Konsep & Penerapan Ekonomi Manajerial dalam Bisnis
· w a sebagai
datang.
tian di hati
di
er 2015
DAFTAR lSI
Kata Pengantar ............................................................................................................................................................ iii
Daftar lsi ........................................................................................................................................................................... v
Daftar Tabel ..................................................................................................................................................................... x
Daftar Gambar ............................................................................................................................................................. xii
Bab I. Pengertian Dan Ruang lingkup Ekonomi Manajerial ............................................... 1
1.1
Ruang Lingkup dan Pengertian Ekonomi Manajerial .................................................................. 1
1.2
Teori Perusahaan .......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Pengertian dan Fungsi Perusahaan ........................................................................................ 5
1.2.2 Tujuan dan Nilai Perusahaan .................................................................................................... 5
1.3
Sifat dan Fungsi Laba ...........................................................................................:....................................... 7
1.3.1 Sifat Laba ............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.2 Fungsi Laba ...................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.3 Sumber-Sumber Laba .................................................................................................................. 11
1.4
Etika Bisnis .....................................................................................................................................................11
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Dilema Etis 1 ................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Dilema Etis 2 ................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Dilema Etis 3 ................................................................................................................................................................ 16
Bab II. Teknik Optimisasi Ekonomi .......................................................................................... 18
2.1
Memaksimumkan Nilai Perusahaan .................................................................................................. 18
2.2
Metode Dalam Menggambarkan Hubungan Ekonomi .............................................................. 19
2.3
Hubungan antara Biaya Total, Rata-Rata, dan Marginal .......................................................... 20
2.4
Analisis Optimisasi ..................................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.1 Aturan Diferensial .........................................................................................................................23
2.5
Optimisasi dengan Kalkulus ................................................................................................................... 24
2.5 .1 Menentukan Maksimum atau Minimum dengan Kalkulus .......................................24
2.5.2 Membedakan antara Maksimum dan Minimum : Turunan Kedua ......................... 25
2.6
Optimisasi Multivariat .............................................................................................................................. 33
2.6.1 Memaksimumkan Fungsi Multivariat ................................................................................. 34
2.7
Optimisasi Terkendala .............................................................................................................................. 36
2.7.1 Substitusi ...........................................................................................................................................37
2.7.2 Metode Langrange ........................................................................................................................ 37
2.8
Peralatan Manajemen Baru untuk Optimisasi .............................................................................. 39
Contoh Kasus 2.1 Implementasi TQM di Institusi Perguruan Tinggi .............................. ..43
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ......................................................................................................................... 45
v
Bab III. Penerapan Permintaan, Penawaran dan Keseimbangan Pasar Dalam
Perekonomian ................................................................................................................. 50
3.1
Permintaan ..................................................................................................................................................... 51
3.1.1 Hukum Permintaan (The Law of Demand) ........................................................................ 51
3.1.2 Fungsi Permintaan ........................................................................................................................51
3.1.3 Faktor -Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Jumlah Permintaan ........................................... 53
3.1.4 Skedul Permintaan ....................................................................................................................... 57
3.1.5 Kurva Permintaan ......................................................................................................................... 58
3.1.6 Permintaan Pasar vs Permintaan Individu .......................................................................63
3.1. 7 Pergerakan Sepanjang Kurva Permintaan ........................................................................ 64
3.1.8 Pergeseran Kurva Permintaan ................................................................................................ 65
Contoh Kasus 3.1 Dua Cara dalam Mengurangi Jumlah Permintaan terhadap
Rokok ...............................................................................................................................................67
Contoh Kasus 3.2 Permintaan Berlebih ......................................................................................... 68
Contoh Kasus 3.3 Pemerintah Menetapkan Batas Harga Tertinggi Akibat
Permintaan Berlebih ......................................................................................... 69
3.2
Penawaran ...................................................................................................................................................... 70
3.2.1 Definisi ................................................................................................................................................ 70
3.2.2 Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Penawaran ............................................................71
3.2.3 Fungsi Penawaran ........................................................................................................................ 72
3.3
Pertemuan Penawaran dan Permintaan .......................................................................................... 73
3.3.1 Titik Keseimbangan ..................................................................................................................... 73
3.3.2 Menentukan Keadaan Keseimbangan secara Angka .................................................... 73
Contoh Kasus 3.4 Harga Dasar ............................................................................................................... 7 4
3.3.3 Keadaan Keseimbangan secara Grafik ................................................................................ 75
Contoh Kasus 3.5Upah Minimum ........................................................................................................78
Contoh Kasus 3.6 Analisis Permintaan dan Penawaran Bea: Impor Minyak ................. 80
3.4
Konvergensi Internasional pad a Selera ............................................................................................ 82
3.5
Electronic Comm erce .................................................................................................................................. 82
Contoh Soal 3.7 Penerapan Konsep Permintaan .......................................................................... 84
Rangkulnan ................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus .........................................................................................................................86
Bab IV.Penerapan Elastisitas Dalam Pengambil Keputusan Manajerial ....................... 92
4.1
Elastisitas Permintaan .............................................................................................................................. 92
4.1.1 Definisi El astisitas Permintaan ............................................................................................... 92
4.1.2 Jenis-Jenis Elastisitas Permintaan ......................................................................................... 92
4.1.3 Faktor-Faktor Penentu Tingkat Elastisitas ...................................................................... 98
4.1.4 Metode Menghitung Elastisitas ........................................................................................... 100
4.1.5 Menghitung E1astisitas Permintaan .................................................................................. 104
4.1.5.1 Menghitung Elastisitas Permintaan t erhadap Harga .............................. 104
Contoh Kasus 4.1Elastisitas Permintaan terhadap Harga di Dunia Nyata ................... 106
4.1.5.2 Elastisitas Permintaan terhadap Pendapatan ............................................ 107
4.1.5.3 Elastisitas Permintaan Silang t erhadap Harga ........................................... 109
Contoh Kasus 4.2Elastisitas Permintaan Silang terhadap Harga di Dunia Nyata ..... 110
4.1.6 Elastisitas Harga dan Struktur Pasar ................................................................................ 112
4.1.7 Hubungan Tingkat Elastisitas dan Total Penerimaan eTR) ...................................113
vi
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4.2
Elastisitas Penawaran terhadap Harga (Price ElastiCity O/Supply - E;. ;). ........................ 119
4.2.1 Definisi ............................................................................................................................................ 119
4.2.2 Jenis Elastisitas dan Kurva Penawaran ........................................................................... 119
4.2.3 Faktor- Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Elastisitas Penawaran .................................. 124
4.2.4 Penggunaan Elastisitas Penawaran dalam Pengambilan Keputusan
Manajerial ...................................................................................................................................... 125
Contoh Kasus 4.3 Permintaan, Penawaran dan Elastisitas ............................................... 126
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 128
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 129
Bab V.Estimasi Permintaan ........................................................................................................................... 136
Masalah Identifikasi ................................................................................................................................ 137
5.1
5.2
Pendekatan Penelitian Pemasaran Untuk Estimasi Permintaan ...................................... 137
5.2.1 Survei Konsumen ....................................................................................................................... 137
5.2.2 Penelitian Observasi ................................................................................................................. 138
Contoh Kasus 5.1 Pemasaran Mikro: Pemasaran Zero Terhadap Konsumen ............. 139
5.2.3 Klinik Konsumen ........................................................................................................................ 140
5.2.4 Eksperimen Pasar ...................................................................................................................... 141
Contoh Kasus 5.2 Estimasi Permintaan untuk Jeruk dengan Eksperimen Pasar. ..... 143
Contoh Kasus 5.3 Kerja Sarna Tim Lintas Divisi ........................................................................ 144
5.3
Estimasi Permintaan dengan Analisis Regresi ........................................................................... 145
5.4
Pengenalan terhadap Analisis Regresi ........................................................................................... 146
5.4.1 Analisis Regresi Sederhana ................................................................................................... 14 7
Contoh Kasus 5.4 Resiko dalam Peramalan Permintaan ...................................................... 152
5.4.2 Analisis Regresi Berganda ..................................................................................................... 153
Contoh Kasus 5.5 Mengestimasi Permintaan Untuk Penerbangan Melintasi
North Atlantic ..................................................................................................... 154
Masalah dalam Analisis Regresi ........................................................................................................ 155
5.5
5.5 .1 Normalitas ..................................................................................................................................... 155
5.5.2 Multikolinearitas ........................................................................................................................ 155
5.5.3 Heteroskedastisitas ................................................................................................................... 156
5.5.4 Autokorelasi .................................................................................................................................. 157
Contoh Kasus 5.6 Peramalan Permintaan yang Memberikan Keunggulan
Bersaing Bagi Disney ...................................................................................... 168
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 169
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 172
Bah VI. Ekonomi Produksi dan Estimasi ............................................................................. 177
6.1
Pendahuluan ............................................................................................................................................... 177
Penerapan Konsep Produksi. .............................................................................................................. 178
6.2
6.2.1 Konsep Dasar Produksi yang Perlu Diingat... ................................................................ 178
Organisasi Produksi dan Fungsi Produksi ................................................................................... 178
6.3
6.3.1 Organisasi Produksi .................................................................................................................. 178
6.3.2 Fungsi Produksi .......................................................................................................................... 180
Contoh Kasus 6.1 Menentukan Sumber Daya yang Dibutuhkan ....................................... 181
Fungsi Produksi dengan Satu Input Variabel ............................................................................. 181
6.4
6.4.1 Hubungan antara Prod uk Marginal (MP),Produk Rata-Rata (AP),
Elastisitas (£),dan Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan Manajerial ........................... 186
vii
6.5
Penggunaan Input Variabel secara Optimum ............................................................................. 188
Contoh Kasus 6.2 Mengapa Perusahaan Lebih Memilih Melakukan Outsource
daripada Memproduksi Sendiri Produk-Produknya? ....................... 192
6.6
Fungsi Produksi dengan Dua Input Variabel .............................................................................. 192
6.6.1 Isokuan Produksi ........................................................................................................................ 192
6.6.1.1 Wilayah Ekonomis Produksi ............................................................................... 193
6.6.1.2 Tingkat Marginal dari Substitusi Teknis ....................................................... 194
Contoh Kasus 6.3 Peningkatan Substitusi Tenaga Kerja dengan Modal untuk
Meningkatkan Produktivitas Tenaga Kerja .......................................... 198
6.7
Kombinasi Input Optimum .................................................................................................................. 198
6.8
Kombinasi Input Optimum untuk Meminimumkan Biaya atau
Memaksimumkan Output... ..................................................................................................................201
6.9
Efek Perubahan Harga Input............................................................................................................... 206
Contoh Kasus 6.4 Kemampuan Substitusi antara Bensin dan Waktu
Berkendara ........................................................................................................... 207
6.10 Skala Hasil .................................................................................................................................................... 208
6.11 Fungsi Produksi Empiris ....................................................................................................................... 212
Contoh Kasus 6.5 Spesialisasi merupakan Proses yang dilakukan pada Pabrik
Peniti ........................................................................................................................ 215
Contoh Kasus 6.6 Merger Merupakan Skala Ekonomis di Bidang Perbankan ........... 216
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 217
Melatih Etika Bisnis Anda ................................................................................................................................... 218
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 220
Bab VII. Teori dan Estimasi Biaya .......................................................................................... 224
7.1
Karakteristik Biaya .................................................................................................................................. 224
7.2
Fungsi Biaya Jangka Pendek ............................................................................................................... 225
Contoh Kasus 7.1 Kerja Sarna Tim Lintas Divisi.. ...................................................................... 233
7.3
Biaya Jangka Panjang .............................................................................................................................. 234
Contoh Kasus 7.2 Analisis Marginal: Toko Es Krim ................................................................. 240
7.4
Ukuran Pabrik dan Skala Ekonomis ................................................................................................ 242
7.4.1 Biaya Jangka Panjang: Skala Ekonomis, Disekonomis, dan Skala
PenghasiJan Meningkat ........................................................................................................... 242
Contoh Kasus 7.3 Skala Ekonomis di Bidang Perbankan, 2005 ......................................... 245
Contoh Kasus 7.4 Skala Ekonomis dalam Produksi Telur .................................................... 246
7.4.2 Skala Penghasilan Konstan .................................................................................................... 246
7.4.3 Skala Disekononlis .................................................................................................................... 246
7.5
Kurva Pembelajaran ................................................................................................................................ 247
7.6
Estimasi Empiris Fungsi Biaya ........................................................................................................... 251
7.6.1 Masalah Data dan Pengukuran dalam Mengestimasi Fungsi Biaya
Jangka Pendek .............................................................................................................................. 251
7.6.2 Bentuk Fungsional Biaya Jangka Pendek ........................................................................ 251
7.6.3 Mengestimasi Fungsi Biaya Jangka Panjang dengan Cross-sectional
Regression Analysis .................................................................................................................... 252
7.6.4 Mengestimasi Fungsi Biaya Jangka Panjang dengan Teknik Rekayasa
dan Survival .................................................................................................................................. 252
7.7
Dilema Etis ................................................................................................................................................... 253
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 253
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 256
viii
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Bah VIII. Menentukan Harga dan Jumlah Produk Optimum pada Struktur
Pasar Persaingan Sempurna dan Monopoli ......................................................... 2 60
8.1
Pendahuluan ... ............... ......................... ..... ............................ .................... ............................... 260
8.2
Peng ertian dan Jenis·Jenis Struktur Pasar ................. .... .......... .................................. ......... 261
8.3
Pasar Persaingan Sem puma ........ ................ .................... ............ ............. .. ............................ 264
8.3.1 Ciri-Ciri Pasar Persaingan Sempuma: .................................... ................................. 264
8.3.2 Kebaikan Pasar Persaingan Sempurna ................................ ................................... .265
8.3.3 Keburukan-Keburukan Pasar Persaingan Sempuma Antara Lain : ................. 266
Contoh Kasus 8.1 Industri Tekstil Katun merupakan Contoh Perusahaan
Persaingan Sempuma ..................................... .... ................................... 266
8.3.4 Penentuan H arga dan Jumlah Produk dalam Pasar Persai ngan
Sempuma ........... ..... ......... ................ ........ ............... ......... ............ ... ....... ...... ................... 267
8.3.5 Analisis Jangka Pendek Perusahaan Persaingan Sempurna .............................. 270
8.3.5.1 Keputusan J angka Pendek Perusahaan untuk Tutu p ....................... .... 271
8.3.6 Analisis Jangka Panjang Pe rus ahaan Persaingan Sempurna ..................... ... ... .. 275
8.3.7 Mengapa Perusahaan Terus Bekerja Jika Keuntungannya Nol? ....................... 276
8.4
Struktur Pasar Monopoli .... ........................... .................................. ......................................... 277
8.4.1 Ciri -Ciri Pasar Monopoli ............................. .................................. ............................... 278
8.4.2 Monopoli Mumi dan Monopoli Alamiah ......... .... .................................................... 278
Contoh Kasus 8.2 Hambatan Masuk Pasar dan Monopoli ............................................... 279
8.4.3 Alasan Munculnya Monopoli ...................................................................................... 280
8.4.4 Penetapan Harga Pasar Monopoli ............................................................................ 280
8.4.4.1 Penentuan H arga dan Outpu t Jangka pendek pada Perusahaan
Monopoli ..........................................................................................................280
8.4.4.2 Penentuan Harga dan Outputjangka Panjang dalam
Perusahaan Monopoli ................................................... ........ .................. ...... 282
8.4.5 Keburukan Monopoli ..... .. .... .. ...................................................................................... 284
8.4.6 Kerugi an Masyarakat (0 eadweight Loss) dari Pasar Mo nopoli ............... ........ 285
8.4.7 Perbandingan antara Persaingan Sempuma dan Monopoli ..............................287
8.4.8 Biaya Sosial dari Monopoli ............ ........ ........................ ............................................. 288
Contoh Kasus 8.3 Monopoli Berlia n OeBeers ................................................... .................. 289
Contoh Kasus 8.4 Nilai Pasar Laba Monopoli dalam Industri Taksi di Kota New
york ... ............ ...... ............... ..................................... ........... ................. .... ....290
8.4.9 Cara Mengatasi Efek NegatifMonopoli ................................... .. ........................... ...290
8.4.10 Monopoli Tidak Selalu Bu ruk ............. .................................... .. .................. ........ ...... .. 291
8.4.11 Oiskriminasi Harga ............... ..... .... .... .... ................................................. ....... ..... ..... ..... 291
Contoh Kasus 8.5 Oiskriminasi Harga pada Obat ..... ..... .................................. .................. 293
Rangkum an ............... .. .. ....... .......... ... .. ... ..... ............ ... ................................. ............... ..............................296
Soal Latih an dan Aplikasi Kasus ................... .............................................................. .......... ...... .... .... 297
Oaftar Pust aka ...... ... ...... .............. .. .... ... .... ..... ..... .... .... ... ......... ............................................. ............ ........ 302
ix
DAFTAR TABEL
No
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Judul
Halaman
Daftar Penerimaan Total Perusahaan .... ........................ ....... .......... ......... ................. .. ............ 19
Biaya Total (TC), Rata-Rata (AC), dan Marginal (MC) pada Perusahaan yang
Menjual Alat-Alat Kesehatan ... .. .. ................ ................................. ... ............................. ............. 21
Aturan Fungsi Diferensiasi ......... ........................................................................... .................... 24
Ringkasan Bentuk Hubungan Vari abel-Vari abel yang M empengaruhi Jumlah
Produk yang Diminta pada Waktu Tertentu ........................ ........................................... ...... 56
Permintaan Terhadap Kopi pada Berbagai Tingkat Harga ............................................... 58
Permintaan Individu dan Permintaan Pasar ................. ............................................... ........ 63
Ringkasan Bentuk Hubungan Vari abel-Vari abel dalam Fungsi Penawaran
dengan Kuantitas Penawaran Produk pada Waktu Tertentu ........................................... 73
Permintaan dan Penawaran Pulpen ....... ...................... ........................................................... 74
Skedul Permintaan untuk Fungsi Permi ntaan Qdx =85-3 pz .................................... ...... 102
Elastisitas Titik untuk Fungsi Permintaan Qdx = 85-3Pz ........ ......................................... 102
Skedul Permintaan untuk Fungsi Permi ntaan Qdx = 120-3Pz................................... ..... 103
Elastisitas Busur untuk Fungsi Permintaan Qdx = 120-3Pz ................................ ............ 103
Estimasi Jangka Pendek dan J angka Panjang dari Elastisitas Permintaan
Terhadap Harga (Ep) untuk Beberapa Komoditas di Am erika Serikat ...................... 106
Elastisitas Pendapatan untuk Beberapa Prod uk ............................ .... ................ .............. 108
5.2
5.3
Estimasi Elastisitas Permintaan Silang terhadap Harga [EABJ antara
Beberapa Komodi tas di Amerika Serikat.. ................................................................ .......... 110
Hubungan Elastisitas Permintaan dengan Penerimaan Total (TR) dan
Penerimaan Marginal (MR) ............ ..................................... ................................................... 114
Data Hubungan antara J umlah Produk yang Diminta (Qd) dengan Harga
Produk (P) ................................. .................................................................................................. 115
Perhitungan Estimasi Fungsi Pern1intaan .......................................................................... 116
Ringkasan Koefisien Elastisitas Penawaran ................................................................ ....... 124
Elastisitas Permintaan terhadap Harga dan Harga Silang untuk J eruk Florid a
Indian River, Florida Interior, da n California ........ .......... ............................ ...................... 143
Daftar H arga Produk d engan Pendapatan Penjualan .............. ...... .... .......................... .... 146
Perhitungan untuk Mengestimasi Galis Regresi Linier Sederhana .... ................ .... ..... 148
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
Kalkulasi untuk Mengestimasi Galat Stan dar h................................................................. 150
Perhiturigan untuk Mengestimasi Nilai Koefisi en Determinasi (RZ) .... ...................... . 151
Data Hubungan antara Kuantitas Produk yang diminta dengan Harga .. ,.................. 159
Perhitungan untuk Menges timasi Gari s Regresi Lini er Sederhana .... ........ ................. 159
Data Kuan btas Permintaa n (Qd) dan Ha rga P rod uk ........ .......... ................ ...................... 163
Perhitun ga n untuk Mengesbmasi Garis Regresi Linier Ber ganda ...... ... .. .... .. .. .... .. .... .. 164
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
5.1
x
6.1
6.2
Fungsi Produksi dengan Dua Input Variabel .............................................................................. 180
Fungsi Produksi dengan Satu Input Variabel ............................................................................. 183
6.3
Hubungan antara Prod uk Marginal (MP), Produksi Rata-Rata (AP),
Elastisitas (£L), dan Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan Manajerial ...................................... 186
6.5
7.1
7.2
Hubungan antara Total Produksi (TPL). Produk Marginal (MPL),
Pendapatan Marginal (MRL). Prod uk Pendapatan Marginal (MRPL) dan
Biaya Sumber Daya Marginal Tenaga Kerja (MRCL) ............................................................... 190
Kombinasi Input MRTS Menurun .................................................................................................... 196
Biaya Jangka Pendek Suatu Perusahaan ....................................................................................... 225
Hubungan antara MC, ATC, Ec dan Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan Manajerial ......... 227
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
8.1
8.2
Ringkasan Model Regresi Kubik dalam Fungsi Biaya Jangka Pendek ............................ 229
Perhitungan Biaya yang Relevan ...................................................................................................... 231
Ikhtisar Konsep Biaya ............................................................................................................................ 233
Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan dalam PengendaJian Skala Usaha .................................. 234
Biaya Jangka Panjang ............................................................................................................................. 236
Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan dalam Pengendalian Lingkup Usaha ............................ 238
Asumsi-Asumsi yang Melandasi Bentuk Pasar .......................................................................... 263
Perbandingan antara Persaingan Sempurna dan MonopoJi ............................................... 288
6.4
Halaman
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2-
xi
•
DAFTAR GAMBAR
No
1.1
2.1
2.2
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
7.1
7.2
xii
Judul
Halaman
Peran Ekonomi Manajerial dalam Pengambilan Keputusan .................................................... .4
Kurva Penerimaan Total Perusahaan ................................................................................................ 20
Kurva TC, AC, dan MC ................................................................................................................................ 22
Kurva Permintaan Individual untuk Komoditas Kopi ............................................................... 58
Kurva Permintaan Individual 1 dan 2 dan Pasar ......................................................................... 64
Gerakan Sepanjang Kurva Permintaan ............................................................................................. 65
Pergeseran Kurva Permintaan .............................................................................................................. 66
Keseimbangan yang Stabil ...................................................................................................................... 75
Sifat Interaksi Ketidakseimbangan ..................................................................................................... 76
Pergeseran Keseimbangan Akibat Perubahan Permintaan dan Penawaran ................ 77
Pasar Minyak Mentah AS, 1989 ............................................................................................................ 81
Permintaan Inelastis Sempurna Elastisitas=O .............................................................................. 93
Permintaan Inelastis .................................................................................................................................. 95
Permintaan Elastis Uniter: Elastisitas =1 ........................................................................................ 96
Permintaan yang Elastis ........................................................................................................................... 97
Permintaan Elastis Sempurna ............................................................................................................... 98
Kurva Penawaran Elastis ...................................................................................................................... 120
Kurva Penawaran Inelastis .................................................................................................................. 120
Kurva Penawaran Uniter ...................................................................................................................... 121
Kurva Penawaran Inelastis Sempurna ........................................................................................... 122
Kurva Penawaran Elastis Sempurna ............................................................................................... 123
Dampak Kemajuan Teknologi Pertanian ...................................................................................... 127
Diagram Penear Harga Produk dan Penerimaan Penjualan ................................................ 146
Garis Regresi ............................................................................................................................................... 147
Gangguan Heteroskedastisitas dan Autokorelasi ..................................................................... 158
Kurva Total Produksi (TPL), Marginal Produksi (MPL), Rata-Rata Produk
Produksi (APL) dari Tenaga Kerja .................................................................................................... 185
Kurva Total Produksi (TPL), Produksi Marginal (MPL), dan Produksi Rata-Rata
(APL), serta Tahapan Produksi ........................................................................................................... 187
Penggunaan Optimum dari Tenaga Kerja ..................................................................................... 191
Isokuan .......................................................................................................................................................... 193
Porsi Relevan Isokuan ............................................................................................................................ 194
MRTS Modal dan Tenaga Kerja .......................................................................................................... 195
MRTS Substitusi Tidak Sempurna ................................................................................................... 197
Garis Isokos ................................................................................................................................................. 199
Kombinasi Input Optimum .................................................................................................................. 201
Kombinasi Optimum Bahan Bakar dan Waktu Berkendaraan ........................................... 208
Skala Hasil Tetap ...................................................................................................................................... 209
Skala Hasil Meningkat ............................................................................................................................ 210
Skala Hasil Menurun ............................................................................................................................... 211
Kurva TC, TVC, TFC .................................................................................................................................. 226
Kurva MC, ATC, AVC, AFC ..................................................................................................................... 226
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8.1
8.2
Halaman
___"......,...................... 4
ｾ＠ ___............................ 20
___- -- .......................... 22
__- - -........................... 58
f--_ _............................ 64
_ _ ........................... 65
ｾ＠
__.............................. 66
ｾ＠
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Kemungkinan Bentuk dari Kurva AC ............................................................................................... 235
Hubungan Total Produksi dengan Input VariabeL LAC dan LMC ...................................... 237
Kurva Pembelajaran dari Tingkat Output ..................................................................................... 248
Kurva Pembelajaran dan Biaya Rata-Rata .................................................................................... 249
Keseimbangan Pasar .............................................................................................................................. 269
Harga dan Jumlah Produksi Optimum pada Perusahaan dalam Pasar
Persaingan Sempurna ............................................................................................................................. 270
Analisis Jangka Pendek Perusahaan untuk Tutup ..................................................................... 272
Keseimbangan Jangka Panjang pad a Industri Persaingan Sempurna ............................. 276
Penentuan Harga dan Output Jangka Pendek oleh Seorang Monopolis ......................... 281
Penentuan Harga dan Output Jangka Panjang oleh Seorang Monopolis ........................ 282
Deadweight loss dari Pasar Monopoli .............................................................................................. 285
___- -............................ 75
___- -............................ 76
aran ................ 77
_ _ ............................. 81
f--_ _. .............................. 93
r---_................................ 95
ｾ｟
Ｌ ｟＠ ................................ 96
............................... 97
___- -..... ........................... 98
r-----,............................. 120
1--_..,.............................. 120
;.....-_................................. 121
___- ................................ 122
___- ............................... 123
ＧＢＭｾ＠
................................ 127
................................ 146
............................... 147
................................ 158
Pro duk
................................ 185
Rata-Rata
.............................. 187
............................. 191
................................... 193
................................... 194
.................................... 195
.................................. 197
................................... 199
.................................... 201
................................. 208
................................ 209
...................................... 210
_ ..................................... 211
....................................... 226
.................................... 226
xiii
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I . ｏｾｩ＠ [,
I . ()!, ｾ＠ j
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Upper tail probability P
df
30
40
50
60
80
100
1000
z*
w
o
V1
0.2 5
0.2
0 .15
0.1
0 . 05
0 .0 25 0.02
0 . 01
0.005 0.0025 0.001 0 . 0005
0 . 683
0 . 681
0 . 679
0 . 679
0 . 678
0 . 677
0.67 5
0 .674
0 . 85 4
0 . 851
0 . 849
0 . 848
0 . 846
0 . 8 45
0 . 8 42
0.841
1 . 055
1.05 0
1 . 047
1 . 0 45
1. 043
1 . 04 2
1 . 03 7
1.036
1 . 3 10
1 . 303
1 . 299
1 . 296
1 . 292
1.2 90
1 . 282
1 . 282
1 . 697
1 . 68 4
1 . 676
1.671
1 . 664
1.6 60
1 . 646
1 . 645
2 . 042
2 . 021
2 . 00 9
2 . 0 00
1 . 990
1 . 984
1 . 962
1. 960
2 .4 57
2 . 423
2 .40 3
2 . 39 0
2 . 374
2 . 364
2 . 330
2 . 326
2 .750
2 . 70 4
2 . 678
2 . 660
2 . 63 9
2 . 626
2 . 581
2 . 576
2.147
2.123
2 . 109
2 . 09 9
2 . 088
2.081
2 . 056
2 . 054
3 . 030
2 . 97 1
2 . 937
2 . 915
2 . 887
2.87 1
2 . 813
2 . 807
3 . 385
3 . 307
3 . 261
3 . 232
3 . 1 95
3 .174
3 . 098
3 . 090
3 . 646
3 . 551
3 . 496
3 . 460
3 . 416
3 . 390
3 . 300
3 . 29 1
datang.
tian di hati
di
er 2015
DAFTAR lSI
Kata Pengantar ............................................................................................................................................................ iii
Daftar lsi ........................................................................................................................................................................... v
Daftar Tabel ..................................................................................................................................................................... x
Daftar Gambar ............................................................................................................................................................. xii
Bab I. Pengertian Dan Ruang lingkup Ekonomi Manajerial ............................................... 1
1.1
Ruang Lingkup dan Pengertian Ekonomi Manajerial .................................................................. 1
1.2
Teori Perusahaan .......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Pengertian dan Fungsi Perusahaan ........................................................................................ 5
1.2.2 Tujuan dan Nilai Perusahaan .................................................................................................... 5
1.3
Sifat dan Fungsi Laba ...........................................................................................:....................................... 7
1.3.1 Sifat Laba ............................................................................................................................................. 7
1.3.2 Fungsi Laba ...................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.3 Sumber-Sumber Laba .................................................................................................................. 11
1.4
Etika Bisnis .....................................................................................................................................................11
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Dilema Etis 1 ................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Dilema Etis 2 ................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Dilema Etis 3 ................................................................................................................................................................ 16
Bab II. Teknik Optimisasi Ekonomi .......................................................................................... 18
2.1
Memaksimumkan Nilai Perusahaan .................................................................................................. 18
2.2
Metode Dalam Menggambarkan Hubungan Ekonomi .............................................................. 19
2.3
Hubungan antara Biaya Total, Rata-Rata, dan Marginal .......................................................... 20
2.4
Analisis Optimisasi ..................................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.1 Aturan Diferensial .........................................................................................................................23
2.5
Optimisasi dengan Kalkulus ................................................................................................................... 24
2.5 .1 Menentukan Maksimum atau Minimum dengan Kalkulus .......................................24
2.5.2 Membedakan antara Maksimum dan Minimum : Turunan Kedua ......................... 25
2.6
Optimisasi Multivariat .............................................................................................................................. 33
2.6.1 Memaksimumkan Fungsi Multivariat ................................................................................. 34
2.7
Optimisasi Terkendala .............................................................................................................................. 36
2.7.1 Substitusi ...........................................................................................................................................37
2.7.2 Metode Langrange ........................................................................................................................ 37
2.8
Peralatan Manajemen Baru untuk Optimisasi .............................................................................. 39
Contoh Kasus 2.1 Implementasi TQM di Institusi Perguruan Tinggi .............................. ..43
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ......................................................................................................................... 45
v
Bab III. Penerapan Permintaan, Penawaran dan Keseimbangan Pasar Dalam
Perekonomian ................................................................................................................. 50
3.1
Permintaan ..................................................................................................................................................... 51
3.1.1 Hukum Permintaan (The Law of Demand) ........................................................................ 51
3.1.2 Fungsi Permintaan ........................................................................................................................51
3.1.3 Faktor -Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Jumlah Permintaan ........................................... 53
3.1.4 Skedul Permintaan ....................................................................................................................... 57
3.1.5 Kurva Permintaan ......................................................................................................................... 58
3.1.6 Permintaan Pasar vs Permintaan Individu .......................................................................63
3.1. 7 Pergerakan Sepanjang Kurva Permintaan ........................................................................ 64
3.1.8 Pergeseran Kurva Permintaan ................................................................................................ 65
Contoh Kasus 3.1 Dua Cara dalam Mengurangi Jumlah Permintaan terhadap
Rokok ...............................................................................................................................................67
Contoh Kasus 3.2 Permintaan Berlebih ......................................................................................... 68
Contoh Kasus 3.3 Pemerintah Menetapkan Batas Harga Tertinggi Akibat
Permintaan Berlebih ......................................................................................... 69
3.2
Penawaran ...................................................................................................................................................... 70
3.2.1 Definisi ................................................................................................................................................ 70
3.2.2 Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Penawaran ............................................................71
3.2.3 Fungsi Penawaran ........................................................................................................................ 72
3.3
Pertemuan Penawaran dan Permintaan .......................................................................................... 73
3.3.1 Titik Keseimbangan ..................................................................................................................... 73
3.3.2 Menentukan Keadaan Keseimbangan secara Angka .................................................... 73
Contoh Kasus 3.4 Harga Dasar ............................................................................................................... 7 4
3.3.3 Keadaan Keseimbangan secara Grafik ................................................................................ 75
Contoh Kasus 3.5Upah Minimum ........................................................................................................78
Contoh Kasus 3.6 Analisis Permintaan dan Penawaran Bea: Impor Minyak ................. 80
3.4
Konvergensi Internasional pad a Selera ............................................................................................ 82
3.5
Electronic Comm erce .................................................................................................................................. 82
Contoh Soal 3.7 Penerapan Konsep Permintaan .......................................................................... 84
Rangkulnan ................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus .........................................................................................................................86
Bab IV.Penerapan Elastisitas Dalam Pengambil Keputusan Manajerial ....................... 92
4.1
Elastisitas Permintaan .............................................................................................................................. 92
4.1.1 Definisi El astisitas Permintaan ............................................................................................... 92
4.1.2 Jenis-Jenis Elastisitas Permintaan ......................................................................................... 92
4.1.3 Faktor-Faktor Penentu Tingkat Elastisitas ...................................................................... 98
4.1.4 Metode Menghitung Elastisitas ........................................................................................... 100
4.1.5 Menghitung E1astisitas Permintaan .................................................................................. 104
4.1.5.1 Menghitung Elastisitas Permintaan t erhadap Harga .............................. 104
Contoh Kasus 4.1Elastisitas Permintaan terhadap Harga di Dunia Nyata ................... 106
4.1.5.2 Elastisitas Permintaan terhadap Pendapatan ............................................ 107
4.1.5.3 Elastisitas Permintaan Silang t erhadap Harga ........................................... 109
Contoh Kasus 4.2Elastisitas Permintaan Silang terhadap Harga di Dunia Nyata ..... 110
4.1.6 Elastisitas Harga dan Struktur Pasar ................................................................................ 112
4.1.7 Hubungan Tingkat Elastisitas dan Total Penerimaan eTR) ...................................113
vi
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_ _.......................... 51
ｾ＠
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_ _ _ ......................... 51
_ _ _........................
,
53
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ｾ＠
.s7
_ _ ._"...................... 58
_ _..._....................... 63
____ ... ..,....................64
_ _ ......................... 65
rh adap
___,._.......................... 67
_ _ ......................... 68
- 0"-' 'bat
. _ _.... ,...................... 69
_ _........................... 70
ｾ＠
ｾ＠
ｾ＠
ｾ＠
r---_ _.., ........................... 70
._ _ _ .......................... 71
r-___ ..........................72
&-_ _ _ _ .... .. ...................73
_ _.__......................... 73
!----_ _ .... .... .................. 73
E--_ _.....
, ........................ 74
ｾ＠
_ _ ............................ 75
&--_ _......
, ........................ 78
inyak ................. 80
&--_ _..... .. .. ... ................... 82
___- -.............................. 82
ｲＭ
｟ｾ＠
. .............................
,
84
& - - _._ ..... ..... .....................85
r-__ ..."............................ 86
jerial ....................... 92
................................... 92
. . ................................. 92
..... _.............................. 92
.................................... 98
................................. 100
....................................104
:-:aroa .............................. 104
D
_
ｾ ｡＠
Nyata ................... 106
................................... 107
i_
.. .... ..... ....................... 109
r=, di Dunia Nyata ..... 110
................................... 112
) ................................... 113
4.2
Elastisitas Penawaran terhadap Harga (Price ElastiCity O/Supply - E;. ;). ........................ 119
4.2.1 Definisi ............................................................................................................................................ 119
4.2.2 Jenis Elastisitas dan Kurva Penawaran ........................................................................... 119
4.2.3 Faktor- Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Elastisitas Penawaran .................................. 124
4.2.4 Penggunaan Elastisitas Penawaran dalam Pengambilan Keputusan
Manajerial ...................................................................................................................................... 125
Contoh Kasus 4.3 Permintaan, Penawaran dan Elastisitas ............................................... 126
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 128
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 129
Bab V.Estimasi Permintaan ........................................................................................................................... 136
Masalah Identifikasi ................................................................................................................................ 137
5.1
5.2
Pendekatan Penelitian Pemasaran Untuk Estimasi Permintaan ...................................... 137
5.2.1 Survei Konsumen ....................................................................................................................... 137
5.2.2 Penelitian Observasi ................................................................................................................. 138
Contoh Kasus 5.1 Pemasaran Mikro: Pemasaran Zero Terhadap Konsumen ............. 139
5.2.3 Klinik Konsumen ........................................................................................................................ 140
5.2.4 Eksperimen Pasar ...................................................................................................................... 141
Contoh Kasus 5.2 Estimasi Permintaan untuk Jeruk dengan Eksperimen Pasar. ..... 143
Contoh Kasus 5.3 Kerja Sarna Tim Lintas Divisi ........................................................................ 144
5.3
Estimasi Permintaan dengan Analisis Regresi ........................................................................... 145
5.4
Pengenalan terhadap Analisis Regresi ........................................................................................... 146
5.4.1 Analisis Regresi Sederhana ................................................................................................... 14 7
Contoh Kasus 5.4 Resiko dalam Peramalan Permintaan ...................................................... 152
5.4.2 Analisis Regresi Berganda ..................................................................................................... 153
Contoh Kasus 5.5 Mengestimasi Permintaan Untuk Penerbangan Melintasi
North Atlantic ..................................................................................................... 154
Masalah dalam Analisis Regresi ........................................................................................................ 155
5.5
5.5 .1 Normalitas ..................................................................................................................................... 155
5.5.2 Multikolinearitas ........................................................................................................................ 155
5.5.3 Heteroskedastisitas ................................................................................................................... 156
5.5.4 Autokorelasi .................................................................................................................................. 157
Contoh Kasus 5.6 Peramalan Permintaan yang Memberikan Keunggulan
Bersaing Bagi Disney ...................................................................................... 168
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 169
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 172
Bah VI. Ekonomi Produksi dan Estimasi ............................................................................. 177
6.1
Pendahuluan ............................................................................................................................................... 177
Penerapan Konsep Produksi. .............................................................................................................. 178
6.2
6.2.1 Konsep Dasar Produksi yang Perlu Diingat... ................................................................ 178
Organisasi Produksi dan Fungsi Produksi ................................................................................... 178
6.3
6.3.1 Organisasi Produksi .................................................................................................................. 178
6.3.2 Fungsi Produksi .......................................................................................................................... 180
Contoh Kasus 6.1 Menentukan Sumber Daya yang Dibutuhkan ....................................... 181
Fungsi Produksi dengan Satu Input Variabel ............................................................................. 181
6.4
6.4.1 Hubungan antara Prod uk Marginal (MP),Produk Rata-Rata (AP),
Elastisitas (£),dan Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan Manajerial ........................... 186
vii
6.5
Penggunaan Input Variabel secara Optimum ............................................................................. 188
Contoh Kasus 6.2 Mengapa Perusahaan Lebih Memilih Melakukan Outsource
daripada Memproduksi Sendiri Produk-Produknya? ....................... 192
6.6
Fungsi Produksi dengan Dua Input Variabel .............................................................................. 192
6.6.1 Isokuan Produksi ........................................................................................................................ 192
6.6.1.1 Wilayah Ekonomis Produksi ............................................................................... 193
6.6.1.2 Tingkat Marginal dari Substitusi Teknis ....................................................... 194
Contoh Kasus 6.3 Peningkatan Substitusi Tenaga Kerja dengan Modal untuk
Meningkatkan Produktivitas Tenaga Kerja .......................................... 198
6.7
Kombinasi Input Optimum .................................................................................................................. 198
6.8
Kombinasi Input Optimum untuk Meminimumkan Biaya atau
Memaksimumkan Output... ..................................................................................................................201
6.9
Efek Perubahan Harga Input............................................................................................................... 206
Contoh Kasus 6.4 Kemampuan Substitusi antara Bensin dan Waktu
Berkendara ........................................................................................................... 207
6.10 Skala Hasil .................................................................................................................................................... 208
6.11 Fungsi Produksi Empiris ....................................................................................................................... 212
Contoh Kasus 6.5 Spesialisasi merupakan Proses yang dilakukan pada Pabrik
Peniti ........................................................................................................................ 215
Contoh Kasus 6.6 Merger Merupakan Skala Ekonomis di Bidang Perbankan ........... 216
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 217
Melatih Etika Bisnis Anda ................................................................................................................................... 218
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 220
Bab VII. Teori dan Estimasi Biaya .......................................................................................... 224
7.1
Karakteristik Biaya .................................................................................................................................. 224
7.2
Fungsi Biaya Jangka Pendek ............................................................................................................... 225
Contoh Kasus 7.1 Kerja Sarna Tim Lintas Divisi.. ...................................................................... 233
7.3
Biaya Jangka Panjang .............................................................................................................................. 234
Contoh Kasus 7.2 Analisis Marginal: Toko Es Krim ................................................................. 240
7.4
Ukuran Pabrik dan Skala Ekonomis ................................................................................................ 242
7.4.1 Biaya Jangka Panjang: Skala Ekonomis, Disekonomis, dan Skala
PenghasiJan Meningkat ........................................................................................................... 242
Contoh Kasus 7.3 Skala Ekonomis di Bidang Perbankan, 2005 ......................................... 245
Contoh Kasus 7.4 Skala Ekonomis dalam Produksi Telur .................................................... 246
7.4.2 Skala Penghasilan Konstan .................................................................................................... 246
7.4.3 Skala Disekononlis .................................................................................................................... 246
7.5
Kurva Pembelajaran ................................................................................................................................ 247
7.6
Estimasi Empiris Fungsi Biaya ........................................................................................................... 251
7.6.1 Masalah Data dan Pengukuran dalam Mengestimasi Fungsi Biaya
Jangka Pendek .............................................................................................................................. 251
7.6.2 Bentuk Fungsional Biaya Jangka Pendek ........................................................................ 251
7.6.3 Mengestimasi Fungsi Biaya Jangka Panjang dengan Cross-sectional
Regression Analysis .................................................................................................................... 252
7.6.4 Mengestimasi Fungsi Biaya Jangka Panjang dengan Teknik Rekayasa
dan Survival .................................................................................................................................. 252
7.7
Dilema Etis ................................................................................................................................................... 253
Rangkuman ................................................................................................................................................................ 253
Soal Latihan dan Aplikasi Kasus ...................................................................................................................... 256
viii
ｾ＠
ｾ＠
ｾ＠
ｾ＠
_ _ _ .................. 188
. ' _ _ c.:>ource
1_ ................. 192
_ _ _ ................... 192
_ _ _ ._................. 192
_ _ _ ................... 193
_ _ _ ...................194
r.-____ ....................201
;.-._ _ _ .................... 206
ｾ
Ｎ＠ _ _ _......................
,
207
... ____ ..................... 208
....-_ _ _.................... 212
a Pabrik
_ _ _ ...................... 215
ｾ＠ = ?ernanka n ........... 216
｟ｾ
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0-. _ _ _........................ 218
ｾ＠
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••...................... 224
r-__ ............................. 224
>--__............................. 225
ＧＭ｟
Ｌｾ Ｎ Ｂ＠ ......................... 233
.............................. 234
.............................. 240
.,.............................. 242
kala
................................. 242
245
................................ 246
................................ 246
.................................. 246
..................................247
.".................................. 251
usi Biaya
...................................... 251
..................................... 251
·sectional
...................................... 252
b k Rekayasa
_ ....................................... 252
....................................... 253
......................................... 253
__......................................... 256
-= _ .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bah VIII. Menentukan Harga dan Jumlah Produk Optimum pada Struktur
Pasar Persaingan Sempurna dan Monopoli ......................................................... 2 60
8.1
Pendahuluan ... ............... ......................... ..... ............................ .................... ............................... 260
8.2
Peng ertian dan Jenis·Jenis Struktur Pasar ................. .... .......... .................................. ......... 261
8.3
Pasar Persaingan Sem puma ........ ................ .................... ............ ............. .. ............................ 264
8.3.1 Ciri-Ciri Pasar Persaingan Sempuma: .................................... ................................. 264
8.3.2 Kebaikan Pasar Persaingan Sempurna ................................ ................................... .265
8.3.3 Keburukan-Keburukan Pasar Persaingan Sempuma Antara Lain : ................. 266
Contoh Kasus 8.1 Industri Tekstil Katun merupakan Contoh Perusahaan
Persaingan Sempuma ..................................... .... ................................... 266
8.3.4 Penentuan H arga dan Jumlah Produk dalam Pasar Persai ngan
Sempuma ........... ..... ......... ................ ........ ............... ......... ............ ... ....... ...... ................... 267
8.3.5 Analisis Jangka Pendek Perusahaan Persaingan Sempurna .............................. 270
8.3.5.1 Keputusan J angka Pendek Perusahaan untuk Tutu p ....................... .... 271
8.3.6 Analisis Jangka Panjang Pe rus ahaan Persaingan Sempurna ..................... ... ... .. 275
8.3.7 Mengapa Perusahaan Terus Bekerja Jika Keuntungannya Nol? ....................... 276
8.4
Struktur Pasar Monopoli .... ........................... .................................. ......................................... 277
8.4.1 Ciri -Ciri Pasar Monopoli ............................. .................................. ............................... 278
8.4.2 Monopoli Mumi dan Monopoli Alamiah ......... .... .................................................... 278
Contoh Kasus 8.2 Hambatan Masuk Pasar dan Monopoli ............................................... 279
8.4.3 Alasan Munculnya Monopoli ...................................................................................... 280
8.4.4 Penetapan Harga Pasar Monopoli ............................................................................ 280
8.4.4.1 Penentuan H arga dan Outpu t Jangka pendek pada Perusahaan
Monopoli ..........................................................................................................280
8.4.4.2 Penentuan Harga dan Outputjangka Panjang dalam
Perusahaan Monopoli ................................................... ........ .................. ...... 282
8.4.5 Keburukan Monopoli ..... .. .... .. ...................................................................................... 284
8.4.6 Kerugi an Masyarakat (0 eadweight Loss) dari Pasar Mo nopoli ............... ........ 285
8.4.7 Perbandingan antara Persaingan Sempuma dan Monopoli ..............................287
8.4.8 Biaya Sosial dari Monopoli ............ ........ ........................ ............................................. 288
Contoh Kasus 8.3 Monopoli Berlia n OeBeers ................................................... .................. 289
Contoh Kasus 8.4 Nilai Pasar Laba Monopoli dalam Industri Taksi di Kota New
york ... ............ ...... ............... ..................................... ........... ................. .... ....290
8.4.9 Cara Mengatasi Efek NegatifMonopoli ................................... .. ........................... ...290
8.4.10 Monopoli Tidak Selalu Bu ruk ............. .................................... .. .................. ........ ...... .. 291
8.4.11 Oiskriminasi Harga ............... ..... .... .... .... ................................................. ....... ..... ..... ..... 291
Contoh Kasus 8.5 Oiskriminasi Harga pada Obat ..... ..... .................................. .................. 293
Rangkum an ............... .. .. ....... .......... ... .. ... ..... ............ ... ................................. ............... ..............................296
Soal Latih an dan Aplikasi Kasus ................... .............................................................. .......... ...... .... .... 297
Oaftar Pust aka ...... ... ...... .............. .. .... ... .... ..... ..... .... .... ... ......... ............................................. ............ ........ 302
ix
DAFTAR TABEL
No
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Judul
Halaman
Daftar Penerimaan Total Perusahaan .... ........................ ....... .......... ......... ................. .. ............ 19
Biaya Total (TC), Rata-Rata (AC), dan Marginal (MC) pada Perusahaan yang
Menjual Alat-Alat Kesehatan ... .. .. ................ ................................. ... ............................. ............. 21
Aturan Fungsi Diferensiasi ......... ........................................................................... .................... 24
Ringkasan Bentuk Hubungan Vari abel-Vari abel yang M empengaruhi Jumlah
Produk yang Diminta pada Waktu Tertentu ........................ ........................................... ...... 56
Permintaan Terhadap Kopi pada Berbagai Tingkat Harga ............................................... 58
Permintaan Individu dan Permintaan Pasar ................. ............................................... ........ 63
Ringkasan Bentuk Hubungan Vari abel-Vari abel dalam Fungsi Penawaran
dengan Kuantitas Penawaran Produk pada Waktu Tertentu ........................................... 73
Permintaan dan Penawaran Pulpen ....... ...................... ........................................................... 74
Skedul Permintaan untuk Fungsi Permi ntaan Qdx =85-3 pz .................................... ...... 102
Elastisitas Titik untuk Fungsi Permintaan Qdx = 85-3Pz ........ ......................................... 102
Skedul Permintaan untuk Fungsi Permi ntaan Qdx = 120-3Pz................................... ..... 103
Elastisitas Busur untuk Fungsi Permintaan Qdx = 120-3Pz ................................ ............ 103
Estimasi Jangka Pendek dan J angka Panjang dari Elastisitas Permintaan
Terhadap Harga (Ep) untuk Beberapa Komoditas di Am erika Serikat ...................... 106
Elastisitas Pendapatan untuk Beberapa Prod uk ............................ .... ................ .............. 108
5.2
5.3
Estimasi Elastisitas Permintaan Silang terhadap Harga [EABJ antara
Beberapa Komodi tas di Amerika Serikat.. ................................................................ .......... 110
Hubungan Elastisitas Permintaan dengan Penerimaan Total (TR) dan
Penerimaan Marginal (MR) ............ ..................................... ................................................... 114
Data Hubungan antara J umlah Produk yang Diminta (Qd) dengan Harga
Produk (P) ................................. .................................................................................................. 115
Perhitungan Estimasi Fungsi Pern1intaan .......................................................................... 116
Ringkasan Koefisien Elastisitas Penawaran ................................................................ ....... 124
Elastisitas Permintaan terhadap Harga dan Harga Silang untuk J eruk Florid a
Indian River, Florida Interior, da n California ........ .......... ............................ ...................... 143
Daftar H arga Produk d engan Pendapatan Penjualan .............. ...... .... .......................... .... 146
Perhitungan untuk Mengestimasi Galis Regresi Linier Sederhana .... ................ .... ..... 148
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
Kalkulasi untuk Mengestimasi Galat Stan dar h................................................................. 150
Perhiturigan untuk Mengestimasi Nilai Koefisi en Determinasi (RZ) .... ...................... . 151
Data Hubungan antara Kuantitas Produk yang diminta dengan Harga .. ,.................. 159
Perhitungan untuk Menges timasi Gari s Regresi Lini er Sederhana .... ........ ................. 159
Data Kuan btas Permintaa n (Qd) dan Ha rga P rod uk ........ .......... ................ ...................... 163
Perhitun ga n untuk Mengesbmasi Garis Regresi Linier Ber ganda ...... ... .. .... .. .. .... .. .... .. 164
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
5.1
x
6.1
6.2
Fungsi Produksi dengan Dua Input Variabel .............................................................................. 180
Fungsi Produksi dengan Satu Input Variabel ............................................................................. 183
6.3
Hubungan antara Prod uk Marginal (MP), Produksi Rata-Rata (AP),
Elastisitas (£L), dan Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan Manajerial ...................................... 186
6.5
7.1
7.2
Hubungan antara Total Produksi (TPL). Produk Marginal (MPL),
Pendapatan Marginal (MRL). Prod uk Pendapatan Marginal (MRPL) dan
Biaya Sumber Daya Marginal Tenaga Kerja (MRCL) ............................................................... 190
Kombinasi Input MRTS Menurun .................................................................................................... 196
Biaya Jangka Pendek Suatu Perusahaan ....................................................................................... 225
Hubungan antara MC, ATC, Ec dan Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan Manajerial ......... 227
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
8.1
8.2
Ringkasan Model Regresi Kubik dalam Fungsi Biaya Jangka Pendek ............................ 229
Perhitungan Biaya yang Relevan ...................................................................................................... 231
Ikhtisar Konsep Biaya ............................................................................................................................ 233
Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan dalam PengendaJian Skala Usaha .................................. 234
Biaya Jangka Panjang ............................................................................................................................. 236
Strategi Pembuatan Keputusan dalam Pengendalian Lingkup Usaha ............................ 238
Asumsi-Asumsi yang Melandasi Bentuk Pasar .......................................................................... 263
Perbandingan antara Persaingan Sempurna dan MonopoJi ............................................... 288
6.4
Halaman
_ .................. ........ 19
_o:=.... any ang
_ ... ..... .. .................. 21
_ ............ ................ 24
:= _ . Jumlah
_ ............................. 56
...... .............. ..... ... 58
.. _ ... .... ... .................. 63
:::- "; aran
..... ....................... 73
... ........................ 74
_ _... .. ................... 102
........................ 102
..... ................ ... 103
.. ............ ........... 103
ｲＭ｟ｾ＠
ｾ｟＠
.... .. ................... 108
ｾＺＱ＠
Harga
.. .... .......... .. .... .... .... 115
..... ............. ............. 116
.... .......................... 124
Ｚ ｾ＠ 'e r uk Florida
................ ............ ... . 143
_ ..... ........ .... .............. 146
- a ............................. 148
..... .... ....... ............ .... . 150
. Harga .. ,.. ...... .. ........ 159
a ............... .... .......... 159
Ｎｾ＠ .. ... ...... .. ......... .... ...... . 163
. a ..................... ...... .. .. 164
2-
xi
•
DAFTAR GAMBAR
No
1.1
2.1
2.2
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
7.1
7.2
xii
Judul
Halaman
Peran Ekonomi Manajerial dalam Pengambilan Keputusan .................................................... .4
Kurva Penerimaan Total Perusahaan ................................................................................................ 20
Kurva TC, AC, dan MC ................................................................................................................................ 22
Kurva Permintaan Individual untuk Komoditas Kopi ............................................................... 58
Kurva Permintaan Individual 1 dan 2 dan Pasar ......................................................................... 64
Gerakan Sepanjang Kurva Permintaan ............................................................................................. 65
Pergeseran Kurva Permintaan .............................................................................................................. 66
Keseimbangan yang Stabil ...................................................................................................................... 75
Sifat Interaksi Ketidakseimbangan ..................................................................................................... 76
Pergeseran Keseimbangan Akibat Perubahan Permintaan dan Penawaran ................ 77
Pasar Minyak Mentah AS, 1989 ............................................................................................................ 81
Permintaan Inelastis Sempurna Elastisitas=O .............................................................................. 93
Permintaan Inelastis .................................................................................................................................. 95
Permintaan Elastis Uniter: Elastisitas =1 ........................................................................................ 96
Permintaan yang Elastis ........................................................................................................................... 97
Permintaan Elastis Sempurna ............................................................................................................... 98
Kurva Penawaran Elastis ...................................................................................................................... 120
Kurva Penawaran Inelastis .................................................................................................................. 120
Kurva Penawaran Uniter ...................................................................................................................... 121
Kurva Penawaran Inelastis Sempurna ........................................................................................... 122
Kurva Penawaran Elastis Sempurna ............................................................................................... 123
Dampak Kemajuan Teknologi Pertanian ...................................................................................... 127
Diagram Penear Harga Produk dan Penerimaan Penjualan ................................................ 146
Garis Regresi ............................................................................................................................................... 147
Gangguan Heteroskedastisitas dan Autokorelasi ..................................................................... 158
Kurva Total Produksi (TPL), Marginal Produksi (MPL), Rata-Rata Produk
Produksi (APL) dari Tenaga Kerja .................................................................................................... 185
Kurva Total Produksi (TPL), Produksi Marginal (MPL), dan Produksi Rata-Rata
(APL), serta Tahapan Produksi ........................................................................................................... 187
Penggunaan Optimum dari Tenaga Kerja ..................................................................................... 191
Isokuan .......................................................................................................................................................... 193
Porsi Relevan Isokuan ............................................................................................................................ 194
MRTS Modal dan Tenaga Kerja .......................................................................................................... 195
MRTS Substitusi Tidak Sempurna ................................................................................................... 197
Garis Isokos ................................................................................................................................................. 199
Kombinasi Input Optimum .................................................................................................................. 201
Kombinasi Optimum Bahan Bakar dan Waktu Berkendaraan ........................................... 208
Skala Hasil Tetap ...................................................................................................................................... 209
Skala Hasil Meningkat ............................................................................................................................ 210
Skala Hasil Menurun ............................................................................................................................... 211
Kurva TC, TVC, TFC .................................................................................................................................. 226
Kurva MC, ATC, AVC, AFC ..................................................................................................................... 226
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8.1
8.2
Halaman
___"......,...................... 4
ｾ＠ ___............................ 20
___- -- .......................... 22
__- - -........................... 58
f--_ _............................ 64
_ _ ........................... 65
ｾ＠
__.............................. 66
ｾ＠
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
Kemungkinan Bentuk dari Kurva AC ............................................................................................... 235
Hubungan Total Produksi dengan Input VariabeL LAC dan LMC ...................................... 237
Kurva Pembelajaran dari Tingkat Output ..................................................................................... 248
Kurva Pembelajaran dan Biaya Rata-Rata .................................................................................... 249
Keseimbangan Pasar .............................................................................................................................. 269
Harga dan Jumlah Produksi Optimum pada Perusahaan dalam Pasar
Persaingan Sempurna ............................................................................................................................. 270
Analisis Jangka Pendek Perusahaan untuk Tutup ..................................................................... 272
Keseimbangan Jangka Panjang pad a Industri Persaingan Sempurna ............................. 276
Penentuan Harga dan Output Jangka Pendek oleh Seorang Monopolis ......................... 281
Penentuan Harga dan Output Jangka Panjang oleh Seorang Monopolis ........................ 282
Deadweight loss dari Pasar Monopoli .............................................................................................. 285
___- -............................ 75
___- -............................ 76
aran ................ 77
_ _ ............................. 81
f--_ _. .............................. 93
r---_................................ 95
ｾ｟
Ｌ ｟＠ ................................ 96
............................... 97
___- -..... ........................... 98
r-----,............................. 120
1--_..,.............................. 120
;.....-_................................. 121
___- ................................ 122
___- ............................... 123
ＧＢＭｾ＠
................................ 127
................................ 146
............................... 147
................................ 158
Pro duk
................................ 185
Rata-Rata
.............................. 187
............................. 191
................................... 193
................................... 194
.................................... 195
.................................. 197
................................... 199
.................................... 201
................................. 208
................................ 209
...................................... 210
_ ..................................... 211
....................................... 226
.................................... 226
xiii
' I)
I . ｏｾｩ＠ [,
I . ()!, ｾ＠ j
() . ( ill :l
Upper tail probability P
df
30
40
50
60
80
100
1000
z*
w
o
V1
0.2 5
0.2
0 .15
0.1
0 . 05
0 .0 25 0.02
0 . 01
0.005 0.0025 0.001 0 . 0005
0 . 683
0 . 681
0 . 679
0 . 679
0 . 678
0 . 677
0.67 5
0 .674
0 . 85 4
0 . 851
0 . 849
0 . 848
0 . 846
0 . 8 45
0 . 8 42
0.841
1 . 055
1.05 0
1 . 047
1 . 0 45
1. 043
1 . 04 2
1 . 03 7
1.036
1 . 3 10
1 . 303
1 . 299
1 . 296
1 . 292
1.2 90
1 . 282
1 . 282
1 . 697
1 . 68 4
1 . 676
1.671
1 . 664
1.6 60
1 . 646
1 . 645
2 . 042
2 . 021
2 . 00 9
2 . 0 00
1 . 990
1 . 984
1 . 962
1. 960
2 .4 57
2 . 423
2 .40 3
2 . 39 0
2 . 374
2 . 364
2 . 330
2 . 326
2 .750
2 . 70 4
2 . 678
2 . 660
2 . 63 9
2 . 626
2 . 581
2 . 576
2.147
2.123
2 . 109
2 . 09 9
2 . 088
2.081
2 . 056
2 . 054
3 . 030
2 . 97 1
2 . 937
2 . 915
2 . 887
2.87 1
2 . 813
2 . 807
3 . 385
3 . 307
3 . 261
3 . 232
3 . 1 95
3 .174
3 . 098
3 . 090
3 . 646
3 . 551
3 . 496
3 . 460
3 . 416
3 . 390
3 . 300
3 . 29 1