Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Sarjana Sastra Degree in the English Department By WINDA ISTRINA C0305060

THESIS

Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Sarjana Sastra Degree in the English Department

By WINDA ISTRINA

C0305060

English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Surakarta 2010

CODE CHOICES BY THE TWO MAIN CHARACTERS IN THE MOVIE ENTITLED “RUSH HOUR 2” (Based on Socio-Pragmatics Approach)

By

Winda Istrina

C0305060

Approved to be examined before the Broad of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Thesis Consultant

Drs. Sri. Marmanto, M. Hum NIP. 195009011986011001

The Head of English Department of Regular Program

Dr. Djatmika, M. A NIP. 196707261993021001

CODE CHOICES BY THE TWO MAIN CHARACTERS IN THE MOVIE ENTITLED “RUSH HOUR 2” (Based on Socio-Pragmatics Approach)

By

Winda Istrina

C0305060

Accepted and Approved by the board of examiners of Broad of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University on January 2010

Position

Signature Chairman Dr. Tri Wiratno, M. A

Dr. Djatmika, M. A

NIP. 196707261993021001

First examiner

Dr. Sri Marmanto, M. Hum

NIP. 195009011986011001

Second examiner Drs. Sugiyarto Budi Waskito, M. Pd ( ) NIP. 195211081983031001

The Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Drs. Sudarno, M. A NIP. 195303141985061001

PRONOUNCEMENT

Name : Winda Istrina NIM : C0305060

Stated wholeheartedly of the thesis entitled Code Choices by the Two

Main Characters in the Movie Entitled “Rush Hour 2” (Based on Socio-

Pragmatics Approach) is originally made by the researcher. It is not a plagiarism nor made by others. The things related to other people’s works are written in quotation and included in the bibliography.

If it is then proved that the research cheats, the researcher is ready to take the responsibilities.

Surakarta, January 2010

Winda Istrina

MOTTO

“… surely with difficulty is ease. With difficulty is surely ease. So, when you are free,

nominated. And make your Lord your exclusive object.” (Holy Qur’an, 94: 7-8)

What do we live for if it is not to make less difficult for each other? (George Eliot)

Don’t be worried about tomorrow because tomorrow has not come,

AND Don’t be afraid of today because today will be end.

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to: My beloved “babe”and “ibuk” My lovely ‘brother’ in heaven, my sister and my little cute nephew, Ichal My future groom My lovely friends My self

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Alhamdulillahi rabbil ‘alamiin

All praises are just for the Almighty God, Allah SWT and the prophet Muhammad SAW for the blessing so that I can have the capability to complete this thesis. Many sides had given a lot of assistance from the beginning to completion for this thesis. Therefore, I would like to express my gratitude to all people as follow:

1. The Dean of faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University, Drs. Sudarno, M.A.

2. The Head of English Regular Program, Dr. Djatmika, MA.

3. My thesis consultant, Drs. Sri Marmanto, M. Hum for the guidance, patience and critical advice to finish this thesis.

4. My academic consultant, M. Taufiq Al Makmun, S.S for all the guidance since last four wonderful years.

5. All lectures in English Department who have enriched my knowledge.

6. My beloved “Babe” and “Ibuk” for your never ending love, support, pray, and patience, devotion, affection and everything.

7. My ‘brother’ in heaven and my sister Anis Setyaningsih for giving me such a great love and support.

8. My future groom, Nit-Not (Insyaallah) for your support, care, and love.

9. My lovely friends, Napiz, Epha, Peya,and Benk-benk thanks for the love, fun time, and wonderful companionship. Thanks to you all who never stop to remind and support me to finish this thesis. Love you so girls.

10. The Chomskies 2005 (Pitria, Ratih, Dini, Anggi, Arif, Hesti, Lilis, Melon, Chemitz, Sari, Irena, Dian, and so on) thanks for the cooperation in Linguistics Study and for the nice jacket.

11. All my friends in English Department 2005 (Sony, Nunik, Yogi, Alwi, Intan, Joe, Astri, Hemi, Wunendro, Ebsy and everyone whom I cannot mention one by one). Thanks for our wonderful togetherness and keep our spirit by yelling “2005 SEMANGAT”

12. My Black English consultant, Miss Sarah, for all the guidance and nice meeting.

13. My Chinese consultant, Dek Putri, for the assistance.

14. All sides who give support and assistance directly or indirectly.

I have tried my best in conducting this thesis. However, I realize this thesis is not perfect. Therefore, I expect some advices and supporting criticism to make this thesis give contribution for everyone.

Researcher

Winda Istrina

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1 Social Distance Scale………………………………………………...16 Figure 2 Status Scale ………………………………………………………….17 Figure 3 Formality Scale………………………………………………………18 Figure 4 Referential and Affective Functional Scale………………………….18

LIST OF TABLE

Table 1 Some Examples of Syntactic Differences between Standard and Non- Standard English……………………………………………...……….…………25 Table 2 The Types of Code Choices and the Social Meanings in Choosing the Codes Employed by the Two Main Characters in the Movie Entitled “Rush Hour 2”…………………………………………………………………………………80

ABSTRACT

Winda Istrina. C0305060. 2010. Code Choices by the Two Main Characters in the Movie Entitled “RushHour2” (Based on Socio-Pragmatics Approach). Thesis: English Department. Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts. Sebelas Maret University. Surakarta

The research focused on the code choices by the two main characters in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”. It was conducted to find out the code choices by the two main characters in “Rush Hour 2” and reveal the reasons in choosing the codes which relate to the social meanings.

The research was a case study of sociolinguistics-pragmatics which employed descriptive qualitative method. In taking the data, the researcher used total sampling technique. The researcher took the whole part of dialogue containing codes used by the main characters in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”. The researcher found two results in this research.

The first result is that there are four codes used by the main characters in “Rush Hour 2”. The first code is English which is classified into three, Formal English used in formal situation, Colloquial English used in informal situation, and Black English used by a Black American people. The second code is Chinese. The researcher found Chinese Hanyu (Hanyu Sa) used in formal situation. The third code is Switching between codes which consists of two, namely Switching from English into Chinese and Switching from Chinese into English. The last code is Mixing between codes, i.e. Mixing between English and Chinese

The second result is the social meanings in choosing the codes employed by the two main characters in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”. Formal English has one social meaning, namely to show respect. Colloquial English interprets two social meanings, i.e. to show intimacy and avoid misunderstanding. There are three social meanings which are involved in Black English; they are to show intimacy, anger, and surprise. Chinese describes three social meanings, namely: to show respect, solidarity, and avoid misunderstanding. Switching between codes has three meanings, i.e. to show respect, emphasize the message, and avoid misunderstanding. Mixing between codes reveals two social meanings, namely to show

joke

and

incompetence.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background

Language is the most important means of communication among people in social interaction. No human can live without language and language cannot be used without society. The society depends upon and is shaped by language, and vice versa (Chaika, 1982). Through language, people can express ideas, opinions, feelings, experiences, messages, and so on easily. Thus, language in use has an integral relationship with the society.

In a social interaction, the contact between one language and other languages may happen. People in bilingual and multilingual society may choose different languages which are used appropriately when they are communicating each others. Chaika argues that “bilingualism is the term used to mention people who speak more than one language. They may have different levels of proficiency in each of language and they use both languages for very different social purposes and in different social situations” (1994: 34). Multilingualism is a sociolinguistic situation in which more than one language involved (Trudgill, 1992:53). It means that in a multilingual nation one must choose between two or more different languages. United States of America is one example of many countries where the residents speak more than one language.

In America, there are many people who live as immigrants, such as Chinese and African. These immigrants will try to make some adaptations to the new condition of the new country. They have to learn new things like rules, customs, social matters and especially languages. When the immigrants are in an adaptation process, they sometimes still bring their own specific backgrounds In America, there are many people who live as immigrants, such as Chinese and African. These immigrants will try to make some adaptations to the new condition of the new country. They have to learn new things like rules, customs, social matters and especially languages. When the immigrants are in an adaptation process, they sometimes still bring their own specific backgrounds

The differences bring demands for two or more languages which make the speakers need to use different codes in different situation. In choosing the codes, people should choose which codes are appropriate used in certain occasion. Therefore, they should pay attention to the important elements formulated in speaking by Dell Hymes, they are setting, participants, ends, act sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms, and genre (Hymes, 1992: 23). In addition, Janet Holmes (1992: 26) states that there is a very general concept which draws on three important social factors in code choice, namely participant, setting, and topic. It is useful for capturing broad generalizations about any speech community. This is often particularly useful for bilingual and multilingual speech communities.

According to Ralph Fasold, there are three possibilities in language choice. The first possibility is to choose between two languages. It involves code switching. The second one, more subtle than the previous one, is code mixing where pieces of language are used while a speaker is using another language. The last one is variation within the same language (1984: 180-181).

Related to all the explanation, the researcher is interested in exploring the choice of codes. The researcher does a research on code choices employed by the two main characters in “Rush Hour 2”. The movie tells about two personal agents who work for America. They are inspector Lee (Chinese) and detective Carter (Black American). It is started in Hong Kong where Carter wants a relaxing vacation but Lee just wants to do police work. This contrast causes a dispute between them. But in the end, they work together to raise the truth. Lee and Carter are handling a case of American embassy bombing that kills two American agents. Ricky Tan (Chinese) is the suspected. He plays an instrumental role in Lee’s father death, who is now the leader of the Triads, the most deadly gang in all of China. Ricky Tan not only involves in bombing case, but also gets Related to all the explanation, the researcher is interested in exploring the choice of codes. The researcher does a research on code choices employed by the two main characters in “Rush Hour 2”. The movie tells about two personal agents who work for America. They are inspector Lee (Chinese) and detective Carter (Black American). It is started in Hong Kong where Carter wants a relaxing vacation but Lee just wants to do police work. This contrast causes a dispute between them. But in the end, they work together to raise the truth. Lee and Carter are handling a case of American embassy bombing that kills two American agents. Ricky Tan (Chinese) is the suspected. He plays an instrumental role in Lee’s father death, who is now the leader of the Triads, the most deadly gang in all of China. Ricky Tan not only involves in bombing case, but also gets

This movie is very interesting because of the difference code choices applied by the characters. There are several codes used in this movie, such as English, Black English, and Chinese. The utterance employed by Carter is one the example of code choices. Carter uses different code when he is speaking to different participants in different social context. He chooses Chinese code to address Chinese people. While he speaks in Black English code when he is expressing his feeling, such as anger, joke, and surprise. Carter is Black man, therefore, Black English code as his mother tongue includes in his speech spontaneously. Another example is code choices employed by Lee. He uses different codes when he is talking in different social context. It occurs since Lee has his own reason in choosing the codes, for instance to show respect.

To give a little description of what the researcher put forward, some examples as follows:

1. Hong Kong, on driving at night. Superintendent Chin gives information to Lee about a bombing case.

Lee

: Wei….! [Hallo….!]

Superintendent Chin : Lee, zai mei guo das hi guan you zha dan. [There was a bombing at American Embassy] Liang ge mei guo fan yi yuan shou hai. [Two American translators were killed.]

Lee

: You qi ta bao gao?

[Any leads]

Superintendent Chin : Wo men ren wei na shi Ricky Tan.

[We think it’s Ricky Tan] Ta he qi ta zai zhe ye zong hui de hei dang cheng yuan. [His entire of gang Triads is at the club tonight] Ru guo ni bu yao jing shou zhe ge an jian wo neng gou li jie. [If you don’t want to take the case, I’ll understand]

Lee

: Pu mei kuan si.

[No, it’s okay.]

2. Hong Kong, at day in the police office. Superintendent Chin introduces Agent Sterling to Lee.

Lee

: Good afternoon, Sir!

Superintendent Chin : Lee….. Lee

: Yes, Sir!

Superintendent Chin : This is Special Agent Sterling from the

United States Secret Service.

Lee

: The Secret Service? Why?

In the first example, the conversation takes place in Hong Kong at day in the police office. The dialogue above shows that there are two participants, Lee and Superintendent Chin. Lee is on driving with his friend, Carter. They are on vacation in Hong Kong. When Lee and Carter sing a song, Lee’s cellular is ring. It In the first example, the conversation takes place in Hong Kong at day in the police office. The dialogue above shows that there are two participants, Lee and Superintendent Chin. Lee is on driving with his friend, Carter. They are on vacation in Hong Kong. When Lee and Carter sing a song, Lee’s cellular is ring. It

While in the second example, the conversation takes place in the Hong Kong police station. Superintendent Chin introduces Agent Sterling to Lee. Agent Sterling wants to discuss about the American embassy bombing case that kills two American agents.

The two examples above show that the same addressor (Lee) uses different codes when he is talking to the same addressee (Superintendent Chin). Besides that, he has similar reason in delivering the message, i.e. Lee interprets a social meaning to show respect. In the first example, Lee chooses Chinese code when

he is talking to Superintendent Chin. He wants to give respect to Superintendent Chin since Chin has higher position than Lee. Chinese code which is used by Lee is Chinese Hanyu (Hanyu Sa). Hanyu Sa is a variety of Chinese code employed in formal situation. Therefore, the conversation between Lee and Superintendent Chin is in formal situation since talk about the important case about American embassy bombing. While, the second example identifies that Lee chooses Formal English code. Lee, here, wants to show his respect to Superintendent Chin by giving greeting Good afternoon and addressing Sir. He likes to choose Formal English code better than Chinese code when Lee is speaking to Superintendent

Chin. It is caused by the existence of 3 rd participant, namely Agent Sterling who is

a White man. The different codes applied by Lee above reflect that a speaker has to

consider not only the structure of the language but also the context of situation or the structure of the society. In other words, the code choices always correlate with communicative competence of the speaker.

Based on the phenomenon above, the researcher is interested in analyzing the code choices employed by the two main characters in “Rush Hour 2”. The research’s aim is to find out the types of code choices and to reveal the social meanings in choosing the codes used by the two main characters in “Rush Hour

2”. Hence the study going to be conducted is entitled CODE CHOICES BY

THE TWO MAIN CHARACTERS IN THE MOVIE ENTITLED “RUSH HOUR 2”

B. Problem Statements

Based on the research background, the researcher proposes some problem statements as follows:

1. What are the types of code choices employed by the two main characters found in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”?

2. Why do the two main characters choose the codes in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”?

C. Research Objectives

The research objectives are to:

1. Find out the types of code choices employed by the two main characters found in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”.

2. Reveal the social meanings in choosing the codes used by the two main characters in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”.

D. Problem Limitations

In doing the research, the researcher does not analyze code choices by the all characters in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”. The problems in this research will be limited to the code choices by the two main characters in “Rush Hour 2” by using socio-pragmatics approach. This is because not all characters speak in different codes and it will too large to be analyzed. It, therefore will discuss about the types of code choices and the social meanings in choosing the codes by the two main characters found in “Rush Hour 2”.

E. Research Benefits

There are two kinds of benefits that can be achieved in this research, they are: theoretical benefits and practical benefits.

1. Theoretical benefits:

a. This research can describe the varieties of English code, namely Formal English, Colloquial English, and Black English.

b. This research will give additional contributions to the development of sociolinguistics and pragmatics especially code choices phenomenon in the movie.

2. Practical benefits:

a. Film directors in comprehending the code choices in movie, especially the movie which involved characters from different social backgrounds.

b. All movie lovers to know further about the code choices in movie.

c. Sociolinguistics researchers in getting evidences or references for further research about code choices.

d. Students of Sociolinguistics in comprehending code choices analysis.

e. Sociolinguistics lecturers in getting further evidence in code choices study.

F. Research Methodology

This research will be a descriptive qualitative research. By using this method, this research will be conducted by collecting, classifying, analyzing data, and then drawing the conclusion. The data source of this research is movie entitled “Rush Hour 2". The researcher analyzes all code choices employed by the two main characters; therefore, this research applies total sampling technique. Further explanation about the research method of this analysis will be discussed in Chapter III.

G. Thesis Organization

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION that consists of Research Background, Problem Statements, Research Objectives, Problem Limitations, Research Benefits, Research Methodology, and Thesis Organization.

CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW that covers the Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Socio-Pragmatics, Dimension of Sociolinguistics Analysis, Language Variation, Bilingualism and Diglossia, Language Choice, Language and Code, Code Switching and Code Mixing, Ethnography of Communication, Speech Community, Communicative Competence, Rush Hour 2, and Review of Related Research.

CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY that consists of Research Type, Data and Source of Data, Sample and Technique of Sampling, Instrument of the Research, Technique of Collecting Data, and Technique of Analyzing Data.

CHAPTER IV : ANALYSIS that covers Introduction, Data Analysis, and Discussion.

CHAPTER V : CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS that consists of Conclusions and Suggestions.

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the researcher tries to study the background knowledge from Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics to provide a clearer understanding about Sociolinguistics-Pragmatics especially related to code choice. Here, the researcher often quotes many Sociolinguists’ and Pragmatists’ arguments to keep its originality. This chapter is composed into some subchapters namely Sociolinguistics, Pragmatics, Socio-Pragmatics, Dimension of Sociolinguistics Analysis, Language Variation, Bilingualism and Diglossia, Language Choice, Language and Code, Domain of Language Use, Code Switching and Code Mixing, Ethnography of Communication, Communicative Competence, Rush Hour 2, and Review of Related Researches.

A. Sociolinguistics

a. Definition of Sociolinguistics

Hudson defines that sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to the society, implying (intentionally) that sociolinguistics is a part of the study of language (1996: 4). Moreover, Holmes says that sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning (1992: 1).

Sociolinguistics is a term used to describe all areas of the study of the relationship between language and society other than these, such as ethnometodology, which are purely social scientific in their objectives. Sociolinguistics research is thus work which is intended to achieve a better understanding of the nature of human language by studying language in its Sociolinguistics is a term used to describe all areas of the study of the relationship between language and society other than these, such as ethnometodology, which are purely social scientific in their objectives. Sociolinguistics research is thus work which is intended to achieve a better understanding of the nature of human language by studying language in its

Chaika (1994) defines that sociolinguistics as the study of the ways people use language in social interaction of all kinds. It means that sociolinguistics concerns with how people use language when they interact in any kinds of situation.

It can be concluded that sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship between language and context in which it is used. It means that sociolinguistics does not only discuss about the relationship between language and society but also considers to who is talking to whom, the situation (the context), the purpose of the interaction and the topic of conversation.

b. Scope of Sociolinguistics

According to Trudgill (1992: 52), sociolinguistics is divided into two studies, namely: macro sociolinguistics and micro sociolinguistics. Macro

sociolinguistics refers to sociolinguistics areas involving the study of relatively large groups of speakers. It concerns with the study of language history and development in the scope of society in general.

Micro sociolinguistics is a term used to cover the study of face to face interaction, discourse analysis, conversational analysis, and other areas which involves a small group of speaker study. Moreover, micro sociolinguistics concerns with the study of language in specific speech community with the scope of discussion such as the behavior towards language, style of speech, domains of language use, register, speech act, etc.

Fishman in Chaklader (1990) divides sociolinguistics into subdivisions: descriptive, dynamics, and applied sociolinguistics. Descriptive sociolinguistics seeks to answer question “who speaks, what language, to Fishman in Chaklader (1990) divides sociolinguistics into subdivisions: descriptive, dynamics, and applied sociolinguistics. Descriptive sociolinguistics seeks to answer question “who speaks, what language, to

This research involves micro sociolinguistics since discusses the study of conversation analysis in small group of speakers. It is about code choices employed by the two main characters in the movie entitled “Rush Hour 2”. It also uses descriptive linguistics since this research analyzes code choice study which relates to the codes, participants, setting, and ends.

B. Pragmatics

Sometimes, people do not say what they mean explicitly. In interpreting the meaning of utterances, the hearer should consider the situation in which the utterances occur. The relation between context and meaning of utterances is under the study of pragmatics. There are several definitions of pragmatics.

According to Yule (1996: 4), pragmatics is a branch of linguistics study that focuses in meaning utterances. The study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by listener (or reader) is known as pragmatics. Thus, when people deal with pragmatics, they deal with utterances’ meaning. This is a study that can help people to be able to figure out the meaning of particular utterances.

Meanwhile, Levinson (1997: 24) states that pragmatics is the study of the role of context that focuses in meaning of utterances. It means that this type of study involves the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said. The context takes important position due Meanwhile, Levinson (1997: 24) states that pragmatics is the study of the role of context that focuses in meaning of utterances. It means that this type of study involves the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said. The context takes important position due

From those definitions, it can be concluded that pragmatics is a study that discusses meaning of language by regarding the relation between language and context. Thus, it can be clearly understood that the interaction between the context and language becomes the main study in pragmatics.

C. Socio-Pragmatics

Socio-Pragmatics is the combination study between Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics. Therefore, from several definitions of Sociolinguistics and Pragmatics explained previously, it can be said that Socio-Pragmatics deals with the analysis of significant patterns of interaction in particular social context. For example, choice of codes may be realized differently in different social contexts. Sometimes, people use the same code in their utterances to speak to different participants. On the other hand, they speak in different code to the same participants. This phenomenon is caused by the strategies used by the participants. It is called dynamic feature. They have their own reasons which relate to social meaning of the utterances.

Leech in www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/200305kawate_mierzejewska states that Socio-Pragmatics is “the sociological interface of Pragmatics” involving speakers’ and hearers’ beliefs built on relevant social and cultural values.

From the definition above, it can be concluded that Socio-Pragmatics studies the meaning of language used in relation to social and cultural values. This research uses Socio-Pragmatics approach since it discusses the code choices applied in a particular social interaction in which it considers the social relation between speakers and hearers and the meaning intended by the speaker.

D. Dimension of Sociolinguistics

The subject matter of Sociolinguistics is linguistic diversity or variation. It is also related to the social factors. It includes the participants, setting, topic, and function. According to Holmes, there are four social dimensions reflected during the communication, they are: a social distance concerning with participant relationship, a status scale concerning with participant relationship, a formality scale related to the setting or type of interaction, and the last one is two functional scales related to the purposes or topic of interaction. (1992: 12)

a. A social distance scale

This scale is useful in emphasizing to know that someone is relevant factor in linguistic choice. This scale concerns with participants’ relationship. The intimate relationship will have higher solidarity and distance relationship causes lower solidarity. This scale below may give a clearer understanding.

Figure 1 Social Distance Scale

Intimate

Distant

High Solidarity Low Solidarity

Source: Holmes, 1992: 12

b. Status scale

This scale points to the relevance of relative status in some linguistic choices. The other name for this dimension is the power scale of participants. Participants communicate in such a way signal their status or power in society.

This dimension accounts for a variety of linguistic differences in the way people speak. When people of lower status address to the higher status people, it is often used Sir, Madame, Mrs., Mr., etc. In short, the linguistic choice is relevant with the relative status of addressee.

Figure 2 Status Scale

Superior

High Status

Standard English

Sub-ordinate

Low Status

Non Standard

Source: Holmes, 1992: 13

c. Formality scale

This scale is useful in assessing the influence of the social setting or type of interaction on language choice (Holmes, 1992: 13). It accounts for speech variation in different setting or context. The language choice is in accordance with the setting where communication takes place. In a formal situation such as the communication between the employee and the boss in the office, or at a ritual service in church, the language used will be influenced by the formality of the setting.

Figure 3 Formality Scale

Formal

High Formality

Informal

Low Formality

Source: Holmes, 1992: 13

d. Functional scale

This scale is classified into two, namely referential and affective function scale (Holmes, 1992: 14). In these scales language are particularly pervasive and basic. Language does not only convey the objective information of a referential kind but it also expresses someone’s feeling. Referential and affective meaning influences the kinds of information carried on interaction. Because of these two functions, the information may be given in different emphasize.

Figure 4 Referential and Affective Function Scale

Referential

High Information Low Information Content

Content

Low Affective High Affective Content

Content

Affective

Source: Holmes, 1992: 14

E. Language Variation

A variety is a broad term including different accents, different linguistics styles, different dialects, and even different languages which contrast with other for social reasons. Sociolinguistics talks about variation and searches social relevant for regular patterns of variation in language use. Sociolinguistics studies the connection between the variation within language and variation in the society.

In learning language research, having a well comprehension on the acquisition language varieties is important. Slosberg (1992) explains that language varieties consist of social class, ethnic, gender, and acquisition of register. Labov in his research (in Downes, 1984: 113) explains that the occurrence of features In learning language research, having a well comprehension on the acquisition language varieties is important. Slosberg (1992) explains that language varieties consist of social class, ethnic, gender, and acquisition of register. Labov in his research (in Downes, 1984: 113) explains that the occurrence of features

Trudgill (1992:14) defines BEV as the name used by American sociolinguists to refer to the dialect of English spoken, with relatively little regional variation, by lower-class Black in the United States. In its phonological and especially grammatical characteristics, such as copula deletion, this variety differs from Standard English. Waren-Leubecker and Bohannan (Slosberg 1992:

39) give example of this, while speakers of Standard English mark negation only once in a sentence, either on the verb or else by an indefinite pronoun as in “She has said nothing”, speakers of Black English will doubly mark the negative as in “She ain’t said nothing”. Another example is copula deletion; speakers of Standard English say “He is angry” but speakers of Black English say “He angry”.

The research finding in accordance with gender-related variations states that women are more likely to use standard phonetic forms than men. Women will pronounce the final –ing in a word like ‘talking’, whereas men will pronounce it as in ‘talkin’ (Slosberg, 1992: 41). Women also often use more polite forms like tag question or request, while men are more likely to use commands. Moreover, men tend to initiate a conversation whereas women tend to react it. Based on those findings above, it can be said that the different characteristic between man and women can emerge language varieties among them.

As a social being, many roles have to be done by human as a member of family (a wife, a mother, or a daughter), a member of office community (an As a social being, many roles have to be done by human as a member of family (a wife, a mother, or a daughter), a member of office community (an

A variety of languages is a set of linguistic items (lexical items, sounds, and constructions) with similar social distributions. Hudson (1996: 23) argues that it includes languages, dialects, registers, and styles. Whereas, other Sociolinguist, Trudgill (1992: 24) argues that a variety refers to any kind of language, dialect, accent, sociolect, style, and register .

a. Dialect

Dialect is the varieties that initially and basically represent divergent geographic origins (Ferguson and Gumperz 1960; Halliday 1964 in Fishman, 1972: 16). This dialect can be dialectology and dialect geography and also social variety or sociolect. Hudson (1996: 38-41) also classifies dialects into almost in the same way, namely regional (geographical) dialect and social dialect.

Trudgill (1992: 23) explains that dialect as a variety of language is differentiated grammatically, phonologically and lexically from others, and associated with a particular geographical area and or with a particular social class or status group. According to him, regional (geographical) dialect is variety or dialect which is thought of as being related to geographical background rather than its speakers’ social background. While, sociolect is a variety or dialect thought of as being related to its speakers’ social background.

From the definition above, the researcher concludes that everybody has own dialect based on where he/she is classified socially or geographically.

b. Accent

Trudgill defines accent as “the way in which people pronounce when they speak” (1992: 7). Then, Yule in The Study of Language says that accent when used technically is restricted to the description of aspects of pronunciation which identify where an individual speaker is from, regionally or socially (1996: 227). This definition is also supported by Chaika. She states that accent refers to the way in which a speaker pronounces (1994: 7). All of the definitions emphasize on the aspect of pronunciation of speaking that gives identify for the speakers.

c. Style

Chaika (1994: 81) defines style as the selection of linguistic form to convey social or artistic effects. It determines how social interactions will proceed and continue, whether formally or informally. The situation of use gives the impact to the conversation, whether the participants speak seriously, ironically, humorously, angrily, lovingly, dubiously or other ways.

Trudgill (1992: 72) proposes style as a variety of language is associated with social context and differentiated from others in terms of its formality. Yule also states that style influenced by the situation of use. It can

be ranged from the very formal to the very informal (1996: 227). From the definition above, the researcher concludes that style is a

variety of languages in terms of its formality. It can be contrasted into formal style and colloquial style.

d. Register

Register is variation according to use in specific situations. It is used to describe the specific vocabulary associated with different occupational groups (Yule, 1996: 245). Trudgill (1992: 62) defines that register is a language variety that is associated with particular topic, subject or activity. While Holmes states that register tends to be associated with particular group of people or specific situations of use. The language of airline pilots, journalists, Register is variation according to use in specific situations. It is used to describe the specific vocabulary associated with different occupational groups (Yule, 1996: 245). Trudgill (1992: 62) defines that register is a language variety that is associated with particular topic, subject or activity. While Holmes states that register tends to be associated with particular group of people or specific situations of use. The language of airline pilots, journalists,

Those three definitions about register are almost the same, that register is related with specific situation of speaking. Hence, register is to express shared meanings concisely and precisely. Therefore, it is not easy for outsiders to understand and to use them.

e. Standard language

Trudgill (1992: 70-71) defines Standard English as “the variety of English that is usually used in print, and which is normally taught in school and to non-native speakers learning the language. It is also the variety, which is normally spoken by educated people and used in news broadcasts, and other similar situation”. Then Hudson (1980: 32-33) proposes that the only kind of variety, which would count as a proper language, is standard language. The language as the result of a direct and deliberate intervention by society is named standard language.

To become a standard language, it passes through the following processes:

1. Selection: the particular variety must be selected as the one to be developed into a standard language. The choice of a variety relates to social and political importance since it gets prestige and also the speaker who share it in prestige. It affects many sectors of life.

2. Codification: The codification is done by some agency such as an academy; they must have written grammar books and dictionaries to ‘fix’ the chosen variety, so that everyone can use the correct norms of that.

3. Elaboration of function: the selected variety is applied in all the functions dealing with central government and with writing. But adding other technical words and developing new conventions is still need.

4. Acceptance: the relevant population should accept the variety as the variety of the community, deeply as the national language. Thus, the 4. Acceptance: the relevant population should accept the variety as the variety of the community, deeply as the national language. Thus, the

(Hudson, 1980: 32-33) Fishman (1972: 19) stresses that are not all languages have standard

varieties. However, where a standard variety exists it does not mean that it displaces the non-standard variety from the linguistic repertoires of certain speech community. Only the functions are different but non-standard variety is

a complementary to the standard variety. In other words, standard language is

a variety that is accepted, admitted, and used by everyone in many sectors of life. Its functions are as the identity of the speakers, as a symbol of the community, and even as the national language.

f. Non-standard language

Non standard language based on Trudgill (1992: 56) is widely different from standard language at level of grammar. Non standard language is often considered to be wrong, ugly, corrupt or lazy, different from standard language that is held to be correct, beautiful, nice, pure, and so on. Non standard language has lower status and prestige than standard language since it mostly does not follow the language norms that are accepted and admitted in standard language. It is variety used in informal situation and mostly spoken by uneducated and lower class people. Slang is non-standard vocabulary used in informal situation. The table below shows the syntactic differences between standard and non-standard English.

Table1

Some Examples of Syntactic Differences between

Standard and Non- Standard English

NON STANDARD

ENGLISH Linking Verb (copula)

He………goin’ Possessive Marker

He is going

John…….cousin Plural Marker

John’s cousin

I got five cent Third Person Singular He lives in N.Y.

I have five cents

He live in N.Y. (Verb Agreement)

Past Marker Yesterday he walked Yesterday, he walk home home

“If ” Construction Statement: I asked if he Statement: I ask did he

did it do it

Negation

I don’t got none Use of ‘be’

I don’t have any

He is here all the time He be here Subject Expression

John, he move Verb Form

John moved

I drunk the milk Future

I drank the milk

I’ma go home Indefinite Article

I will go home

I want a apple Pronoun Form

I want an apple

We have to do it

Us got to do it

Pronoun expressing His book He book Possession

Preposition He is over at John’s He over to John house

He teaches at Francis He teach Francis pool pool

Use of ‘do’ Contradiction: No he Contradiction: No, he isn’t don’t

Source: Hall and Freedle 1973 in Bolinger & Sears, 1981: 199

F. Bilingualism and Diglossia

Diglossia was firstly introduced by a professor of English in Texas 1930’s, Stanford Charles Ferguson. Ferguson in Fasold (1984: 34) argues that diglossia is

a phenomenon of situation when two distinct varieties of the same language are used interchangeably for different sets of functions. In this word, its users in defined circumstances only use diglossia in two or more varieties of the same language.

Diglossia is not only exists on the use of two language varieties of a language in a certain society, but it also includes the use of more than one language or two language varieties in a society for certain purposes. In digossic group, people tend to occupy more than one language as means of communication. In this group, the term “High” language and “Low” language present (Sridhar in McKay & Hornberg, 1996: 55). As the social value, high language is usually utilized to represent high status class or it is employed for formal occasion by educated people and middle- high class to show their social background or profession claim. Middle-low class or common people for non- formal circumstance in common affairs, by contrast, apply Low language.

In discussing diglossia, there are many relationships between diglossia and bilingualism. Fishman (1972: 93-106) alludes the relationship between diglossia and bilingualism, which evokes community characterized by diglossia and bilingualism, diglosia without bilingualism, bilingualism without diglossia, and neither diglossia and bilingualism.

a. Diglossia and bilingualism

It happens in Paraguay for example where two languages are spoken. The distribution is distinguished according to its social function such as Indonesian (High Language) and Javanese (Low language).

b. Diglossia without bilingualism

It is characterized by Fishman as an instance of political or governmental diglossia in which two or more differently monolingual entities are brought together under one political roof. Modern states such as Switzerland, Belgium and Canada are included as the category.

c. Bilingualism without diglossia

It can be indicated in a country where the two languages are used in the same function.

d. Neither diglossia and bilingualism

It is the rarest category since all members of the community use one language for all domains, they are all monolingual. So, there is no distribution of social functions for the language. It exists in isolated speech community.

G. Language Choice

Holmes (1992: 1) argues that “sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the Holmes (1992: 1) argues that “sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the

a social interaction, different people in different social contexts should make them use certain appropriate code. Fortunately, linguistic variation within the linguistic levels (sounds, word structure (morphology), grammar (syntax), and vocabulary) offers the speaker a choice of ways of expression.

Fassold in The Sociolinguistics of Society proposes three kinds of language choices, namely code switching, code mixing, and variation within the same language . In code switching, speakers should choose between two or more languages. Code mixing occurs when they mix pieces of one language with another language. While, variation within the same language is related to dialect, register or accent. The speakers have to choose the appropriate variations to use in

a certain social situation. (1984:180) There are certain social factors have been relevant in accounting for the

particular variety used. The first one is participants (the users of language), considering who is talking to whom (e.g. wife-husband, customer-shop keeper, boss-worker, etc). The second one is the setting or social context (e.g. home, market, office, so on). The third one is the aim or purpose of the interactions (social, informative). The last one is the topic (e.g. home affair, bargaining, job affair, and so forth). In other way, all social factors cover some questions as follows:

1. The participants: who is speaking and who are they speaking to?

2. The setting or social context of interaction: where are they speaking?

3. The topic: what is being talked about?

4. The function: why are they speaking? (Holmes, 1992: 12)

Fassold in his definition gives classification of language choices. He does not mention the factors influencing the choice of the languages, whereas, Holmes Fassold in his definition gives classification of language choices. He does not mention the factors influencing the choice of the languages, whereas, Holmes

be used because they support each other.

H. Language and Code