Chapter II An Analysis of Speech Act illocutionary inSelected English
2.1 Pragmatics
Yule (1996:3) explains that pragmatics concern with some areas. They are:
Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer)
and interpreted by a listener (or reader). It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of
what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might
mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.
This type of study necessarily involves te interpretation of what people mean in particular
context and how the context influences what it said. It requires a consideration of how speakers
organize what circumstances. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.
This approach also necessarily explores how listeners can make inferences about what is said
in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning. This type of study
explores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as part of what is communicated. We
might say that it is the investigation of invisible meaning. Pragmatics is the study of how more
gets communicated than it is said.
Now, this perspective then raises the question of what determines the choice between the said
and unsaid. Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience.
On the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, speakers determine how much needs to
be said. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
.Yule (1996:4) also distinguishes three fields of linguistics study to review it’s relationship with
other areas of linguistics forms – how they are arranged in sequences , and which sequences are
well-formed . This type of study generally takes place without considering any world of
reference or any user of the forms.
Secondly, he considers Semantics as the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and
entities in the world – how world literally connect to things. Semantic analysis also attemps to
establish the relationships between verbal descriptions and states of affairs in the world as
accurate (true) or not, regardless of who produces that description. Thirdly, he regards
pragmatics as the study of relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
In addition, as social individuals, people spend much of their time talking or interacting with
other people; for example when they are getting together with friends, workmates, or families
over meal time. These interaction involving utterances can be analyzed by pragmatics analysis to
find out the speaker’s intended meanings, the listener’s assumption or receptions regard with
some aspects such as who the speaker and the listener are, what relationship they have, and in
what context they are in when they interact.
The meaning gained from an utterance may differ from one to another person; it depends on the
mentioned aspects. For example, two friends, Maggie and James, are having a conversation
which may imply some things and infer some other things without providing any clear linguistic
evidence of ‘the meaning’ of what was being communicated.
John
: “Cigarette?“
James
: “It would make me cough all day“
John has to know that James has to attend the singing competition today as a participant to
comprehend that James receives his offering.
Here is another example of utterances in conversation which may often be heard, but what the
participants mean depend on the shared knowledge laid between the speaker and the listener.
A : “Hey, have you?”
B : “Yap, just yesterday
The meaning of the words in the examples is understood, literally, but not what is communicated
by the speaker and the listener. However, both the speaker and the listener seem to understand
each other as B answer A’s question without asking what does A mean with “have you?”
2.1.1 Scope of Pragmatics
Yule (1996:XII) describes the subject areas of pragmatics as follows:
A. Entailment
Yule (1996:25) states that entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in
the utterance. For example:
(1) Mary’s brother has bought three horses.
In producing the utterance (1), the speaker will normally be expected to have the presuppositions
that a person called Mary has a brother.. The speaker may also hold the more specific
presuppositions that Mary has only one brother and that he has a lot of money. In fact, all of
these presuppositions are the speaker’s and all of them can be wrong. The sentence in (1) will be
treated as having some entailments such as Mary’s brother bought something. Mary’s brother
bought three animals, somebody had bought three horses, and other similar logical
consequences.
Moreover, there are two types of entailments; one way entailment and two ways entailment.
One way entailment means that the sentences are not true paraphrases each other. For example:
(2) Harry saw a squirrel
(3) Harry saw an animal
If Harry saw a squirrel, then he necessarily saw an animal. But if he saw an animal, he could
have seen a squirrel, but not necessarily. It could have been a mouse, a cat, a tiger, a big
crocodile or else.
Meanwhile, two-way entailment means that the sentences are paraphrases of each other. For
example:
(4) Jane sits in front of Ann
(5) Ann sits behind Jane
Sentence (4) and (5) have meaning relationships between in front ofand behind. We have a
situation of two-way entailment between the sentences. These entences are paraphrases one to
another that it is also called two-way entailment.
B. Deixis
Deixis is a process wherby words or expression rely absolutely on context. It is a technical term
from Greek for one of the most basic things we do with utterance which means ‘pointing’
through language. For example:
(6) Jim: “I’ll put this here”
(The context is Jim is telling his wife that he is about to put the key of the house in the
kitchen drawer)
From sentence (6) it can be seen two deitic expressions – ‘this’ and ‘here’. These deitic
expressions are conventionally understood as the expressions of being ‘near speaker’.
C. Implicature
Yule (1996: 131) states that implicature is a short version of conversational implicature which is
defined as an additional unstated meaning in conversation. There is a basic assumption in
conversation that each participant (the speaker and listener) attempt to corporate to the exchange
of talk. People produce implicatures al the time ut are mostly unaware of it. For example, if some
asks, “Could you brush your teeth?” the listener does not usually answer “Yes,” instead they
perform the non-linguistic act of brushing teeth. In this case, although the speaker uses a form of
words that is conventionally a question , the listener can infer that the speaker is making a
request.
Here are two examples of implicature which implicate “I don’t like” and “I’m not going”:
(7) A: “Do you like the colour?”
B: “Red is red”
(The context is A and B are close friends and A knows well that B does not like red
colour)
Stating that “Red id red” in (7) is apparently both too informative (since people already know
that red is red) and not informative enough because B does not directly answer the question of A.
There may be some interpretations gained by anyone when hearing B’s answer, but since the
context is A knows that really does not like red, then B has given the answer of the question.
Thus, A understands that B does not like the colour they are talking about. B does not say that
she/he does not like the colour but she/he impies it.
For another example:
(8) A: “We’re going to the movie, are you going with us tonight?”
B: “My parents are visiting tonight.”
(The context is that A and B are good friends and A knows that B rarely meets her/his
parents who live out of the town).
In (8), B’s answer is not related with the question of A, because there is not any relationship
between the movie and B’s parents. However, since there is a shared knowledge between A and
B , then B has actually answered A’s question. A know that seldom meets her parents living out
of the town, so A must understand that B is not going with A because B must want to spend the
night with her/his family.
B does not say that she is not going to the movie with the other, but she implies it.
2.2 Speech Acts
Many linguist made their own certain classification of speech act based on careful examination.
Not many differences but bring some significance. The first linguist who defined the
classification was Austin. Austin (1962) distinguish between five classes by which all
performative speech acts could be classified according to what it is that the act of uttering is
meant to achieve. So, in essence, Austin set limitations as to the number of possible performative
utterance types. These utterance types were Verdictives, Exercitives, Commisives, Behabitives,
and Expositives.
Searle (1962), one of Austin’s students who also studied language, goes further than Austin in
providing not only the needed general framework for a theory of speech acts but also a richer
specification of the detailed structures of speech acts themselves. .
2.2.1 Types of Speech Act
In this thesis, types of speech act arebased on Searle explanation. The types of speech act are:
A. Locution
Locution a figure of speech a use of a word that diverges from its usual meaning, or a phrase
with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it such as
a metaphor, simile, or personification
Speech Acts locutions is a speech act that states something in the sense of saying or speech acts
in the form of sentences that are meaningful and understandable . For example , the teacher told
me that I should help him . Searle calls this speech act locutions dngan term follow- language
prepositions because this speech act is only concerned with meaning .
B. Illocution
Illocutionary act is a term in linguisticsintroduced by the philosopher John Austin in his
investigation of the various aspects of speech act.I llocution in society it is very affordable
because it can change people’s point of view, mindset, and even reaction of something that they
never think before.
Related with the nation of illocutionary acts is the nation of the consequences or the effects, such
acts have the effects on the action, thought, believes of the hearers.
Here is Searle's classification for types of illocutions:
•
Assertive: an illocutionary act that represents a state of affairs.
E.g.
stating,
claiming,
hypothesizing,
describing,
telling,
insisting,
suggesting, asserting, or swearing that something is the case
•
Directive: an illocutionary act for getting the addressee to do something.
E.g. ordering, commanding, daring, defying, challenging.
•
Commissive: an illocutionary act for getting the speaker (i.e. the one performing the
speech act) to do something.
E.g. promising, threatening, intending, vowing to do or to refrain from doing something
•
Expressive: an illocutionary act that expresses the mental state of the speaker about an
event presumed to be true.
E.g. congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling, welcoming, apologizing
•
Declaration: an illocutionary act that brings into existence the state of affairs to which it
refers.
E.g. blessing, declaring, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence, excommunicating
C. Perlocution
A perlocutionary act (or perlocutionary effect) is a speech act, as viewed at the level of its
psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or
otherwise getting someone to do or realize something. This is contrasted with locutionary and
illocutionary acts (which are other levels of description, rather than different types of speech
acts).
Austin (1992) characterizes perlocutionary acts as an acts performed by uttering something; acts
that produces certain effects on the hearer, acts that involving the effects of other acts.
Unlike the notion of locutionary act, which describes the linguistic function of an utterance, a
perlocutionary effect is in some sense external to the performance. It may be thought of, in a
sense, as the effect of the illocutionary act via the locutionary act. Therefore, when examining
perlocutionary acts, the effect on the hearer or reader is emphasized.
As an example, consider the following utterance: "By the way, I have a CD of Debussy; would
you like to borrow it?" Its illocutionary function intended might be to impress the listener, or to
show a friendly attitude, or to encourage an interest in a particular type of music.
In his 1992 study, Hitler: The Führer and the People, J. P. Stern, a professor of German
literature, describes the early speeches of Adolf Hitler as perlocutionary acts of propaganda.
Based on that, we can get a conclusion that locution, illocution, and perlocution are the point
of view and mindset changing of publics for the idea that our bring linguistically.
2.3 Advertisements
The term advertising is closely related to marketing strategy. In marketing strategy, advertising
can be included into the promotional part. Advertising costs much money for paying the media,
which is selected. So, every company must be able to choose the right media to advertise their
product.
It is better for us to know the definition of advertising for further information and
understanding. There are so many definitions about advertising, but the writer chooses the simple
meaning of advertising which can be understood easily.
Burke (1980:6) states that advertising is a sales message, which is directed on mass audience that
views through persuasion language to sell goods, services, or ideas on behalf of the paying
sponsor.
2.3.1 The Type of Advertisement
Jefkins (1997;39) divides type of advertisements into seven types:
A.
Consumer Advertisements
There are 3 types of goods in consumer advertisements, they are:
1. Consumer good is the goods which are sold repeatedly and people daily necessity.
Such as food and beverages, shampoo, cigarette, etcetera.
2. Durable goods is the goods are more expensive than consumer goods and more
endurable. Such as household, clothes, electronic devices.
3. Consumer service is services for security, prosperity, and entertainment. Such as
bank, hotel, restaurant, travel, insurance, healthy treatment.
B.
Business to business Advertisements
The function of business to business advertisements is to promote the goods and non-
consumer service. It means that either advertiser or its target is called company. The advertised
product are those which are to be processed or are the elements of production such as advertising
of raw materials, components or spare part which taken from other company.
C.
Trade Advertisements
Trade advertisement is addressed to distributors, big companies, agents, and exporters /
importers. This advertisement advertises products to be resold.
The function of trade prss is to give information to the traders or wealthy people about
products which are available to be resold by introducing new product or by reminding old
products along with any sales or promotions.
Mail service is usually used by company to promote their product. Another media which is
used trade advertisements are trade exhibition. But television is also used to promote.
D.
Retail Advertisements
This advertisement has different character between trade advertisements and consumer
advertisements. The example of this advertisement is an advertisement which is made by
supermarket or big shops. This kind of advertisement is located in all shopping center. There are
3 objectives of this advertisements, they are:
1. To make the company becomes popular
2. To sell the exclusive goods for certain shop
3. To sell shop’s stocks
E.
Cooperative Advertisements
Cooperative advertisement is special for retail advertisements. Besides that, threr is another type
of cooperate advertisements, it is to join promotion.
F.
Financial Advertisements
Generally, bank advertisements, insurance advertisements are financial advertisements. The
function of financial advertisements is to collect donation or to offer financial capital. Such as
insurance, stock seling, debenture, and pension donation.
Newspaper, especially business newspaper is usually used by financial advertisements. It uses
big area in a page because financial advertisements shows full information about all of company
plan to influence and made investor join them.
G.
Recruitment Advertisements
The objectives of recruitment advertisements is to recruit employee candidate. This
advertisement includes all communications used by an organization to attract talent to work
within it. Recruitment advertisements typically have a uniform layout and contain the following
elements:
•
•
•
The job title heading and location
An explanatory paragraph describing the company, including the Employer Brand
A description of the position
2.3.2 The Media of Advertisements
According to Craven (1987:36), the media of advertisements is divided into two: print media
and broadcast media. Further, print media consist of newspaper, magazine, direct mail, outdoor
advertisements, and transit advertisements. Besides, broadcast media consist of television and
radio.
A. Printed Media
Newspaper is a regularly schedule publication containing news, information, and advertising,
usually printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper nsuch as newsprint.
Magazine is a publication, generally published on a regular schedule, containing of variety of
articles. They are generally financed by advertising, by a purchase price, by pre-paid magazine
subscriptions, or all three.
In magazine advertisement, the advertisers usually use slogan and picture in their advertisement.
The definition of slogan is a memorable motto or phrase used in a political, commercial,
religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. While advertising
slogan are short, often memorable phrases used in advertising campaigns. They are claimed to be
the most effective means of drawing attention to one or more aspects of a product.
Direct Mail is the most selective advertisements medium. It has to be supported by many
components, such as computer, modem, et cetera. But it still can be used as an option.
Outdoor Advertisements is essentially any type of advertising that reaches the consumer
while them outside the home. This is contrast with broadcast, print and internet advertising.
Transit advertisements standardize medium of another form of sign advertisements, which uses
public transportation facilities.
B. Broadcast Media
Television is one of the broadcast media, which is the most strong and powerful media that wellknown by public. It is certainly most expensive of the media.
International network (internet) also famous around the world as a largest media in publicity
and advertising. It is focusing on network users that given audio visual advertising besides
television.
Radio is another type of broadcast media, which has recovered from the losses inflicted by
television, by focusing on special segments of the population,. It is cheaper than using television
or internet as the media of advertisements.
2.4 Slogan
In http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slogan,“A slogan is memorable motto or phrases used in a
political, commercial, religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or
purpose. While advertising slogan are short, often memorable phrases in advertising campaigns.
They are claimed to be the most effective means of drawing attention to one or more aspect of a
product.”
So, the slogan is a simple motto or phrases which is easy to memorize to submit information,
influence,
motivating,
sensitize
the
others.
Phrases
in
Wikipedia
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase) isany group of words, often carrying a special idiomatic
meaning; in this sense it is roughly synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase
is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a
sentence—a single unit within a grammatical hierarchy. A phrase appears within a clause,
although it is also possible for a phrase to be a clause or to contain a clause within it.That which
distinguishes phrases of clauses and sentences . See some examples below this phrase :
o My black horse
o White Chocolate
o Huge Mountain
Based on that example, we know that slogan is a simple line that would be the main sentence
or purpose of idea that contained in commercial or non-commercial (social groups of
environment) advertisements. It can also only a simple phrase but the reader or hearer still can
get the point of that advertisements.
Yule (1996:3) explains that pragmatics concern with some areas. They are:
Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer)
and interpreted by a listener (or reader). It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of
what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might
mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.
This type of study necessarily involves te interpretation of what people mean in particular
context and how the context influences what it said. It requires a consideration of how speakers
organize what circumstances. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.
This approach also necessarily explores how listeners can make inferences about what is said
in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning. This type of study
explores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as part of what is communicated. We
might say that it is the investigation of invisible meaning. Pragmatics is the study of how more
gets communicated than it is said.
Now, this perspective then raises the question of what determines the choice between the said
and unsaid. Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience.
On the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, speakers determine how much needs to
be said. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.
.Yule (1996:4) also distinguishes three fields of linguistics study to review it’s relationship with
other areas of linguistics forms – how they are arranged in sequences , and which sequences are
well-formed . This type of study generally takes place without considering any world of
reference or any user of the forms.
Secondly, he considers Semantics as the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and
entities in the world – how world literally connect to things. Semantic analysis also attemps to
establish the relationships between verbal descriptions and states of affairs in the world as
accurate (true) or not, regardless of who produces that description. Thirdly, he regards
pragmatics as the study of relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
In addition, as social individuals, people spend much of their time talking or interacting with
other people; for example when they are getting together with friends, workmates, or families
over meal time. These interaction involving utterances can be analyzed by pragmatics analysis to
find out the speaker’s intended meanings, the listener’s assumption or receptions regard with
some aspects such as who the speaker and the listener are, what relationship they have, and in
what context they are in when they interact.
The meaning gained from an utterance may differ from one to another person; it depends on the
mentioned aspects. For example, two friends, Maggie and James, are having a conversation
which may imply some things and infer some other things without providing any clear linguistic
evidence of ‘the meaning’ of what was being communicated.
John
: “Cigarette?“
James
: “It would make me cough all day“
John has to know that James has to attend the singing competition today as a participant to
comprehend that James receives his offering.
Here is another example of utterances in conversation which may often be heard, but what the
participants mean depend on the shared knowledge laid between the speaker and the listener.
A : “Hey, have you?”
B : “Yap, just yesterday
The meaning of the words in the examples is understood, literally, but not what is communicated
by the speaker and the listener. However, both the speaker and the listener seem to understand
each other as B answer A’s question without asking what does A mean with “have you?”
2.1.1 Scope of Pragmatics
Yule (1996:XII) describes the subject areas of pragmatics as follows:
A. Entailment
Yule (1996:25) states that entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in
the utterance. For example:
(1) Mary’s brother has bought three horses.
In producing the utterance (1), the speaker will normally be expected to have the presuppositions
that a person called Mary has a brother.. The speaker may also hold the more specific
presuppositions that Mary has only one brother and that he has a lot of money. In fact, all of
these presuppositions are the speaker’s and all of them can be wrong. The sentence in (1) will be
treated as having some entailments such as Mary’s brother bought something. Mary’s brother
bought three animals, somebody had bought three horses, and other similar logical
consequences.
Moreover, there are two types of entailments; one way entailment and two ways entailment.
One way entailment means that the sentences are not true paraphrases each other. For example:
(2) Harry saw a squirrel
(3) Harry saw an animal
If Harry saw a squirrel, then he necessarily saw an animal. But if he saw an animal, he could
have seen a squirrel, but not necessarily. It could have been a mouse, a cat, a tiger, a big
crocodile or else.
Meanwhile, two-way entailment means that the sentences are paraphrases of each other. For
example:
(4) Jane sits in front of Ann
(5) Ann sits behind Jane
Sentence (4) and (5) have meaning relationships between in front ofand behind. We have a
situation of two-way entailment between the sentences. These entences are paraphrases one to
another that it is also called two-way entailment.
B. Deixis
Deixis is a process wherby words or expression rely absolutely on context. It is a technical term
from Greek for one of the most basic things we do with utterance which means ‘pointing’
through language. For example:
(6) Jim: “I’ll put this here”
(The context is Jim is telling his wife that he is about to put the key of the house in the
kitchen drawer)
From sentence (6) it can be seen two deitic expressions – ‘this’ and ‘here’. These deitic
expressions are conventionally understood as the expressions of being ‘near speaker’.
C. Implicature
Yule (1996: 131) states that implicature is a short version of conversational implicature which is
defined as an additional unstated meaning in conversation. There is a basic assumption in
conversation that each participant (the speaker and listener) attempt to corporate to the exchange
of talk. People produce implicatures al the time ut are mostly unaware of it. For example, if some
asks, “Could you brush your teeth?” the listener does not usually answer “Yes,” instead they
perform the non-linguistic act of brushing teeth. In this case, although the speaker uses a form of
words that is conventionally a question , the listener can infer that the speaker is making a
request.
Here are two examples of implicature which implicate “I don’t like” and “I’m not going”:
(7) A: “Do you like the colour?”
B: “Red is red”
(The context is A and B are close friends and A knows well that B does not like red
colour)
Stating that “Red id red” in (7) is apparently both too informative (since people already know
that red is red) and not informative enough because B does not directly answer the question of A.
There may be some interpretations gained by anyone when hearing B’s answer, but since the
context is A knows that really does not like red, then B has given the answer of the question.
Thus, A understands that B does not like the colour they are talking about. B does not say that
she/he does not like the colour but she/he impies it.
For another example:
(8) A: “We’re going to the movie, are you going with us tonight?”
B: “My parents are visiting tonight.”
(The context is that A and B are good friends and A knows that B rarely meets her/his
parents who live out of the town).
In (8), B’s answer is not related with the question of A, because there is not any relationship
between the movie and B’s parents. However, since there is a shared knowledge between A and
B , then B has actually answered A’s question. A know that seldom meets her parents living out
of the town, so A must understand that B is not going with A because B must want to spend the
night with her/his family.
B does not say that she is not going to the movie with the other, but she implies it.
2.2 Speech Acts
Many linguist made their own certain classification of speech act based on careful examination.
Not many differences but bring some significance. The first linguist who defined the
classification was Austin. Austin (1962) distinguish between five classes by which all
performative speech acts could be classified according to what it is that the act of uttering is
meant to achieve. So, in essence, Austin set limitations as to the number of possible performative
utterance types. These utterance types were Verdictives, Exercitives, Commisives, Behabitives,
and Expositives.
Searle (1962), one of Austin’s students who also studied language, goes further than Austin in
providing not only the needed general framework for a theory of speech acts but also a richer
specification of the detailed structures of speech acts themselves. .
2.2.1 Types of Speech Act
In this thesis, types of speech act arebased on Searle explanation. The types of speech act are:
A. Locution
Locution a figure of speech a use of a word that diverges from its usual meaning, or a phrase
with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it such as
a metaphor, simile, or personification
Speech Acts locutions is a speech act that states something in the sense of saying or speech acts
in the form of sentences that are meaningful and understandable . For example , the teacher told
me that I should help him . Searle calls this speech act locutions dngan term follow- language
prepositions because this speech act is only concerned with meaning .
B. Illocution
Illocutionary act is a term in linguisticsintroduced by the philosopher John Austin in his
investigation of the various aspects of speech act.I llocution in society it is very affordable
because it can change people’s point of view, mindset, and even reaction of something that they
never think before.
Related with the nation of illocutionary acts is the nation of the consequences or the effects, such
acts have the effects on the action, thought, believes of the hearers.
Here is Searle's classification for types of illocutions:
•
Assertive: an illocutionary act that represents a state of affairs.
E.g.
stating,
claiming,
hypothesizing,
describing,
telling,
insisting,
suggesting, asserting, or swearing that something is the case
•
Directive: an illocutionary act for getting the addressee to do something.
E.g. ordering, commanding, daring, defying, challenging.
•
Commissive: an illocutionary act for getting the speaker (i.e. the one performing the
speech act) to do something.
E.g. promising, threatening, intending, vowing to do or to refrain from doing something
•
Expressive: an illocutionary act that expresses the mental state of the speaker about an
event presumed to be true.
E.g. congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling, welcoming, apologizing
•
Declaration: an illocutionary act that brings into existence the state of affairs to which it
refers.
E.g. blessing, declaring, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence, excommunicating
C. Perlocution
A perlocutionary act (or perlocutionary effect) is a speech act, as viewed at the level of its
psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or
otherwise getting someone to do or realize something. This is contrasted with locutionary and
illocutionary acts (which are other levels of description, rather than different types of speech
acts).
Austin (1992) characterizes perlocutionary acts as an acts performed by uttering something; acts
that produces certain effects on the hearer, acts that involving the effects of other acts.
Unlike the notion of locutionary act, which describes the linguistic function of an utterance, a
perlocutionary effect is in some sense external to the performance. It may be thought of, in a
sense, as the effect of the illocutionary act via the locutionary act. Therefore, when examining
perlocutionary acts, the effect on the hearer or reader is emphasized.
As an example, consider the following utterance: "By the way, I have a CD of Debussy; would
you like to borrow it?" Its illocutionary function intended might be to impress the listener, or to
show a friendly attitude, or to encourage an interest in a particular type of music.
In his 1992 study, Hitler: The Führer and the People, J. P. Stern, a professor of German
literature, describes the early speeches of Adolf Hitler as perlocutionary acts of propaganda.
Based on that, we can get a conclusion that locution, illocution, and perlocution are the point
of view and mindset changing of publics for the idea that our bring linguistically.
2.3 Advertisements
The term advertising is closely related to marketing strategy. In marketing strategy, advertising
can be included into the promotional part. Advertising costs much money for paying the media,
which is selected. So, every company must be able to choose the right media to advertise their
product.
It is better for us to know the definition of advertising for further information and
understanding. There are so many definitions about advertising, but the writer chooses the simple
meaning of advertising which can be understood easily.
Burke (1980:6) states that advertising is a sales message, which is directed on mass audience that
views through persuasion language to sell goods, services, or ideas on behalf of the paying
sponsor.
2.3.1 The Type of Advertisement
Jefkins (1997;39) divides type of advertisements into seven types:
A.
Consumer Advertisements
There are 3 types of goods in consumer advertisements, they are:
1. Consumer good is the goods which are sold repeatedly and people daily necessity.
Such as food and beverages, shampoo, cigarette, etcetera.
2. Durable goods is the goods are more expensive than consumer goods and more
endurable. Such as household, clothes, electronic devices.
3. Consumer service is services for security, prosperity, and entertainment. Such as
bank, hotel, restaurant, travel, insurance, healthy treatment.
B.
Business to business Advertisements
The function of business to business advertisements is to promote the goods and non-
consumer service. It means that either advertiser or its target is called company. The advertised
product are those which are to be processed or are the elements of production such as advertising
of raw materials, components or spare part which taken from other company.
C.
Trade Advertisements
Trade advertisement is addressed to distributors, big companies, agents, and exporters /
importers. This advertisement advertises products to be resold.
The function of trade prss is to give information to the traders or wealthy people about
products which are available to be resold by introducing new product or by reminding old
products along with any sales or promotions.
Mail service is usually used by company to promote their product. Another media which is
used trade advertisements are trade exhibition. But television is also used to promote.
D.
Retail Advertisements
This advertisement has different character between trade advertisements and consumer
advertisements. The example of this advertisement is an advertisement which is made by
supermarket or big shops. This kind of advertisement is located in all shopping center. There are
3 objectives of this advertisements, they are:
1. To make the company becomes popular
2. To sell the exclusive goods for certain shop
3. To sell shop’s stocks
E.
Cooperative Advertisements
Cooperative advertisement is special for retail advertisements. Besides that, threr is another type
of cooperate advertisements, it is to join promotion.
F.
Financial Advertisements
Generally, bank advertisements, insurance advertisements are financial advertisements. The
function of financial advertisements is to collect donation or to offer financial capital. Such as
insurance, stock seling, debenture, and pension donation.
Newspaper, especially business newspaper is usually used by financial advertisements. It uses
big area in a page because financial advertisements shows full information about all of company
plan to influence and made investor join them.
G.
Recruitment Advertisements
The objectives of recruitment advertisements is to recruit employee candidate. This
advertisement includes all communications used by an organization to attract talent to work
within it. Recruitment advertisements typically have a uniform layout and contain the following
elements:
•
•
•
The job title heading and location
An explanatory paragraph describing the company, including the Employer Brand
A description of the position
2.3.2 The Media of Advertisements
According to Craven (1987:36), the media of advertisements is divided into two: print media
and broadcast media. Further, print media consist of newspaper, magazine, direct mail, outdoor
advertisements, and transit advertisements. Besides, broadcast media consist of television and
radio.
A. Printed Media
Newspaper is a regularly schedule publication containing news, information, and advertising,
usually printed on relatively inexpensive, low-grade paper nsuch as newsprint.
Magazine is a publication, generally published on a regular schedule, containing of variety of
articles. They are generally financed by advertising, by a purchase price, by pre-paid magazine
subscriptions, or all three.
In magazine advertisement, the advertisers usually use slogan and picture in their advertisement.
The definition of slogan is a memorable motto or phrase used in a political, commercial,
religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. While advertising
slogan are short, often memorable phrases used in advertising campaigns. They are claimed to be
the most effective means of drawing attention to one or more aspects of a product.
Direct Mail is the most selective advertisements medium. It has to be supported by many
components, such as computer, modem, et cetera. But it still can be used as an option.
Outdoor Advertisements is essentially any type of advertising that reaches the consumer
while them outside the home. This is contrast with broadcast, print and internet advertising.
Transit advertisements standardize medium of another form of sign advertisements, which uses
public transportation facilities.
B. Broadcast Media
Television is one of the broadcast media, which is the most strong and powerful media that wellknown by public. It is certainly most expensive of the media.
International network (internet) also famous around the world as a largest media in publicity
and advertising. It is focusing on network users that given audio visual advertising besides
television.
Radio is another type of broadcast media, which has recovered from the losses inflicted by
television, by focusing on special segments of the population,. It is cheaper than using television
or internet as the media of advertisements.
2.4 Slogan
In http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slogan,“A slogan is memorable motto or phrases used in a
political, commercial, religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or
purpose. While advertising slogan are short, often memorable phrases in advertising campaigns.
They are claimed to be the most effective means of drawing attention to one or more aspect of a
product.”
So, the slogan is a simple motto or phrases which is easy to memorize to submit information,
influence,
motivating,
sensitize
the
others.
Phrases
in
Wikipedia
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase) isany group of words, often carrying a special idiomatic
meaning; in this sense it is roughly synonymous with expression. In linguistic analysis, a phrase
is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a constituent in the syntax of a
sentence—a single unit within a grammatical hierarchy. A phrase appears within a clause,
although it is also possible for a phrase to be a clause or to contain a clause within it.That which
distinguishes phrases of clauses and sentences . See some examples below this phrase :
o My black horse
o White Chocolate
o Huge Mountain
Based on that example, we know that slogan is a simple line that would be the main sentence
or purpose of idea that contained in commercial or non-commercial (social groups of
environment) advertisements. It can also only a simple phrase but the reader or hearer still can
get the point of that advertisements.