UNIT 4 Learning Theories and Application

  LEARNING THEORIES AND PROCEDURES UNIT 4

  A. Learning Theories and Application

   Learning is always defined as a change of behavior as a result of experiences.

   The problem faced by teachers is how to make students want to learn. Teachers have the responsibilities of determining learning objective, TL procedures, classroom management, and helping students to learn.

   All teachers have views and theories of learning.

  By observing the teacher teaching, we can understand the basic assumption of what TL process she is doing, although she cannot say in

   For example, a teacher who is in a complete control on all of the student’s activities is unaware that she is practicing her theory in a different way than the other teacher who develops a situation in which students are allowed to decide their own way of learning.

   One of the objectives of teacher education is to help prospective teachers understand the relationship between theories and practice..

   In the old days teachers believed that successful learning was a result of intensive repetition. This is called behavioral learning theories.

   Later research found that repetition was not the best learning strategy to arrive at a higher level.

  Therefore, teachers began to change their way of teaching.

   The following are a short look at some of the theories of learning: a. Contemporary behaviorist (or so called Stimulus-

  Response theory): It sees factors in the environment stimuli and

• results of behavior in the form of responses. Behavior is controlled by external reward or
• reinforcement. A teacher who believes this behavioral theory
• assumes that student’s behavior is a response to the past and present environments.

  Examples: A student who is a trouble maker has learned to be one because his friends agree to and reinforce his behavior. A student who is a loner has learned that his environment does not reinforce him to socialize with his friends.

  Behavior can be analyzed by studying the

• development of reinforcement, a method which can change behavior. The teacher is responsible for making the
• environment which provides reinforcement or

b. Cognitive psychologists, on the other hand, focuses on the students as active participants in the TL process.

  A teachers who believes in this theory says that

• her class will be effective if she knows what knowledge the students already have and what they are thinking during the lesson. To be specific, cognitive approach tries to
• understand how the information that the teacher gives is processed and arranged in their minds.

  3. Humanistic psychologists view that feeling is as important as behavior or thought.

  They think that behavior is the development of

• self-actualization in the area that individuals choose themselves. Humanistic teachers give emphasis on creativity
• which helps self-development, cooperation, and communication with students in order that their students will learn more effectively.

   As we know, there is no one learning theory which is the best; each has its own strengths and weaknesses.

   Why?

  a. No theory of behavioristic, cognitive, and humanistic fits the individual differences of the students.

  b. Not all of educational practices are based on one particular theory. Attempts have been made to integrate cognitive and humanistic methods or cognitive and behavioral methods.

  c. Teachers have no obligation to use a particular theory; any theory can be flexibly adopted and

  A. LEARNING THEORY: BEHAVIORISM

   Thorndike’s theory is known as Connectionism, because he thinks that learning is a process of recalling, forming, and S-R association.

   He developed his theory by using a cat which he put in a puzzle box with a door opening. When the animal pulls a rope which is hanging in the cage, the door will be open and the cat gets the reward, i.e., the food.

   Thorndike summed up that learning is the formation of connection between S-R and problem ac

   The important factor which affects learning is the

reward or a feeling of satisfaction out of an event.

   Punishment is not important since it weakens the bond and does not influence the effect.

  

  Law of Exercise is the second learning principle,

  which says that the bond between S and R ill be strengthened with the R more frequently exercised towards the S. 

  The bond between S and R will become weak when the exercise is stopped or when the neural bond is not present. 

  He added later that exercise without a reward is Suggestions for teachers: Teachers should know before hand what to teach,

   what response to expect, and when to give a reward or reinforcement. The S-R bond is apparent in Mathematics: more

   frequent exercises on multiplication will strengthen the response. In the same way, more frequent reading activity and use of words will make the R stronger. The law of effect leads to providing rewards, such

   as a star affixed to the paper work, whereas the law of exercise refers to more frequent drills or

  

2. Ivan Pavlov:

Classical Conditioning

   In his experiment with a dog, Pavlov identifies that both food and saliva are the unconditioned

  stimulus or the natural stimulus which are able to produce a certain response.

  

  Conditioned stimulus is one that is unable to

  produce a certain response without a particular conditioning process. For example, a bell ring after it is conditioned can produce a certain response. 

  A conditioned response, in other words, is one that is produced by a conditioned stimulus.

   In this experiment there are two important things:

  a. A conditioned stimulus must be followed by an unconditional stimulus immediately; b. This process must be repeated many times (32 times) until the conditioned response is formed.

  For example, after the dog has been fed together with a bell ring 32 times, when the animal hears a single bell ring, it will produce saliva.

  c. When a repeated conditioned response is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus (is not given reinforcement), the conditioned response will extinct. For example, when a bell is rung without food.

  

3. J.B. Watson:

Conditioning Reflect



Watson used Pavlov’s experiment as a basis for his

learning theory.  He believed that learning is a process of conditioning the reflect (response) through a change of one stimulus to another.

   Watson asserts that human beings are born with reflects, emotional reaction, fears, love, and anger.

All behaviors are developed by way of conditioning.

  

For example, a child will not feel afraid of a mouse

when he sees it, but when at the same time a loud

sound such as a bang is heard, the child becomes

   Many behaviors are learned by way of classical conditioning.

  For example, students will learn a negative attitude when the teacher gets angry at their inability to solve a difficult math problem. Thus, experiences of being asked about difficult matters will produce disappointment.

  Fears about the English lesson probably is the result of fears of another difficult lesson such as Math: students will generalize their feeling of fears of other lessons.

  

4. B.F. Skinner:

Operant Conditioning

   Skinner views reward or reinforcement as the most important factor in the learning process: we tend to learn a response when it is followed by reinforcement.

   Skinner chose the term reinforcement than

  

reward, because reward may be interpreted as a

  subjective behavior related to happiness, whereas reinforcement is a neutral term.

   Pavlov focuses on the fact that behavior arises when there is a certain stimulus; while Skinner says that such a behavior only explains a small

   Skinner asserts that there is another behavior that he called it an operant behavior, because such a behavior takes place in any unconditioned stimuli or circumstances, like food for example.

   Skinner’s finding concerns about the relationship between behavior and consequences. For example, if an individual’s behavior is followed immediately by a pleasing consequence, the individual will use the same behavior again, as often as possible.

   Using pleasant or unpleasant consequences in the effort of changing behavior is called the operant

  conditioning.

   The pleasant consequences will make the behavior stronger, while the unpleasant consequences will make the behavior weaker.

  Thus, the pleasant consequences will become more in frequency, and otherwise. o

  Respondent conditioning is a behavior which results from the presence of a stimulus, like a bell in Pavlov’s experiment. o

  Operant conditioning is a behavior which is made by the organism itself: an operant is not always preceded by an outside stimulus. o The frequency of the operant behavior is determined by the effect of the behavior.

   Operant conditioning, although it is closely related with Thorndike’s theory, is different from Thorndike’s explanation.

   In Thorndike’s view, the presence of a reward will strengthen the bond between the S and the R, while in Skinner’s theory it is similar responses that will be strengthened, not the relationship between the S and the R.

   In real teaching practices, the teacher has an important role, that is, to improve the skill in giving reinforcement, to return and discuss frequently the students’ work after their work has been corrected, and to praise the desired

  Group Work

   Think of how Operant Conditioning is used in the classroom!

   The first group presentation will be done by the Class of 2011.

  

5. Procedures for Developing

Behavior



In using reinforcement to strengthened behavior,

there are two important methods: shaping and modeling.

  teach complex behaviors by reinforcing responses and lead subjects to a final response.

  For example, when a teacher wants to lead students

  

for successful learning, she will reinforce the steps

to success.

This process is called shaping because it involves

   forming particular responses from a number of

   Frazier (1989) suggests using shaping to improve learning behavior in five steps:

  1. Coming to the classroom in time.

  2. Participating actively in learning activities.

  3. Showing good results.

  4. Doing homework.

  5. Improving achievements. The result was that students came in time regularly, showed better collaboration, and used time more effectively.

  Language (style), dresses, music, etc. can become

   a model. We learn because we are reinforced to do it. Most  students have first learning experience by direct imitation. Modeling may happen without direct

   reinforcement. Modeling can be used to teach both academic and

   motor skills. Clarizio (1981) gave an example in reading a story 

   The following are procedures to eliminate unfavorable classroom behaviors:

  a. Reinforcing competing behaviors: the teacher

  ignores unwanted behaviors but praises students who show willingness to learn. In a short time such a social reinforcement can reduce unwanted classroom behaviors.

  b. Extinction: a process whereby the operant does

  not receive reinforcement anymore. Question: What will you do to a student who always answers teacher’s questions without thinking?

  Note: an unwanted behavior may become worse if it to do something over and over again until they become exhausted. A student who is found smoking is forced to finish a pack of cigarettes.

  d. Changing the environment which affects behaviors. What will you do if there is a continuous loud noise outside of the classroom? e. Punishment: giving punishment to stop unwanted behavior should be done with caution. Punishment may not necessarily change bad behaviors.

   Steps to change behaviors:

  1. Make an operational statement on a behavior which can be changed. Example: “I will stay on my seat unless I am permitted to leave.” Or, “I will raise up my hand and wait till I am called to speak.”

  2. Get a clear picture of a behavior which you want to change. First note the frequency of happening.

  Example, how many times do students leave their seats for toilets?

  3. Arrange learning situation or treatment in order that the desired behavior may take place. Example, the teacher sticks rules of conduct on the wall and explain them to class so that students know very well what their teacher wants.

  4. Identify potential reinforcements. Example, the teacher does a survey what activities the students like, what things they like to have, or what kind of foods or snacks they like to have.

   The behavioral theory can only answer part of a question about learning. Learning is not only a matter of giving stimuli and rewards.

   Cognitive theorists say that learning is a result of knowing about the world by way of thinking.

  Learning involves beliefs, hopes, and feelings. 

  Both behavioral and cognitive theories recognize the importance of reinforcement but their reasoning is different: for the behaviorists, reinforcement strengthens responses but for the cognitivists reinforcement is a feedback.

   The feedback gives information about what will probably be happening if the behavior is repeated.

  Thus, reinforcement for the students is to reduce uncertainty in achieving knowledge.

   Cognitivists view learning as something active: looking for information to solve a problem, rearranging and organizing what they already know to get a new knowledge.

  

  Implications of Cognitive theory in teaching and

  learning:

  a. Focus the student’s attention by asking a question b. Identify what is important, difficult, and uncommon.

  c. Emphasize the importance of the new information as stated in the learning objectives.

  d. Help the students to recall the information already learned.

  e. Help the students to relate and combine the old and the new information.

  Lindsay and Norman (1987): memorizing needs efforts; the materials to be memorized should be relevant to other things; organizing the memory. The materials can be broken into small chunks and then reassembled in a meaningful way. Using mnemonics:

  a. Peg-type Mnemonics: putting items in a list onto appropriate pegs or places. Here, imagination is important. Example: How do you memorize your phone number? b. Chain-type Mnemonics: relating or linking the first item to the second, the second to the third, the third to the fourth, etc. Example: How do you memorize the colors of a rainbow? c. Keyword Method: decide on which word is the most important in a statement. Example: What is language? It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for communication in a particular group of people.

  d. Chunking: dividing a series of numbers into easy- to-memorize units or groups. Example: How do you memorize your PIN or phone number?

   Still in the cognitive theory, Bruner (1966) raised the Discovery Learning theory.

   Bruner thinks that the teacher should create a situation where students can learn by themselves rather than giving a package of information.

   He says that students should take part in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is a process, not a product.

   Students should be encouraged to experience and or experiment themselves to find concepts and

   Some additional suggestions:

  a. Give a temporary guess or hypotheses through questions. Example: What will happen if...? b. Use a variety of media and games.

  c. Encourage students to satisfy their curiosity in the subject matter.

  d. Use some examples which are contradictory to the topic.

  Ausubel (1968) criticizes the discovery learning.

   He said students do not always know what is important or relevant but need external motivation in doing cognitive assignments. What is important is what students have known.

   He raised an alternative model called reception learning.

  

Expository teaching is a systematic teaching by

   exposing meaningful information.

   The teacher sets learning situation, selects materials, and delivers the materials in an organized way.

   Although the teacher’s role is different in the discovery learning and the receptive learning, these two approaches have three things in common: a. Both emphasize students’ active participation.

  

b. Both need previous knowledge to be linked with the

new one.

  c. Both assume that knowledge will gradually change in the mind of the students.

   Expository teaching has 3 principle steps of _st delivery: 1 : Presentation of Advance Organizer. _nd 2 : Presentation of Learning Task or Material. _rd 3 : Strengthening Cognitive Organization.

C. Humanistic Theory

   Although it is clear that learning is influenced by environment (stimulus) and cognitive factor (thinking and doing), it is also apparent that

learning is affected by the person and his feelings.

   Humanistic theorists indicate that:

  1. Individual’s behavior is determined by his view of the world;

  

2. Individuals are not only the product of environment

as the behaviorists say, but of the internal

motivation for self-actualization and fulfilment of

   The humanistic view of learning centers on the students---student-centered.

   The following are proponents of humanistic theory of learning:

  1. Arthur Combs et.al. (1974) A person’s view of the world is determined by his

   feelings, perception, belief, and objective. In order to change a person’s behavior, we have to  change the individual’s perception.

  2. Maslow (1968) He thinks that there is a hierarchy of human

   needs: need to survive, need for security, need to love and be loved, need for self-esteem, need for intellectual achievement and aesthetics, and need for self-actualization.

  3. Carl Rogers (1969, 1983) He says that education should be human,

   personal, and meaningful. The principles of human learning:

   1. The desire to learn.

  2. Significant learning –relevant to needs.

  3. Learning without threat.

  4. Self-initiated learning.

   Implication of Humanistic teaching and learning:

  a. person-centered education

  b. Combination of affective experiences and cognitive learning.

  c. Open education