel By David Nicholls
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Understanding Syntax
Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make
statements. If we consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is
the rules which put signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce
other utterances. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. Syntax
incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and uttering
sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate the
meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make or
discover the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which
we interpret literature. (www.wikipedia.com retrieved on August 21, 2013)
Hargis (2008:9) says, ―Syntax is the total grammatical identify of a word.‖
For instance, In German, a complex language, a word might be defined as: noun,
masculine, accusative, singular. In English a word might be designated more or less
the same, although the syntax would be a bit simpler: noun, singular, direct object.
Different languages will have different means of designating those syntactical
identities. English is a word-order language. In the sentence "John kissed Mary,"
word order tells us who is doing the kissing and who is receiving it. Being a case
language, suffixes tell us the subject of a sentence, the object and so forth. Words
may be listed in any order and the listener can hear by those suffixes who the subject
is and who the object is.
Syntax looks at the rules of a language, particularly how the various parts of
sentences go together. While similar to morphology, which looks at how the smallest
8
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meaningful linguistic units, called morphemes, are formed into complete words,
syntax examines how fully formed words fit together to create complete and
understandable sentences. Understanding a language's syntax is important for
understanding what makes a sentence grammatically correct.
2.2
The Description of Conjunction
Before discussing about subordinating conjunctions, it is better to describe
conjunction first. Conjunction has various definitions based on different
grammarians. The word conjunction derived from Latin which means a joining
together. Bernard in Ginting (2008:6) states that conjunctions are words which join
other words or group of words. Wren and Martin (1989:128) say that conjunction is a
word which merely joins together sentences, and some words. Frank (1985:206) says
that conjunctions are member of small class that have no characteristic form, their
function are chiefly as non moveable structure words that join such unit as parts of
speech, phrases, or clauses.
2.3. Types of Conjunction
Conjunctions come in three board types; they are coordinating conjunctions,
correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.
2.3.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of
words, but they must always join similar elements: e.g. subject + subject, verb
phrase + verb phrase, sentence + sentence. When a coordinating conjunction is used
to join elements, the element becomes a compound element. Kinds of coordinating
9
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conjunctions are for , and, nor , but, or , yet, so (usually known as FANBOYS for the
acronym).
When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is
often (but not always) accompanied by a comma. For example: Dicky wants to play
for the university team, but he has trouble meeting the academic requirements.
When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction
are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma. For example: Diana
has a great jump shot but she isn't quick on her feet.
The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses
connected by a coordinating conjunction. A comma is also correct when and is used
to attach the last item of a serial list, although many writers (especially in
newspapers) will omit that final comma. For example: Brian spent his summer
studying basic math, writing and reading comprehension.
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a
series, a comma is not used. For example: University of Indonesia and Gadjah Mada
University and Padjajaran University are the most favorite universities chosen by
senior high school graduation.
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses,
that is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of
a comma.
Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt.
They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him
mayor
.
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Universitas Sumatera Utara
2.3.2 Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind:
however, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are always used
in pairs. When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb
determines whether the verb is singular or plural. Kinds of correlative conjunctions
are both … and, not only … but also, not … but, neither … nor, either … or, whether
… or. For examples:
a. Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
b. Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven.
c. Neither the orchestra nor the chorus was able to overcome the terrible
acoustics in the church.
d. Not only does Sue raise money for the symphony, but she also ushers at all of
their concerts.
2.3.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are words or phrases that connect a dependent
clause or adjective or adverbial phrase to an independent clause. The dependent
clauses provide context and description for the independent clause; in short, it adds
information that isn't the direct focus of the sentence but is important in adding time,
place, or reasons to the sentence. What subordinate conjunctions do so well is to
connect information. Instead of having two short independent clauses that make for a
choppy, difficult to read style, subordinate conjunctions allow to connect sentences
and to show relationships. Subordinating conjunctions can show that one idea is
more important than another. The idea in the main clause is more important, while
the idea in the subordinate clause (made subordinate by the subordinating
conjunction) is less important.
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The subordinate clause supplies a time, reason, condition, etc. for the main
clause. It modifies the independent clause in some way, or acts as a part of speech in
relation to the independent clause.
Wren and Martin (1989:142) say that a subordinating conjunction joins a
clause to another clause or which it depends for its full meaning. Bender and
Emerson (1908:66) state that subordinating conjunction can join the main clause with
the subordinate clause. Furthermore Frank (1985:215) says that a subordinate
conjunction introduces a clause that depends on a main or independent clause. The
subordinate conjunction is grammatically part of the clause it introduces.
Honegger (2005:75) says that English has a wide range of subordinate
conjunctions: that, if, though, because, when, after, and so forth. They are placed
before a complete sentence or independent clause to make that clause dependent.
This dependent clause now needs to attach to another clause that is independent
otherwise a sentence fragment results.
Basically, a subordinate conjunction will connect a main clause and a
subordinate one. If a subordinate clause appears at the beginning of a complex
sentence, it must be separated from the independent clause by a comma. Example:
After she finished her homework, Monica went shopping.
Subordinating conjunctions are placed at the front of the subordinate clause.
This clause can come either before or after the main clause. Subordinators are
usually a single word, but there are also a number of multi-word subordinators that
function like single subordinating conjunctions. Subordinators make the clause
depend on the rest of the sentence in order to make sense. Comma should be put at
the end of an adverbial phrase when it precedes the main clause. Example: Monica
went shopping after she finished her homework. Usually, no comma is needed before
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a subordinating conjunction if the dependent clause follows the independent
clause. But if the subordinating conjunction in a complex sentence is whereas,
though, although, or even though, a comma is needed to show separation between
the two clauses.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions such as after , before,
since are also prepositions but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a
clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the
sentence.
Most subordinate clauses are signaled by the use of a subordinating
conjunction. There are three main types:
a. Simple subordinators consist of one word: although, if, since, that, unless, until,
whereas, while, etc.
b.
Complex subordinators consist of more than one word: in order that, such that,
granted (that), assuming (that), so (that), as long as, insofar as, in case , etc.
c. Correlative subordinators consist of 'pairs' of words which relate two parts of the
sentence: as . . . so . . ., scarcely . . . when . . ., if . . . then . . ., etc.
The subordinating conjunctions have two jobs. First, they provide a necessary
transition between the two ideas in the sentence. The transition will indicate a t ime,
place, or cause and effect relationship. Here are some examples:
a. We look on top of the refrigerator where Jenny often hides a bag of chocolate
chip cookies
b. Because her teeth were chattering in fear, Linda clenched her jaw muscle while
waiting for her turn to audition
The second job of the subordinate conjunction is to reduce the importance of
one clause so that a reader understands which of the two ideas is more important.
13
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The more important idea belongs in the main clause, the less important in the clause
introduced by the subordinate conjunction. Read these examples:
a. As Samson blew out the birthday candles atop the cake, he burned the tip of
his nose on a stubborn flame
Burning his nose → blowing out candles
b. Ronnie begins to sneeze violently whenever he opens the door to greet a fresh
spring day.
Sneezing violently → opening the door
2.3.3.1 Kinds of Subordinating Conjunctions
In English, subordinating conjunction can be classified, as follows:
(1) Time
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing time.
They are: after, as, before, until, since, when, while, whenever, once, as soon as.
Examples:
a. Julie will work in her father’s law firm after she graduates this year .
b. As the man walked in the park, he saw an attractive lady.
c. My mom is talking with our new neighbor when the phone rings.
d. The secretary has crushed on the new manager since he helped her .
e. Whenever a country goes to war, certain freedoms in that country may be
compromised.
(2) Reason or Cause
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing reason or
cause. They are: because, since, as.
Examples:
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a. Those girls looked so happy because they just met their idol.
b. Jack cried since his brother broke his new toy
.
c. As the war is being fought in the Middle East, oil prices will continue to rise.
(3) Place
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing place.
They are: where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere.
Examples:
a. This is where we first met.
b. I will go wherever you will go.
(4) Manner
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing manner.
They are: as if, as though.
Examples:
a. Your face is very pale as if you see a ghost.
b. Uncle sang as though he was a professional singer .
(5) Purpose or Result
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing purpose
or result. They are: so, so that, in order that, that.
Examples:
a. We wake up early so we can see the sun rises.
b. You have to exercise regularly so that you can get your perfect shape.
c. I am always doing that which I can’t do in order that I may learn how to do it.
(6) Condition
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing
condition. They are: if, unless.
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Examples:
a. If I had to live my life again, I would make the same mistakes, only sooner .
b. Unless you get married, you must live with your parents.
(7) Concession or Contrast
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing
concession or contrast: although, though, even though, even if, while, whereas.
Examples:
a. Although Bella performed nicely, she didn’t win the competition.
b. Mr. Ryan will finish the job even if he is not well.
c. Even though the price of the food in that restaurant is expensive, many people
like eating there.
(8) Comparison
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing
comparison. They are: than, more than, less than, as….as.
Examples:
a. The new staff has to make bigger profit this month than he usually does.
b. Ruth has drawn a new drawing as lovely as you did last week.
2.3.3.2 Most Frequently Used of Subordinating Conjunctions
There are some common subordinating conjunctions which are frequently
used
in
English
(http://www.abaenglish.com/english-grammar-subordinating-
conjunctions/ retrieved on June 22, 2013):
(1) After means later than the time that.
Examples:
a. Call me after you arrive at work.
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b. After you had finished washing the plates, you were allowed to leave.
(2) Before means earlier than the time that.
Examples:
a. Come and visit me before you leave.
b. Before she left, she had written some notes.
(3) Although: despite the fact that (used to introduce a fact that makes another fact
unusual or surprising).
Examples:
a. Although she was tired, she couldn’t sleep.
b. Fiona will take the risk although she doesn’t know anything about this
project.
(4) Because means for the reason that.
Examples:
a. I painted the house because it was a horrible color .
b. Because we didn’t have much money, we used to eat noodles.
(5) Since means to introduce a statement that explains the reason for another
statement.
Examples:
a. You can go outside and play since you’ve studied so well.
b. Since the kids have helped me, they can eat candies.
(6) If means to talk about the result or effect of something that may happen or be
true.
Examples:
a. It would be fantastic if you could come to the party.
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b. If the party hadn’t been so crowded, my parents wouldn’t have been so
angry.
(7) Than means to introduce the second or last of two or more things or people that
are being compared (used with the comparative form of an adjective or adverb).
Examples:
a. My sister is older than I am.
b. The service she offers is better than you have offered.
(8) That means to introduce a clause that states a reason or purpose.
Examples:
a.
Olivia is so happy that it’s summer again.
b. Maria had many things to do that she forgot to have lunch.
(9) When means at or during the time that something happened.
Examples:
a. A teacher is good when he inspires his students.
b. When the neighbor was out of town, someone broke into their house.
(10) Where means at or in the place that something happened.
Examples:
a. That is the place where he was last seen.
b. Don’t go to places where I can’t see you!
(11) Until: up to the time or point that something happened. Examples:
a. We stayed up talking until the sun came up.
b. Please stay here until your father picks you up!
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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Understanding Syntax
Basically, syntax is the rules by which signs are combined to make
statements. If we consider the words of a language to be its signs, then its syntax is
the rules which put signs together to make statements, ask questions, and produce
other utterances. Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. Syntax
incorporates the grammar of phrases, clauses, and sentences. Producing and uttering
sentences is an important part of how we make sense of our world. We articulate the
meaning of our experience in words; in the process of articulate, we make or
discover the meaning of the experience. This process is similar to the ways in which
we interpret literature. (www.wikipedia.com retrieved on August 21, 2013)
Hargis (2008:9) says, ―Syntax is the total grammatical identify of a word.‖
For instance, In German, a complex language, a word might be defined as: noun,
masculine, accusative, singular. In English a word might be designated more or less
the same, although the syntax would be a bit simpler: noun, singular, direct object.
Different languages will have different means of designating those syntactical
identities. English is a word-order language. In the sentence "John kissed Mary,"
word order tells us who is doing the kissing and who is receiving it. Being a case
language, suffixes tell us the subject of a sentence, the object and so forth. Words
may be listed in any order and the listener can hear by those suffixes who the subject
is and who the object is.
Syntax looks at the rules of a language, particularly how the various parts of
sentences go together. While similar to morphology, which looks at how the smallest
8
Universitas Sumatera Utara
meaningful linguistic units, called morphemes, are formed into complete words,
syntax examines how fully formed words fit together to create complete and
understandable sentences. Understanding a language's syntax is important for
understanding what makes a sentence grammatically correct.
2.2
The Description of Conjunction
Before discussing about subordinating conjunctions, it is better to describe
conjunction first. Conjunction has various definitions based on different
grammarians. The word conjunction derived from Latin which means a joining
together. Bernard in Ginting (2008:6) states that conjunctions are words which join
other words or group of words. Wren and Martin (1989:128) say that conjunction is a
word which merely joins together sentences, and some words. Frank (1985:206) says
that conjunctions are member of small class that have no characteristic form, their
function are chiefly as non moveable structure words that join such unit as parts of
speech, phrases, or clauses.
2.3. Types of Conjunction
Conjunctions come in three board types; they are coordinating conjunctions,
correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.
2.3.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of
words, but they must always join similar elements: e.g. subject + subject, verb
phrase + verb phrase, sentence + sentence. When a coordinating conjunction is used
to join elements, the element becomes a compound element. Kinds of coordinating
9
Universitas Sumatera Utara
conjunctions are for , and, nor , but, or , yet, so (usually known as FANBOYS for the
acronym).
When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is
often (but not always) accompanied by a comma. For example: Dicky wants to play
for the university team, but he has trouble meeting the academic requirements.
When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction
are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma. For example: Diana
has a great jump shot but she isn't quick on her feet.
The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses
connected by a coordinating conjunction. A comma is also correct when and is used
to attach the last item of a serial list, although many writers (especially in
newspapers) will omit that final comma. For example: Brian spent his summer
studying basic math, writing and reading comprehension.
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a
series, a comma is not used. For example: University of Indonesia and Gadjah Mada
University and Padjajaran University are the most favorite universities chosen by
senior high school graduation.
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses,
that is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of
a comma.
Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt.
They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him
mayor
.
10
Universitas Sumatera Utara
2.3.2 Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind:
however, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are always used
in pairs. When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb
determines whether the verb is singular or plural. Kinds of correlative conjunctions
are both … and, not only … but also, not … but, neither … nor, either … or, whether
… or. For examples:
a. Both my sister and my brother play the piano.
b. Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven.
c. Neither the orchestra nor the chorus was able to overcome the terrible
acoustics in the church.
d. Not only does Sue raise money for the symphony, but she also ushers at all of
their concerts.
2.3.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are words or phrases that connect a dependent
clause or adjective or adverbial phrase to an independent clause. The dependent
clauses provide context and description for the independent clause; in short, it adds
information that isn't the direct focus of the sentence but is important in adding time,
place, or reasons to the sentence. What subordinate conjunctions do so well is to
connect information. Instead of having two short independent clauses that make for a
choppy, difficult to read style, subordinate conjunctions allow to connect sentences
and to show relationships. Subordinating conjunctions can show that one idea is
more important than another. The idea in the main clause is more important, while
the idea in the subordinate clause (made subordinate by the subordinating
conjunction) is less important.
11
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The subordinate clause supplies a time, reason, condition, etc. for the main
clause. It modifies the independent clause in some way, or acts as a part of speech in
relation to the independent clause.
Wren and Martin (1989:142) say that a subordinating conjunction joins a
clause to another clause or which it depends for its full meaning. Bender and
Emerson (1908:66) state that subordinating conjunction can join the main clause with
the subordinate clause. Furthermore Frank (1985:215) says that a subordinate
conjunction introduces a clause that depends on a main or independent clause. The
subordinate conjunction is grammatically part of the clause it introduces.
Honegger (2005:75) says that English has a wide range of subordinate
conjunctions: that, if, though, because, when, after, and so forth. They are placed
before a complete sentence or independent clause to make that clause dependent.
This dependent clause now needs to attach to another clause that is independent
otherwise a sentence fragment results.
Basically, a subordinate conjunction will connect a main clause and a
subordinate one. If a subordinate clause appears at the beginning of a complex
sentence, it must be separated from the independent clause by a comma. Example:
After she finished her homework, Monica went shopping.
Subordinating conjunctions are placed at the front of the subordinate clause.
This clause can come either before or after the main clause. Subordinators are
usually a single word, but there are also a number of multi-word subordinators that
function like single subordinating conjunctions. Subordinators make the clause
depend on the rest of the sentence in order to make sense. Comma should be put at
the end of an adverbial phrase when it precedes the main clause. Example: Monica
went shopping after she finished her homework. Usually, no comma is needed before
12
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a subordinating conjunction if the dependent clause follows the independent
clause. But if the subordinating conjunction in a complex sentence is whereas,
though, although, or even though, a comma is needed to show separation between
the two clauses.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions such as after , before,
since are also prepositions but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a
clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the
sentence.
Most subordinate clauses are signaled by the use of a subordinating
conjunction. There are three main types:
a. Simple subordinators consist of one word: although, if, since, that, unless, until,
whereas, while, etc.
b.
Complex subordinators consist of more than one word: in order that, such that,
granted (that), assuming (that), so (that), as long as, insofar as, in case , etc.
c. Correlative subordinators consist of 'pairs' of words which relate two parts of the
sentence: as . . . so . . ., scarcely . . . when . . ., if . . . then . . ., etc.
The subordinating conjunctions have two jobs. First, they provide a necessary
transition between the two ideas in the sentence. The transition will indicate a t ime,
place, or cause and effect relationship. Here are some examples:
a. We look on top of the refrigerator where Jenny often hides a bag of chocolate
chip cookies
b. Because her teeth were chattering in fear, Linda clenched her jaw muscle while
waiting for her turn to audition
The second job of the subordinate conjunction is to reduce the importance of
one clause so that a reader understands which of the two ideas is more important.
13
Universitas Sumatera Utara
The more important idea belongs in the main clause, the less important in the clause
introduced by the subordinate conjunction. Read these examples:
a. As Samson blew out the birthday candles atop the cake, he burned the tip of
his nose on a stubborn flame
Burning his nose → blowing out candles
b. Ronnie begins to sneeze violently whenever he opens the door to greet a fresh
spring day.
Sneezing violently → opening the door
2.3.3.1 Kinds of Subordinating Conjunctions
In English, subordinating conjunction can be classified, as follows:
(1) Time
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing time.
They are: after, as, before, until, since, when, while, whenever, once, as soon as.
Examples:
a. Julie will work in her father’s law firm after she graduates this year .
b. As the man walked in the park, he saw an attractive lady.
c. My mom is talking with our new neighbor when the phone rings.
d. The secretary has crushed on the new manager since he helped her .
e. Whenever a country goes to war, certain freedoms in that country may be
compromised.
(2) Reason or Cause
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing reason or
cause. They are: because, since, as.
Examples:
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a. Those girls looked so happy because they just met their idol.
b. Jack cried since his brother broke his new toy
.
c. As the war is being fought in the Middle East, oil prices will continue to rise.
(3) Place
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing place.
They are: where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere.
Examples:
a. This is where we first met.
b. I will go wherever you will go.
(4) Manner
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing manner.
They are: as if, as though.
Examples:
a. Your face is very pale as if you see a ghost.
b. Uncle sang as though he was a professional singer .
(5) Purpose or Result
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing purpose
or result. They are: so, so that, in order that, that.
Examples:
a. We wake up early so we can see the sun rises.
b. You have to exercise regularly so that you can get your perfect shape.
c. I am always doing that which I can’t do in order that I may learn how to do it.
(6) Condition
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing
condition. They are: if, unless.
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Examples:
a. If I had to live my life again, I would make the same mistakes, only sooner .
b. Unless you get married, you must live with your parents.
(7) Concession or Contrast
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing
concession or contrast: although, though, even though, even if, while, whereas.
Examples:
a. Although Bella performed nicely, she didn’t win the competition.
b. Mr. Ryan will finish the job even if he is not well.
c. Even though the price of the food in that restaurant is expensive, many people
like eating there.
(8) Comparison
There are some kinds of subordinating conjunction in English showing
comparison. They are: than, more than, less than, as….as.
Examples:
a. The new staff has to make bigger profit this month than he usually does.
b. Ruth has drawn a new drawing as lovely as you did last week.
2.3.3.2 Most Frequently Used of Subordinating Conjunctions
There are some common subordinating conjunctions which are frequently
used
in
English
(http://www.abaenglish.com/english-grammar-subordinating-
conjunctions/ retrieved on June 22, 2013):
(1) After means later than the time that.
Examples:
a. Call me after you arrive at work.
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b. After you had finished washing the plates, you were allowed to leave.
(2) Before means earlier than the time that.
Examples:
a. Come and visit me before you leave.
b. Before she left, she had written some notes.
(3) Although: despite the fact that (used to introduce a fact that makes another fact
unusual or surprising).
Examples:
a. Although she was tired, she couldn’t sleep.
b. Fiona will take the risk although she doesn’t know anything about this
project.
(4) Because means for the reason that.
Examples:
a. I painted the house because it was a horrible color .
b. Because we didn’t have much money, we used to eat noodles.
(5) Since means to introduce a statement that explains the reason for another
statement.
Examples:
a. You can go outside and play since you’ve studied so well.
b. Since the kids have helped me, they can eat candies.
(6) If means to talk about the result or effect of something that may happen or be
true.
Examples:
a. It would be fantastic if you could come to the party.
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b. If the party hadn’t been so crowded, my parents wouldn’t have been so
angry.
(7) Than means to introduce the second or last of two or more things or people that
are being compared (used with the comparative form of an adjective or adverb).
Examples:
a. My sister is older than I am.
b. The service she offers is better than you have offered.
(8) That means to introduce a clause that states a reason or purpose.
Examples:
a.
Olivia is so happy that it’s summer again.
b. Maria had many things to do that she forgot to have lunch.
(9) When means at or during the time that something happened.
Examples:
a. A teacher is good when he inspires his students.
b. When the neighbor was out of town, someone broke into their house.
(10) Where means at or in the place that something happened.
Examples:
a. That is the place where he was last seen.
b. Don’t go to places where I can’t see you!
(11) Until: up to the time or point that something happened. Examples:
a. We stayed up talking until the sun came up.
b. Please stay here until your father picks you up!
18
Universitas Sumatera Utara