Syntactic Structure of Relative Clauses with Reference to John Green`s Novel Looking for Alaska.

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SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

WITH REFERENCE TO JOHN GREEN’S NOVEL

LOOKING FOR ALASKA

NI KADEK YUNIANTARI 1201305062

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF LETTERS AND CULTURE

UDAYANA UNIVERSITY

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank to God the Almighty, Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa for His blessing and grace, this undergraduate thesis could be completed. This thesis was written with the aim to fulfill one of the requirements for obtaining bachelor degree at the English Department, Faculty of Letters and Culture, Udayana University. In writing this thesis, I have got so much help and support from many parties therefore I would like to thank for those who helped me directly and indirectly.

I would like to acknowledge my greatest gratitude to my first supervisor Drs. I Nyoman Udayana, M.Litt, Ph.D. and my second supervisor I Nyoman Aryawibawa, S.S., M.A., Ph.D., for their constant encouragement and insightful comments and advices throughout the process in completing this thesis. My sincere thanks also go to Putu Ayu Asti Senja Pratiwi, S.S., M.Hum. as my academic supervisor for her unflagging willingness to advice, assist and accompany me during my academic years.

I also owe important thanks to the following: Prof. Dr. Ni Luh Sutjiati Beratha, M.A., the Dean of Faculty of Letters and Culture, Udayana University; Dra. Ni Luh Ketut Mas Indrawati, Dip. TEFL., M.A., the Head of English Department; and all of my lectures in English Department.

Moreover, I would like to give my special gratitude to my beloved parents and brother for the love, supports, advices, for every single thing they gave me, I

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am in debt in very many ways. Finally my appreciations and whishes go to all Sasing class 2012 for their friendship.

I hope this paper will be useful for those who may need the information of syntactic structure on relative clauses. I realize this paper is far from perfect due to my lack of knowledge and experience in doing academic research, therefore, any comment and suggestion will be highly appreciated.

Denpasar, January 2016

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iii ABSTRACT

The undergraduate thesis entitled Syntactic Structure of Relative Clauses

with Reference to John Green’s Novel “Looking for Alaska” was focused on the analysis of Relative Clause, especially in structure and types of relative clauses. The aims of this study were to describe the types and analyze the syntactic structure of relative clause found in the novel entitled Looking for Alaska by John Green in 2005.

The analysis of the structure of relative clause in this paper is based on a theory of phrase structure rule by Wekker and Haegeman (1985) in their book entitled A Modern Course in English Syntax and supported by Wh-movement theory by Haegeman (1994) in her book entitled Introduction to Government and Binding Theory 2nd Edition and the analysis of the types is based on a theory by Quirk et al. (1985) in their book A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. The analysis of the data was presented using tree diagram and phrase structure rule.

The analysis in this study showed that all the types of relative clause were found in the data. Those are restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses which are introduced by relative pronounwho, which, whom, whose, that, zero, or by a phrase which contains a relative pronoun such as: for which, to which etc. In terms of function, relative clauses may function as subject and object which provides the information of the preceding noun as antecedent or gives additional information to the preceding noun. Moreover, the analysis of this study also showed that wh-movement was applied in the structure of relative clauses.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOLEDGEMENTS..……… i

ABSTRACT……… iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS……….. iv

ABBREVIATIONS……….... vii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Study………...………. 1

1.2 Problemof Study………..……… 3

1.3 Aims of Study……….……….. 3

1.4 Scope of Discussion……….………. 4

1.5 Research Methods……….………...…. 4

1.5.1 Data Source………..….. 5

1.5.2 Methods and Techniques of Collecting Data………... 5

1.5.3 Methods and Techniques of Analyzing Data………... 6

CHAPTER II. LITERARY REVIEWS, CONCEPTS AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Literary Reviews……….….. 7

2.2 Concepts……….……... 11

2.2.1 Syntax………. 11

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2.2.3 Clause…..………..………. 12

2.2.4 Relative Clause………...……… 13

2.2.5 Wh-movement………...………. 13

2.3 Theoretical Framework……….…….... 14

2.3.1 Structure of Relative Clause……… 14

2.3.2 Types of Relative Clause………...….. 19

2.3.2.1 Restrictive Relative Clause……….... 20

2.3.2.2 Non-restrictive Relative Clause………. 21

CHAPTER III. SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE OF RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH REFERENCE TO JOHN GREEN’S NOVEL LOOKING FOR ALASKA 3.1 Types of Relative Clause………...…..……….… 23

3.1.1 Restrictive Relative Clause ……….……….. 24

3.1.1.1 Who…………...………...……… 24

3.1.1.2 Which…..…………..……….... 26

3.1.1.3 That……….………...……….……... 28

3.1.1.4 Zero (Ø) ……...………...……….….... 30

3.1.2 Non-restrictive Relative Clause….………... 32

3.1.2.1 Who …………...………... 33

3.1.2.2 Which…..…………..……….... 35

3.1.2.3 Whom………..……….…... 37

3.1.2.4 Whose....………... 38

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CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION………...………..….. 53

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ABBREVIATIONS

Adj : Adjective

Adv : Adverb

Adj.P : Adjective Phrase Adv.P : Adverb Phrase

Det : Determiner

i : Index

N : Noun

NP : Noun Phrase

P : Preposition

PP : Prepositional Phrase Rel : Relative pronoun

S : Sentence

Spec : Specifier

S_' : Sentence-bar

ti : Coindex Trace

V : Verb

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1 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

One of the main aspects of languagebesides semantic, pragmatic, and phonology is syntax. Syntax is the way that word and phrases are put together to form a sentence in a language (Hornby,2010:1515). In short, syntax is the relationship of words and phrases within a sentence. A sentence itself is a linguistic unit that consists a group of words that are grammatically linked. It is a set of words that express a complete thought. Sentences have to follow a certain structural rules in order to make sense because we cannot just throw any words together to make a sentence (Morenberg, 1997). A sentence is composed by a phrase (a small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit) and a clause (a unit of grammatical organization below the sentence in rank and in traditional grammar is said to consist of subject and predicate) (Hornby, 1995).

Sentences are either simple or multiple, in which a simple sentence consists of an independent clause whereas a multiple sentence contains more than one clause. Multiple sentences are compound or complex (Quirk et al., 1985:719). A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinated main clauses in which the main clauses of a compound sentence have equivalent function. A complex sentence is the same as a simple sentence which consists of only one main clause, but a complex sentence also has one or more subordinate clauses functioning as an element of the sentence (Quirk et al., 1985:987). A complex sentence consists of

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one main clause or an independent clause which isjoined by one or more subordinate clauses. Independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself: for example: I am a student , whereas, subordinate clause or also known as dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand by itself as a sentence. A subordinate clause served to modify an independent clause or served as a component. There are some different types of dependent clause, such as: noun clauses, adverbial clauses and relative clauses.

Relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a noun phrase. Relative clause is introduced by a relative pronoun such as: who, which, whom, whose, that and zero, for example: It was wrinkled like an old woman

who’d spent her youth sunbathing( Green, 2005 : 34) the relative clause in that sentence which is in bold italic is introduced by a relative pronoun who. There are two types of relative clause: restrictive and non-restrictive relative clause. Restrictive relative clause isa type of relative clause which modifies its head word meaning: for example: I hated sports, and I hated people who played them

(Green, 2005:45) and non-restrictive relative clause the other type of relative clause which only provides supplementary information for example: Hyde talked about the Gospel of Mark, which I hadn’t read until the day before. (Green,

2005 : 69).

The structure of sentence with relative clause is more complicated than a simple sentence. Some English learners are still confused about it. It is very important to English learners to have a clear knowledge about a relative clause in order to be able to organize the sentence or clause in a well-structured unit.

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Based on the explanation above, the syntactic structures of relative clause is a very interesting topic to be analyzed, therefore it was chosen as the topic of this study. The examples of the relative clauses that were analyzed were taken from the novel entitled Looking for Alaska by John Green. This novel was chosen since it has complete data in the language used especially in relative clauses.

1.2 Problems of Study

There are some problems that can be discussed in this study, those are: 1. What types of relative clause are found in the novel Looking for Alaskaby

John Green?

2. How are the syntactic structures of relative clause in the novel Looking for Alaska by John Green?

1.3 Aims of Study

In relation to the problems of this study, theaims of this study are as follows:

1. To describe the types of relative clause found in the novel Looking for Alaska by John Green.

2. To analyze the syntactic structures of relative clause in John Green’s novel entitled Looking for Alaska.

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1.4 Scope of Discussion

The analysis of John Green’s novel Looking for Alaska focuses on the syntactic structure and types of relative clause. Based on the problems that have been mentioned, the scopes of discussion in this study are:

1. The types of relative clause are restrictive relative clause and non-restrictive relative clause. The clause is introduced by relative pronoun: who, which, whom, whose, that, zero, or by a phrase which contains a relative pronoun such as: for which, to whom, etc.

2. The structure of the relative clause is based on a theory by Wekker and Haegeman (1985) in their book A Modern Course in English Syntax.

1.5 Research Methods

Method is a certain procedure, a regular or systematic way for accomplishing something. The research method contains some explanations of how this study will tackle the research problems. It will provide a description about the work plan and some activities necessary in completing this research. The research method used in this research includes: data source, method and techniques of collecting data, and method and techniques of analyzing data. Those will be further elaborated below.

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1.5.1Data Source

The data of this study was taken from the novel entitled Looking for Alaska by John Green. This novel was first published on March 2005. Looking for Alaska is the first young adult novel by John Green: this novel is about a guy

who obsesses in memorizing famous people’s last word, named Miles Halter. He

comes from Florida, but he leaves his home to attend a Culver Creek High School in Alabama. In Culver Creek, he has a roommate named Chip Martin who prefers

to be called “Captain” and who gives Miles nicknamed “Pudge”. Here Miles also

meets Alaska Young, girl he falls in love with, and a Japanese guy named

Takumi, both of them are Captain’s friends. They have gone to all interesting

things together, searching for answers about life, “how people can go out of the labyrinth”. However, when they do not even get the answers yet, Alaska dies in a

fatal car crash. This novel was chosen as the data source because it contains some relevant data with the problems which were needed in this discussion. There were many relative clauses found in this novel.

1.5.2 Methods and Techniques of Collecting Data

The data were collected using documentation method: by finding and analyzing from the documents, in form of written or electronic documents. The data was collected through reading and note taking from the data source.

The techniques of collecting data can be described, as follows: 1. The whole novel was read carefully to find out the relative clauses. 2. The relative clauses found in the novel were noted (note taking). 3. The data were selected based on the problems of the discussion.

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1.5.3Methods and Techniques of Analyzing Data

The method used in analyzing the data is descriptive qualitative method. The data were analyzed based on the theoretical framework of this study. The analysis was focused on the types and syntactic structure of the relative clauses.

There are some steps which were done in the techniques of analyzing data, and those are as follows:

1. Checking the note taking of the relative clauses which had been selected as samples of this study.

2. The relative clauses which had been selected were classified accordance to their types.

3. Analyzing the types of the relative clauses, each type was given a description and further explanation.

4. The grammatical structures of those clauses were analyzedbased on a theory ofPhrase structure rule by Wekker and Haegman (1985) in their book A Modern Course in English Syntax. There were 5 sentences which consist of relative clause that were chosen as the data in analyzing the syntactic structures of relative clause. Those sentences will be presented using phrase structure rule and tree diagram. The phrase structure rule is used for mapping the phrase of a syntactic structure into a tree diagram.

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7 2.1 Literary Reviews

There are some studies from some previous students which are used as reviews in this study. Those studies have relevant topic with this study which will analyze about syntactic structure of relative clause.

The first study was an undergraduate thesis “The Syntactic Function of

Relative Clause with Reference to the Short Story The Counterfeiter By Yasushi

Inoue” by Komang Helianti (2008) which analyzed the kind or types of relative clause which is found in the short story “The Counterfeiter” by Yasushi Inoue and described their syntactic function. The main theory usedwas the theory which was proposed by Quirk et al (1985) in his book A Comprehensive Grammar of The English Language. Her study focuses on identifying the types of the relative clause and their syntactic function, in which one type of relative clause has more than one syntactic function, for example: restrictive clause has a function as subject/object of verb/prepositional object etc. Her study is relevant with this study since both analyzed the types of relative clause and in analyzing the types both her study and this study use Quirk et al’s theory (1985). The differences are: her study was analyzing the syntactic function whereas, this study analyzed the syntactic structure, and both also used different data source.

The second studywas an undergraduate thesis by Saddaya Utama (2012) “The Syntactic Function of the Relative Clause with reference to “The Language of Love” by Gary Smalley and John Trente Ph.D” which aims to identify the kind

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or relative clause and to describe their syntactic function. The main theory used in analyzing the data was a theory which was proposed by Quirk et al (1985) in their book A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Besides that, some supporting theories were also used in analyzing the data, such as: A University English Grammar by Randolph Quirk (1973) and a theory by A.J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet (1986) Partical English Grammar.Moreover, tree diagram was alsoused in describing the function of relative clause. His study is relevant with thisstudy since both analyze the types of relative clause and also use the same theory, Quirk et al’s theory (1985), in analyzing it. The differences are: first his study and this study were used different data source which cause a different result, secondhisstudy analyzed the syntactic function of relative clause, whereas this study analyzed the syntactic structure of relative clause.

The third study was an undergraduate thesis “The Analysis of Syntactic

Structure in the Relative Clause with Reference to Steinbeck’s The Pearl” by

Marlyn Ariesta (2014) which aims to identify the patterns, analyzed the structure and classified the types of relative clause found in the novel “The Pearl” by

Steinbeck. Chomsky’s theory (1971) and promoted by Murphy’s argument (1985)

was usedin identifying the pattern of relative clause found in the data source, whereas, in analyzing the syntactic structure Chomsky’s theory (1971) Generative Transformation in his book Syntactic Structure was used and Radford’s theory in his book Transformational Syntax: A Student Guide to Chomsky’s Extended

Theory (1988) was also used in analyzing the types of relative. Besides of those theories, some other theories were also used, those are: the theory proposed by

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(1982) about the feature of relative clause, Murphy (1985) about kinds of relative pronoun and etc. The result of her study was presented qualitatively and descriptively each of the patterns found from the data were explained clearly. The tree diagram which was used in indicating the constituent structure of the relative clause also drew clearly which made the analysis understandable. In the end of her studywere also provided appendices of the list of relative clauses found in the data source. Her study is relevant with this study, since both identified the types and analyzed structure of relative clause. The differences are: first, from the theory used to analyze the types of relative clause, in which her study used Radford’s theory (1988) in analyzing the types of the relative clause whereas this study used Quirk et al’s theory (1985) and also in analyzing the structure of relative clause her study used Chomsky’s theory (1971) Generative Transformation in his book

Syntactic Structure, whereas this study used a phrase structure rule theory by Wekker and Haegeman (1985) in their book entitled A Modern Course in English Syntax and a supporting theory, Wh-movement by Haegamen (1994) in her book

Introduction to Government & Binding Theory 2nd_Edition_{. Other differences, her} study analyzed the pattern which was not analyzed in this study.

The fourth study was an international journal article entitled Discourse Structure and Relative Clause Processing which was written by Mak, Vonk, and Schriefers (2006). This article discussed about two experiments: first, about relative clauses with a personal pronoun in the relative clause, and the second experiment was about the discourse status of the NP in the relative clause was manipulated: either it was not present in the preceding context, or it was the discourse topic. From the first experiment, they obtained a preference for

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object-relative clauses, in line with the assumption that personal pronouns refer to a discourse topic and are thus topicworthy. And their second experiment showed that when the NP in the relative clause refers to the discourse topic, the difficulty of object-relative clauses is reduced, in comparison with relative clauses with an NP that is new in the discourse, even in the absence of any explicit cue in the relative clause itself. Those experiments show that discourse factors guide processing at the sentence level. This article is relevant with this study even though this article is about discourse, however, it also discussed about relative clause.

The last study was a journal entitledNordic Journal of linguistic. In this journal, there was an article which was written by Bianchi (2002) which is relevant to this study, the article entitled Headed Relative Clause in Generative Syntax Part II. This article concerned about the way in which the relative clause is syntactically related with the modified phrase. In the conclusion of her study, she stated that relative clause constitute an extremely intriguing empirical domain, both because of the complexity of the data and of the theoretical relevance of the construction (especially with the respect to the syntactic-semantic interference). This article is relevant tothis study since the writer in this article also discussed about relative clause and also the relation between generative clause and relative clause.

This study aims to identify the types of relative clause found in the data source and also analyzed the syntactic structure of relative clause which was introduced by relative pronoun who, which, whom, whose, that, zero or by a phrase which contains a relative pronoun such as: for which, to whom, etc. which

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were found in the data source. The data source in this study was different from the previous studies. This study used a novel by John Green entitled Looking for Alaska, which first published on March, 2005, as the data source. This study used some theories, those are: phrase structure rules by Wekker and Haegman in their book A Modern Course in English Syntax (1985), Wh-movement theory by Haegeman (1994) in her book Introduction to Government & Binding Theory 2nd

Edition as asupporting theory, and a theory about relative clause by Quirk et al

(1985) in their book A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.

2.2 Concept

The concepts in this study are about relative clause and their syntactic structure. There are five concepts which were discussed in this study, such as: syntax, syntactic structure, clause, relative clause and wh-movement.

2.2.1Syntax

According to Chomsky (1957) in his book Syntactic Structure, syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntax is the branch of linguistics that concentrates on the formation of sentences (Haegeman 2006:4). Syntax means sentence construction: how words group together to make phrases and sentences (Tallerman, 2011:1).Bryan Voigt (2009:8) stated, syntax is a strategy, an arrangement of constituent parts, the manner in which the fundament and its dependent adjuncts, large or small, are developed.

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2.2.2Syntactic Structure

The syntactic structure is one of the first serious attempts on the part of linguist to construct within the tradition of theory-construction: a comprehensive theory of language which may be understood in the same sense that a chemical, biological theory is ordinarily understood by the experts in those fields (Lees, 1957)

According to Yule (1998) syntactic structure consist of nor nothing morpheme that are combined in the same order as they would be if they were separate words in corresponding construction.

2.2.3Clause

According to Elson and Pickett (1967:64) a clause consists of subject, and predicate. Based on Van Valin (1997:29) a clause is a syntactic unit composed of the core and periphery. Clause is a group of words having its own subject and predicate but forming only a part of a compound or complex sentence.

A complex sentence consists of a main clause and one or more subordinate clause. Main clause is a clause that can stand by itself, whereas a subordinate clause is a clause that cannot stand by itself. According to Quirk (1985:1047) on the basis of their potential function there are several major categories of subordinate clauses, those are: Nominal Clauses, Adverbial Clauses, Relative clauses, and Comparative clauses.

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2.2.4Relative Clause

A relative clause is a clause that started with relative pronoun and it is a clause that follows the noun immediately (Klingemann 1987:16). Relative clause shows which or what kind of person or thing is intended by the speaker (Murphy, 1985). Quirk et al (1985:1244-1245) distinguish relative clause into two types: restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clause.

Relative clauses are typically found after a noun phrase and provide some information about the person or thing indicated by that noun phrase (Yule, 1998:240). For example:

I see a girl who loves book( Green, 2005 : 83)

The main clause of the example above is I see a girl, and the relative clause is who loves book. The relative clause who loves book in the example above provides some information about the noun phrase a girl. The relative clause shows that a girlthat being discussed in that sentence is a girl who loves book.

2.2.5Wh-movement

Haegeman (1994:305) distinguished three types of movement, those are: headed movement, wh-movement and NP-movement. Headed-movement is the movement of auxiliaries, wh-movement is the movement of wh-constituent and NP-movement is the movement associated with passive in which the NP move to an empty subject position. The landing site of movement is an empty position.

Haegeman (1994) stated that the relative clause is a result of wh-movement. Wh-movement is the movement of wh-constituent to the specifier of CP [spec, CP] or subordinator of the subordinate clause [Rel, S_']. Moreover,

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Haegeman argued that the wh-movement leaves a trace in its original position that coindexed with the moved element. A trace is an empty category that occupies a position in syntactic structure. It occupies an empty position which is left behind when some element are moved.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework is about the theories which were used in analyzing the data. In this study there are two things to be discussed: structure of relative clauses, types of relative clauses.

2.3.1Structure of Relative Clause

The structure of relative clauses found in the novel Looking for Alaska by John Green will be analyzed using Phrase Structure Rule byWekker and Haegeman (1985) in their book entitledA Modern Course in English Syntax.

According to Wekker and Haegeman(1985:11) Phrase structure rule is a rule which is used to sum up the system of expanding one unit into other units. These are four Phrase Structure rules:

S ScoordS S NP VP

VP VNP

NP DetN N

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The last bracket indicates that NP may be expanded or rewritten as either DetN or N.

Moreover, according to them all NP have one head N. The head N usually accompanied by some elements that placed either before the head or after the head. The elements that placed before the head are determiners (the, a, this, that, my, etc.) besides it, it also may be preceded by adjective phrases which is said as premodifier. On the other hand, the elements that placed after the head N have functions as postmodifier, for example:

A girl who loves book

The head of the NP above is girl which is preceded by a determiner a and followed by a relative clause who loves book which functions as postmodifier.

According to Wekker and Haegeman (1985) the clause that follows the head N in a NP and has function as postmodifier labeled as �̅ (S-bar) or S' (S-prime). �̅ or S' is a unit that contain the subordinator and subordinate clause, so the constituent of S' will be as follows:

Based on the explanation above the NP structure are as follows: NP Det N S' ,or

NP N S'

S' Rel S

The Rel in S-bar (S') is relative pronoun

Relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase. Relative clause functions as postmodifier since it immediately follows the noun or noun phrase it modifies. Therefore, based on the explanation above about the four

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phrase structure rules and the postmodifier structure, the structure of relative clause is as follows:

S NP VP

VP V NP

NP Det N S' or NP N S'

S' Rel S

According to Haegeman (1994) relative clause formation is a result of movement. Moreover, she stated that relative clause is derived via wh-movement. Based on her explanation, relative clause formation involves wh-movement.

Therefore, Haegeman’s theory of movement in her book Introduction to Government & Binding Theory 2nd Edition will also used as a supporting theory in analyzing the syntactic structure of relative clauses. It will be elaborated more in the example 1 below:

1. I see a girlwho loves books. (Green, 2005 :83)

`The structure of the sentence above is as follows:

S NP1VP1

NP1 N

VP1 V NP

NP Det N S'

S' Rel S

S NP2 VP2

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VP2 V NP

NP N

The phrase structure rule, which used above, shows how the constituents are ordered. This rule is used for mapping the phrase of a syntactic structure into a tree diagram.

The structure of the sentence above is also presented by tree diagram. The tree diagramhas a purpose to explain clearly and explicitly the phrase structure in grammatical, word classes, constituent and word formation. The tree diagram of the syntactic structure of the sentence above is as follows:

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NP1 VP1

V NP

N Det N S'

Rel S

NP2 VP2

V NP

I see a girl whoi ti loves books Wh-movement

From the tree diagram above it can be seen that the relative clause which is embedded to its antecedent a girl who loves books is clearly an NP which is filled by a girl modified by a restrictive relative clause (S') who loves books. This S-bar (S') in turn contains a wh-pronoun who, followed by an S —loves books. Here is the base structure of the example above will be:

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According to Haegeman (1994) when wh-pronoun moves beyond its own clause, within S of S' (its original position is marked by —), to the higher position Rel of S', it seems that wh-movement has been applied to move it from its original position to its superficial position. Moreover, she stated that the wh-movement here is treated as substitution, when the wh-phrase fills a hitherto unoccupied position, in this situation, wh-movement is like NP-movement.

The relative wh-pronoun who is moved from the lower position: NP of S within the S-bar to the higher position: Rel of the S-bar leaving a coindex trace in its original position (ti), the movement is indicated schematically below:

[SI see [NP a girl [S'whoi[Sti loves books]]]] Wh-movement

The sentence above I see a girl who loves books consists of two clause: I see a girl as the main clause, and the subordinate clause a girl loves books, however the subject of the subordinate clause a girl is moved from its original position [NP, S of S'] to the higher position [Rel, S'] and changed into a wh-pronoun who.

2.3.2Types of Relative Clause

Quirk et al’s theory (1985) in his book A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language was used in analyzing the types of relative clause found in the novel Looking for Alaska by John Green. Quirk et al stated, according to their semantic relation between the clause and its antecedent, there are two kinds of

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relative clauses: restrictive relative clause and non-restrictive relative clause(1985).

2.3.2.1Restrictive Relative Clause

A restrictive relative clause is a clause that aims to modify the meaning of its head word. Restrictive relative clauses are closely connected to their antecedent, and denote a limitation on the reference of the antecedent (Quirk et al, 1973). This clause gives detailed information defining the noun that comes before it (its head word), so the sentence would not make sense without this clause. A restrictive relative clause usually introduced by: who, which, whom and whose, that and zero or by a phrase which contains a relative pronoun such as: for which, to whom, etc. and it is not put in commas.

For example: The lunch discussion centered on the girl whowas supposed to have been Alaska’s roommate.(Green, 2005 : 23)

From the example above, the characteristic of relative clause can be seen as follows:

a. The relative clause cannot be omitted. The constituent which is in bold italic on the example above is the relative clause. It shows that the relative clause in that sentence restrictive the reference of the noun. If the relative clause in that sentence were omitted, the sentence could be: “The lunch discussion centered on the girl”.That sentence did not provide a clear perception, since the sentence did not explain which head of the clause had been discussed. If

the sentence use the relative clause “The lunch discussion centered on the girl who was supposed to have been Alaska’s roommate” so the reference

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of the head of the clause being discussed which in this case is the girl was limited to the girl who was supposed to have been Alaska’s roommate.” b. Restrictive clause is marked by a relative pronoun or an adverb which

related to the main of the noun. In the example above the relative clause is introduced by relative pronoun who.

2.3.2.1Non-restrictive Relative Clause

Non-restrictive relative clause is a clause that aims to provide additional information, so this clause does not have a big effect to the meaning of the sentence which is different from the restrictive clause. Non-restrictive relative clauses are parenthetic comments which usually describe, but do not further define the antecedent (Quirk et al., 1973). Non-restrictive clause usually introduced by relative pronoun, such as: who, which, whom and whose or by a phrase which contains a relative pronoun such as: for which, to whom, etc. non-restrictive relative clause cannot be introduced by relative pronoun that and the relative pronoun of the non-restrictive relative clause can never be omitted. A non-restrictive relative clause usually has a comma before them. For example:

1. I’d been unable to care about anything else, not the van Gogh poster and not video games and not even my class schedule, which the Eagle had bought

by that morning. (Green, 2005 : 21)

2. I blinked a couple times and looked up at the Colonel, who was standing

between the couch and the COFFE TABLE. (Green, 2005 : 29)

Based on the example above, it can be seen that the non-restrictive clause has characteristics as follows:

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a. Even though the relative clause was omitted, the reference of the noun phrase was still clear. For example:

1. I’d been unable to care about anything else, not the van Gogh poster and not video games and not even my class schedule.

2. I blinked a couple times and looked up at the Colonel.

In the sentence of 1a.even the relative clause was omitted the reference of the antecedent of the relative clause, which in this case is my schedule, is still clear. As the same as 1a the sentence of 2a the reference of the noun phrase or the antecedent of the relative clause is still clear. The antecedent The Colonelis still clear even without the relative clause since based on the context also, there is only one person in the novel that have a nick name Colonel, so it will not lead to an ambiguity.

b. As the same as the restrictive relative clause, this clause is also marked by a relative pronoun or adverb. However, unlike the relative pronoun in the restrictive relative clause that aims to limit the reference of the noun phrase, the relative pronoun in non-restrictive relative clause just aims to provide additional information and does not affect much to the sentence.

c. Non-restrictive relative clause is usually marked by comma.

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VP2 V NP

NP N

The phrase structure rule, which used above, shows how the constituents are ordered. This rule is used for mapping the phrase of a syntactic structure into a tree diagram.

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NP1 VP1

V NP

N Det N S'

Rel S

NP2 VP2

V NP

I see a girl whoi ti loves books Wh-movement

From the tree diagram above it can be seen that the relative clause which is embedded to its antecedent a girl who loves books is clearly an NP which is filled by a girl modified by a restrictive relative clause (S') who loves books. This S-bar (S') in turn contains a wh-pronoun who, followed by an S — loves books. Here is the base structure of the example above will be:

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The relative wh-pronoun who is moved from the lower position: NP of S within the S-bar to the higher position: Rel of the S-bar leaving a coindex trace in its original position (ti), the movement is indicated schematically below:

[SI see [NP a girl [S'whoi[Sti loves books]]]] Wh-movement

The sentence above I see a girl who loves books consists of two clause: I see a girl as the main clause, and the subordinate clause a girl loves books, however the subject of the subordinate clause a girl is moved from its original position [NP, S of S'] to the higher position [Rel, S'] and changed into a wh-pronoun who.

2.3.2Types of Relative Clause

Quirk et al’s theory (1985) in his book A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language was used in analyzing the types of relative clause found in the novel Looking for Alaska by John Green. Quirk et al stated, according to their semantic relation between the clause and its antecedent, there are two kinds of

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relative clauses: restrictive relative clause and non-restrictive relative clause(1985).

2.3.2.1Restrictive Relative Clause

A restrictive relative clause is a clause that aims to modify the meaning of its head word. Restrictive relative clauses are closely connected to their antecedent, and denote a limitation on the reference of the antecedent (Quirk et al, 1973). This clause gives detailed information defining the noun that comes before it (its head word), so the sentence would not make sense without this clause. A restrictive relative clause usually introduced by: who, which, whom and whose, that and zero or by a phrase which contains a relative pronoun such as: for which, to whom, etc. and it is not put in commas.

For example: The lunch discussion centered on the girl whowas supposed to have been Alaska’s roommate.(Green, 2005 : 23)

From the example above, the characteristic of relative clause can be seen as follows:

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of the head of the clause being discussed which in this case is the girl was limited to the girl who was supposed to have been Alaska’s roommate.”

b. Restrictive clause is marked by a relative pronoun or an adverb which related to the main of the noun. In the example above the relative clause is introduced by relative pronoun who.

2.3.2.1Non-restrictive Relative Clause

Non-restrictive relative clause is a clause that aims to provide additional information, so this clause does not have a big effect to the meaning of the sentence which is different from the restrictive clause. Non-restrictive relative clauses are parenthetic comments which usually describe, but do not further define the antecedent (Quirk et al., 1973). Non-restrictive clause usually introduced by relative pronoun, such as: who, which, whom and whose or by a phrase which contains a relative pronoun such as: for which, to whom, etc. non-restrictive relative clause cannot be introduced by relative pronoun that and the relative pronoun of the non-restrictive relative clause can never be omitted. A non-restrictive relative clause usually has a comma before them. For example:

1. I’d been unable to care about anything else, not the van Gogh poster and not video games and not even my class schedule, which the Eagle had bought by that morning. (Green, 2005 : 21)

2. I blinked a couple times and looked up at the Colonel, who was standing between the couch and the COFFE TABLE. (Green, 2005 : 29)

Based on the example above, it can be seen that the non-restrictive clause has characteristics as follows:

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a. Even though the relative clause was omitted, the reference of the noun phrase was still clear. For example:

1. I’d been unable to care about anything else, not the van Gogh poster and not video games and not even my class schedule.

2. I blinked a couple times and looked up at the Colonel.

In the sentence of 1a.even the relative clause was omitted the reference of the antecedent of the relative clause, which in this case is my schedule, is still clear. As the same as 1a the sentence of 2a the reference of the noun phrase or the antecedent of the relative clause is still clear. The antecedent

The Colonelis still clear even without the relative clause since based on the

context also, there is only one person in the novel that have a nick name

Colonel, so it will not lead to an ambiguity.

c. Non-restrictive relative clause is usually marked by comma.

Syntactic Structure of Relative Clauses with Reference to John Green`s Novel Looking for Alaska.