Directory UMM :Journals:Journal of Stored Products Research:Vol 36.Issue3.Jul2000:
Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
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Some aspects of the biology and control using botanicals
of the rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton), on some
pulses
J. Allotey*, W. Azalekor
Department of Zoology, University of Ghana, PO Box 67, Legon, Ghana
Accepted 27 July 1999
Abstract
The life cycle of Corcyra cephalonica was studied under ambient laboratory conditions (temperature
range 27.5±308C and 60±73% r.h.) on groundnut, bambara groundnut and cowpea. The mean
developmental period ranged from 33.2 2 0.2 to 45.3 2 1.8 days on whole, broken and powdered forms
of the food media. Egg hatchability was found to be 83%, while adult longevity ranged from 1.5 2 0.5
to 11.9 2 1.3 days for males and 1.5 2 0.5 to 16.5 2 1.2 days for females. Sex ratio ({:|) of emerged
adults ranged from 1:1 to 1:2.1. Mean fecundities ranged from 12825 to 15728 on the food media. In
experiments to assess the insecticidal potential of three plant materials against C. cephalonica, Eichhornia
crassipes powder showed a higher ecacy than both Citrus sinensis peel powder and the leaf powder of
Chromolaena odorata at dosages of 0.5±2.0 g per 40 g of legume seed. At the higher dosage of 2.5 g, C.
sinensis was more eective and reduced the population of C. cephalonica by half when compared to the
population in control jars over a period of 1.5 months. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Corcyra cephalonica; Developmental period; Groundnut; Bambara groundnut; Cowpea; Eichhornia crassipes; Citrus sinensis; Chromolaena odorata
* Corresponding author. Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Botswana, Private Bag
0022, Gaborone, Botswana. Tel: +267-3552591; fax: +267-585097.
E-mail address: alloteyj@noka.ub.bw (J. Allotey).
0022-474X/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 2 2 - 4 7 4 X ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 5 - 4
236
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
1. Introduction
Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) is a serious pest of some important stored food
commodities such as rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, groundnut, cotton seeds, coee, spices
and cocoa beans, especially in the tropics (Cox et al., 1981; Allotey and Kumar, 1985;
Allotey, 1991a).
C. cephalonica was virtually absent from West Africa prior to 1957 (WASPRU, 1958;
Allotey and Kumar, 1985). Its increasing importance in the last few years is believed to
be associated with the import of low grade rice from the Far East. Presently, C.
cephalonica is the most important pest of stored cocoa beans in Ghana. It has
outcompeted the cocoa moth Ephestia cautella (Walker) (Allotey, 1986) and is spreading
to other important food commodities in the West African subregion (Allotey and Kumar,
1985; Allotey, 1991a).
The larvae of C. cephalonica cause considerable damage to stored food commodities while
feeding, leaving silken threads wherever they move. The webbing formed is noticeably dense
and tough adding to the damage caused (Ayyar, 1934; Carmona, 1958; Prevett, 1964; Hodges,
1979).
For the control of stored-produced insects, it is frequently less hazardous to use plant
materials with antifeedant, repellent or insecticidal action than to use synthetic insecticides
(Teotia and Tewari, 1971; Pereira and Wohlgemuth, 1982; Prakash et al., 1982; Allotey
and Goswami, 1994; Allotey and Dankwah, 1995; Rajapakse and van Emden, 1997). The
former have therefore been suggested for use in pest management.
The plants, Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck (Rutaceae) (common name: sweet orange),
Chromolaena odorata (Linn.) King and Robinson (Asteraceae) (common name: Crofton
weed), and Eichhornia crassipes Mart. (Pontederaceae) (common name: water hyacinth)
were utilised in the present study. These plants have been reported to have some
insecticidal properties against insect pests (Taylor, 1975; Don-Pedro, 1985; Rani and Jamil,
1989; Jacob and Shiela, 1993; Allotey and Dankwah, 1995). For example, C. sinensis peel
powder has proved potent against Callosobruchus maculatus (F.), depressing oviposition
and progeny emergence on cowpea at high doses (Taylor, 1975). Abbiw (1990) reported
that crushed C. odorata leaves repel insects. Jacob and Shiela (1993) reported that powder
prepared from the leaves of C. odorata protected stored rice from the attack of
Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) when admixed at 5% w/w before storage. C. odorata is one of
the plants in Ghana, reported to have some insecticidal properties (Niber Tierto, 1994).
Petroleum ether extract of E. crassipes retarded development and caused mortality in the
fourth instar larvae of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and C. cephalonica (Rani and Jamil,
1989). E. crassipes is a perennial aquatic weed commonly found in tropical and
subtropical ponds (Prakash and Rao, 1997).
The present study was conducted to provide information on: (1) egg hatchability,
development, survival, sex-ratio and fecundity of C. cephalonica on cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
L.) Walpers, bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea L.) Thou., and groundnut (Arachis
hypogea L.) and (2) the use of plant materials from C. sinensis, C. odorata and E. crassipes
against C. cephalonica under ambient laboratory conditions.
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
237
2. Materials and methods
The moth, C. cephalonica was reared on a medium comprising wheatbran, ®nely ground
maize and glycerol in the ratio 8:8:1 (w/w) (Amoako-Attah and Partida, 1976) and on selected
food stus (groundnut, cowpea, bambara groundnut) obtained locally from the Madina
market in Accra. Each culture contained 600 g of the particular food commodity, infested
initially with randomly selected insects obtained from the laboratory cultures at the Stored
Product Entomology Research Laboratory of the Department of Zoology, University of
Ghana, Legon. All equipment used in handling the insects was dry heat sterilised at 1008C for
at least 3 h while the food media were sterilised in a Gallenkamp Oven at 608C for 3 h before
experimentation. All cultures and experimental set-ups were maintained at ambient laboratory
conditions (temperature range 27.5±308C) and relative humidity (r.h.) range 60±73% with a
photoperiod of 12:12 h, L:D). All the cultures in jars were held in trays with supports
immersed in engine oil to prevent insects from crawling into them (Allotey and Goswami,
1990; Allotey and Morris, 1993). Experiments were conducted between January and May,
1994.
2.1. Collection of eggs
An egg-laying apparatus (Allotey, 1985; Allotey and Goswami, 1990) consisting of plastic
jars (9 cm dia. 14 cm deep) was used as the oviposition cage for C. cephalonica. Each jar
containing 10 pairs of newly emerged adults was inverted over a glass Petri-dish lined with
®lter paper at the bottom. The ®lter paper provided a rough surface for oviposition. The moths
laid eggs within 12 h of emergence. Eggs laid were collected from the ®lter paper with a camel
hair brush. Only uncollapsed eggs (examined under stereo microscope) were used.
2.2. Egg hatch
Uncollapsed eggs were placed in plastic Petri-dishes (10 cm dia.) in batches of 20 each. Ten
replicates were set-up, giving a total count of 200 eggs. Fine food particles (150±200 m dia.) of
maize were placed around the eggs in order for the newly emerged larvae to commence feeding
immediately after hatching and to avoid egg cannibalism (Allotey and Goswami, 1990; Allotey
and Morris, 1993). Observations on hatching of eggs were made daily and percentage egg
hatch was calculated.
2.3. Developmental period, sex-ratio, adult longevity
The developmental period of C. cephalonica was studied on groundnut, cowpea and
bambara groundnut. With the exception of groundnuts which were in whole and broken forms
only, the rest of the food commodities were used in whole, broken and ®nely ground forms.
Three g aliquots of each form of a particular food commodity were introduced into glass vials
(2.5 cm dia. 7.6 cm deep) and weighed on an electronic balance. There were forty replicates
for each set-up with a particular food commodity. Two newly hatched ®rst instar larvae (0±
12 h) of C. cephalonica were introduced into each vial with the aid of a ®ne brush. Each vial
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J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
was covered with a muslin cloth held in place by a rubber band to allow for aeration and was
left undisturbed until emergence of moths. Daily moth emergence, developmental periods and
sex-ratios were recorded. Adult longevity was recorded for adults that emerged from
developmental studies and which were observed daily until death.
2.4. Fecundity
For this study, 25 uncollapsed eggs were introduced into 10 g of the broken form of each
food commodity in plastic Petri-dishes with covers. There were 20 replicates per food
commodity. Newly emerged males and females were paired and placed in oviposition cages.
The eggs laid by each female moth were removed and counted daily, till the death of the
female moth. The mean fecundity of the moths on the food commodities was determined.
2.5. Control of C. cephalonica using plant material
2.5.1. Preparation of material
Ripe C. sinensis peels were collected from orange vendors on the University campus. The
leaves of C. odorata were collected from the botanical gardens of the University of Ghana,
Legon while the leaves of E. crassipes were collected from the Kpeshie lagoon in Labadi-Accra.
The peels of C. sinensis and the leaves of C. odorata/E. crassipes were sun dried for 4 and 6
days respectively, and milled separately with a blender to a ®ne powder of particle size of
about 212 mm diameter.
2.5.2. Treatment of groundnuts
Lots of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 2.5 g of prepared plant powders (C. sinensis, C. odorata, E.
crassipes ) were added separately to 40 g of groundnuts in cylindrical plastic containers (6.9 cm
dia. 7.5 cm deep) and the containers shaken thoroughly to ensure even mixing. Three
replicates of each treatment and untreated groundnuts were set up. Thirty newly emerged ®rst
instar larvae (0±12 h) of C. cephalonica were introduced into each container using a ®ne brush.
The containers were left undisturbed for 1.5 months after which the damage caused by C.
cephalonica and the ecacy of the plant materials were assessed. Results were analysed by
ANOVA and the Student±Newman±Keuls method for pairwise comparison.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Biology
The percentage egg hatchability of C. cephalonica reported was 83% (i.e. 166 eggs hatched
out of a total of 200). This is comparable to that observed by other authors. Allotey (1986)
recorded 85% egg hatch of C. cephalonica, whereas Hodges (1979) observed a mean egg hatch
of 78%. Carmona (1958) and Karmel and Hassanein (1967) reported that within temperature
ranges of (20±328C) and relative humidities (r.h.) between 20±80% neither temperature nor
humidity had any eect on the number of eggs hatching. Cox et al. (1981) observed that at
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
239
20% r.h., there was lower hatch than at 50% r.h. Hodges (1979) showed that the larval diet of
the parental generation aected egg hatch.
From Table 1 it can be seen that there were signi®cant dierences in the developmental
periods of C. cephalonica reared on dierent foods (F = 21.52, P < 0.05). The mean
developmental periods ranged from 33.320.2 days on powdered cowpea to 45.321.8 days on
whole bambara groundnut, indicating that development of C. cephalonica was most rapid on
cowpea powder.
Generally, C. cephalonica developed more rapidly on the powdered forms of the pulses than
on the broken and whole forms. The order of increasing developmental periods can be given
as: powdered < broken < whole. There was no signi®cant dierence between C. cephalonica
developmental periods on whole and broken groundnut, and broken bambara and whole
cowpea.
Cox et al. (1981) noted that the physical forms of the food media (whole, broken, or ¯our)
did aect the developmental periods of C. cephalonica on the dierent food media. Also,
Hodges (1979) reported that C. cephalonica became established more rapidly in grains that
have been damaged than undamaged ones.
There were signi®cant dierences in the adult longevities of C. cephalonica (F = 31.12, P <
0.05) which emerged from the food media. The adult longevity of males ranged from 1.520.5
days on whole bambara groundnut to 11.921.3 days on whole groundnut (Table 2).
The adult longevities in the present study were comparable to those observed by Karmel and
Hassanein (1967), who recorded a female lifespan of 12.2 days and a male lifespan of 22.2
days. Allotey (1991a) observed that the lifespans of males and females of C. cephalonica were
13.4 2 0.9 and 8.5 2 0.9 days respectively on groundnut. Cox et al. (1981) reported that
unmated males live on the average 5 days longer than females.
The sex-ratios ({:|) of C. cephalonica ranged from 1:1 on whole groundnut and broken
bambara groundnut to 1:1.7 on the broken forms of cowpea and groundnut and 1:2.1 on
bambara groundnut powder (Table 3). Carmona (1958) recorded a sex-ratio ({:|) of approx.
Table 1
Mean developmental periods of C. cephalonica reared on dierent food media at 27±308C, 60±73% r.h. (N = 80)a
Food media
Mean developmental period2SE (days)
Cowpea (powder)
Groundnut (broken)
Groundnut (whole)
Bambara groundnut (powder)
Cowpea (broken)
Bambara groundnut (broken)
Cowpea (whole)
Bambara groundnut (whole)
33.320.2
35.920.5
36.320.4
37.120.9
37.420.5
39.320.8
42.520.9
45.321.8
a
ac (29±38)b
b (29±42)
b (29±43)
c (30±42)
c (29±42)
d (35±45)
d (42±43)
e (41±50)
n
% Emergence of moths
67
54
52
66
49
52
2
4
83.7
67.5
65.0
82.5
61.5
65.0
2.5
5.0
N = actual number of insect larvae introduced, n = number of emerged adults observed.
Developmental range.
c
Means in the same vertical column followed by the same letter do not dier signi®cantly at the 5% level by the
Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
b
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J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
Table 2
Summary of adult longevities of emerged C. cephalonica reared on dierent food media at 27±308C, 60±73% r.h
Mean adult longevity 2SE (days)
Food media
{{
Bambara groundnut (whole)
Cowpea (whole)
Cowpea (broken)
Bambara groundnut (broken)
Bambara groundnut (powder)
Cowpea (powder)
Groundnut (whole)
Groundnut (broken)
1.520.5
3.021.4
5.220.5
7.820.6
10.4920.7
10.820.6
11.921.3
11.520.7
a
b
||
ab (1±2)a
a (2±4)
b (3±15)
b (4±15)
c (3±29)
d (6±18)
c (6±28)
d (9±17)
1.520.5
00
8.320.7
11.721.0
14.621.2
12.620.6
16.521.2
13.120.8
a (1±2)
b (4±13)
c (3±22)
c (6±26)
c (5±18)
d (7±28)
d (9±24)
Figures in parentheses indicate longevity ranges.
Means in the same vertical column followed by the same letter do not dier signi®cantly at the 5% level.
1:1 on maize and 1.5:1 on groundnut. Table 4 shows that the mean fecundity of C. cephalonica
on the dierent pulses ranged from 128 2 5 on bambara to 157 2 8 on groundnut. Thus when
reared on groundnut, C. cephalonica laid more eggs than on cowpea and bambara. Allotey
(1991a) recorded C. cephalonica fecundities of 154 2 9 and 210 2 10 on maize and groundnut
respectively. These ®gures are comparable to those recorded in the present study.
3.2. Botanicals
Highest moth emergence was recorded on groundnut kernels treated with C. odorata at
dosages of 0.5 g and 2.0 g per 40 g of legume seeds, but dierences between botanicals were
not signi®cant when all dose levels were considered. E. crassipes suppressed the emergence of
Table 3
Summary of the sex-ratios of emerged C. cephalonica on dierent food media
Sex
Food media
Males
{{
Females
||
Total
emergence
Sex-ratio
{:|
Groundnut (whole)
Groundnut (broken)
Bambara groundnut (whole)
Bambara groundnut (broken)
Bambara groundnut (powder)
Cowpea (whole)
Cowpea (broken)
Cowpea (powder)
24 (49%)a
20 (37%)
1 (25%)
26 (50%)
21 (32%)
0 (0)
18 (37%)
27 (40%)
25 (51%)
34 (63%)
3 (75%)
26 (50%)
45 (68%)
2 (100%)
31 (63%)
40 (60%)
49
54
4
52
66
2
49
67
1:1.0
1:1.7
1:3
1:1
1:2.1
0:2
1:1.7
1:1.5
a
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage emergence per food commodity.
241
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
Table 4
Summary of mean fecundities of C. cephalonica reared on dierent food media
Food media
Mean fecundity (2SE)
Groundnut
Bambara groundnut
Cowpea
15728 (105±200)a
12825 (102±198)
14624 (95±167)
a
Fecundity range.
C. cephalonica to a greater extent at dosages of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g than C. sinensis and C.
odorata (F = 6.44, P < 0.05; Table 5). However, at a dosage of 2.5 g, the advantage was lost
and C. sinensis suppressed moth emergence more eectively than C. odorata and E. crassipes,
i.e. C. sinensis (40%) < C. odorata (52.2%) < E. crassipes (57.8%).
Insect damage in stored grains and pulses may amount to 10±40% in countries where
modern technologies have not been introduced (Shaaya et al., 1997). It is a common practice
among small scale farmers in Africa to protect their stored produce using plant materials
(Giles, 1964; Golob and Webley, 1980; Ivbijaro and Agbaje, 1986; Delobel and Malonga, 1987;
Allotey, 1991b; Saxena, 1989; Allotey and Goswami, 1994; Weaver et al., 1994; Allotey and
Dankwah, 1995). For example, Allotey and Goswami (1994) reported that leaves of neem
(Azadirachta indica A. Juss) caused 100% mortality of Plodia interpunctella (HuÈbner) at 15 g/
100 g groundnut and suppressed more than half the population of Ephestia cautella at 5 g/100 g
groundnut. Senguttuvan et al. (1995) reported on the ecacy of a range of plant products,
including neem leaf powder and edible oil in protecting stored groundnuts against the rice
moth, C. cephalonica and noted that even though all the plant products and edible oils
Table 5
Adult emergence of C. cephalonica from groundnut kernels treated with Citrus sinensis, Chromolaena odorata and
Eichhornia crassipes powdera
Dosage/mean emergence (2SE)
Plant materials
0.0 g
0.5 g
1.0 g
2.0 g
2.5 g
Citrus sinensis
Chromolaena odorata
Eichhornia crassipes
24.321.5 (81.1)b
24.321.5 (81.1)
24.321.5 (81.1)
21.020.6 (68.7)
22.022.3 (73.3)
20.022.1 (66.7)
17.021.2 (56.7)
17.025 (56.7)
14.322.3 (47.8)
15.320.9 (51.1)
19.020.9 (65.6)
8.3323.4 (27.8)
12.022.6 (40.0)
15.022.8 (52.2)
17.321.2 (57.8)
Comparison
0.0 vs 2.0
0.0 vs 2.5
0.0 vs 1.0
1.0 vs 2.0
P < 0.05c
S
S
S
NS
a
30 ®rst instar larvae were introduced into each jar for each condition per 40 g of kernels.
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage adult emergence.
c
Student±Newman±Keuls method for multiple comparison used.
b
242
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
aorded protection, neem leaf powder and neem oil were most eective (Saxena, 1989).
Admixture of cowpeas with dried, powdered citrus peels have been found to reduce infestation
and damage caused by C. maculatus (Taylor, 1975; Don Pedro, 1985). In experiments to assess
the insecticidal potential of A. indica, C. odorata and C. sinensis against C. maculatus, Allotey
and Dankwah (1995) reported that A. indica seed powder showed a higher ecacy than both
C. sinensis peel powder and the powder of C. odorata. At 1.0 g/40 g of legume seed, A. indica
was twice as eective as C. sinensis and C. odorata over a period of 40 days (Allotey and
Dankwah, 1995). The plant materials are within the reach of the resource poor farmer. In the
present study, C. sinensis at 2.5 g/40 g legume seed (=6.25 g/100 g legume seed) reduced moth
emergence by about 50% while higher levels of control were achieved by E. crassipes at lower
dosages (up to 5% w/w legume seed). Either plant product could be suggested for use to
suppress populations of C. cephalonica for short periods.
Acknowledgement
We thank Professor J.S. Djangmah, Head of the Department of Zoology, University of
Ghana, Legon for encouragement during this research.
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Rani, P.V., Jamil, K., 1989. The eect of water hyacinth leaf extract on mortality, growth and metamorphosis of
certain pests of stored products. Insect Science and Its Application 10, 327±332.
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Plant Origin, pp. 110±135 ACS Symposium Series No. 389, Washington, DC.
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the control of stored-products insects. Journal of Stored Products Research 33, 7±15.
Senguttuvan, T., Kareem, A.A., Rajendran, F., 1995. Eects of plant products and edible oils against rice moth
Corcyra cephalonica Stainton in stored groundnuts. Journal of Stored Products Research 31, 207±210.
Taylor, T.A., 1975. Eects of orange and grape fruit peels on Callosobruchus maculatus infestation of cowpea.
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infesting wheat seeds. Bulletin of Grain Technology 9, 7±12.
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www.elsevier.com/locate/jspr
Some aspects of the biology and control using botanicals
of the rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton), on some
pulses
J. Allotey*, W. Azalekor
Department of Zoology, University of Ghana, PO Box 67, Legon, Ghana
Accepted 27 July 1999
Abstract
The life cycle of Corcyra cephalonica was studied under ambient laboratory conditions (temperature
range 27.5±308C and 60±73% r.h.) on groundnut, bambara groundnut and cowpea. The mean
developmental period ranged from 33.2 2 0.2 to 45.3 2 1.8 days on whole, broken and powdered forms
of the food media. Egg hatchability was found to be 83%, while adult longevity ranged from 1.5 2 0.5
to 11.9 2 1.3 days for males and 1.5 2 0.5 to 16.5 2 1.2 days for females. Sex ratio ({:|) of emerged
adults ranged from 1:1 to 1:2.1. Mean fecundities ranged from 12825 to 15728 on the food media. In
experiments to assess the insecticidal potential of three plant materials against C. cephalonica, Eichhornia
crassipes powder showed a higher ecacy than both Citrus sinensis peel powder and the leaf powder of
Chromolaena odorata at dosages of 0.5±2.0 g per 40 g of legume seed. At the higher dosage of 2.5 g, C.
sinensis was more eective and reduced the population of C. cephalonica by half when compared to the
population in control jars over a period of 1.5 months. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Corcyra cephalonica; Developmental period; Groundnut; Bambara groundnut; Cowpea; Eichhornia crassipes; Citrus sinensis; Chromolaena odorata
* Corresponding author. Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Botswana, Private Bag
0022, Gaborone, Botswana. Tel: +267-3552591; fax: +267-585097.
E-mail address: alloteyj@noka.ub.bw (J. Allotey).
0022-474X/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 2 2 - 4 7 4 X ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 5 - 4
236
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
1. Introduction
Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) is a serious pest of some important stored food
commodities such as rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, groundnut, cotton seeds, coee, spices
and cocoa beans, especially in the tropics (Cox et al., 1981; Allotey and Kumar, 1985;
Allotey, 1991a).
C. cephalonica was virtually absent from West Africa prior to 1957 (WASPRU, 1958;
Allotey and Kumar, 1985). Its increasing importance in the last few years is believed to
be associated with the import of low grade rice from the Far East. Presently, C.
cephalonica is the most important pest of stored cocoa beans in Ghana. It has
outcompeted the cocoa moth Ephestia cautella (Walker) (Allotey, 1986) and is spreading
to other important food commodities in the West African subregion (Allotey and Kumar,
1985; Allotey, 1991a).
The larvae of C. cephalonica cause considerable damage to stored food commodities while
feeding, leaving silken threads wherever they move. The webbing formed is noticeably dense
and tough adding to the damage caused (Ayyar, 1934; Carmona, 1958; Prevett, 1964; Hodges,
1979).
For the control of stored-produced insects, it is frequently less hazardous to use plant
materials with antifeedant, repellent or insecticidal action than to use synthetic insecticides
(Teotia and Tewari, 1971; Pereira and Wohlgemuth, 1982; Prakash et al., 1982; Allotey
and Goswami, 1994; Allotey and Dankwah, 1995; Rajapakse and van Emden, 1997). The
former have therefore been suggested for use in pest management.
The plants, Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck (Rutaceae) (common name: sweet orange),
Chromolaena odorata (Linn.) King and Robinson (Asteraceae) (common name: Crofton
weed), and Eichhornia crassipes Mart. (Pontederaceae) (common name: water hyacinth)
were utilised in the present study. These plants have been reported to have some
insecticidal properties against insect pests (Taylor, 1975; Don-Pedro, 1985; Rani and Jamil,
1989; Jacob and Shiela, 1993; Allotey and Dankwah, 1995). For example, C. sinensis peel
powder has proved potent against Callosobruchus maculatus (F.), depressing oviposition
and progeny emergence on cowpea at high doses (Taylor, 1975). Abbiw (1990) reported
that crushed C. odorata leaves repel insects. Jacob and Shiela (1993) reported that powder
prepared from the leaves of C. odorata protected stored rice from the attack of
Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) when admixed at 5% w/w before storage. C. odorata is one of
the plants in Ghana, reported to have some insecticidal properties (Niber Tierto, 1994).
Petroleum ether extract of E. crassipes retarded development and caused mortality in the
fourth instar larvae of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) and C. cephalonica (Rani and Jamil,
1989). E. crassipes is a perennial aquatic weed commonly found in tropical and
subtropical ponds (Prakash and Rao, 1997).
The present study was conducted to provide information on: (1) egg hatchability,
development, survival, sex-ratio and fecundity of C. cephalonica on cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
L.) Walpers, bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea L.) Thou., and groundnut (Arachis
hypogea L.) and (2) the use of plant materials from C. sinensis, C. odorata and E. crassipes
against C. cephalonica under ambient laboratory conditions.
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
237
2. Materials and methods
The moth, C. cephalonica was reared on a medium comprising wheatbran, ®nely ground
maize and glycerol in the ratio 8:8:1 (w/w) (Amoako-Attah and Partida, 1976) and on selected
food stus (groundnut, cowpea, bambara groundnut) obtained locally from the Madina
market in Accra. Each culture contained 600 g of the particular food commodity, infested
initially with randomly selected insects obtained from the laboratory cultures at the Stored
Product Entomology Research Laboratory of the Department of Zoology, University of
Ghana, Legon. All equipment used in handling the insects was dry heat sterilised at 1008C for
at least 3 h while the food media were sterilised in a Gallenkamp Oven at 608C for 3 h before
experimentation. All cultures and experimental set-ups were maintained at ambient laboratory
conditions (temperature range 27.5±308C) and relative humidity (r.h.) range 60±73% with a
photoperiod of 12:12 h, L:D). All the cultures in jars were held in trays with supports
immersed in engine oil to prevent insects from crawling into them (Allotey and Goswami,
1990; Allotey and Morris, 1993). Experiments were conducted between January and May,
1994.
2.1. Collection of eggs
An egg-laying apparatus (Allotey, 1985; Allotey and Goswami, 1990) consisting of plastic
jars (9 cm dia. 14 cm deep) was used as the oviposition cage for C. cephalonica. Each jar
containing 10 pairs of newly emerged adults was inverted over a glass Petri-dish lined with
®lter paper at the bottom. The ®lter paper provided a rough surface for oviposition. The moths
laid eggs within 12 h of emergence. Eggs laid were collected from the ®lter paper with a camel
hair brush. Only uncollapsed eggs (examined under stereo microscope) were used.
2.2. Egg hatch
Uncollapsed eggs were placed in plastic Petri-dishes (10 cm dia.) in batches of 20 each. Ten
replicates were set-up, giving a total count of 200 eggs. Fine food particles (150±200 m dia.) of
maize were placed around the eggs in order for the newly emerged larvae to commence feeding
immediately after hatching and to avoid egg cannibalism (Allotey and Goswami, 1990; Allotey
and Morris, 1993). Observations on hatching of eggs were made daily and percentage egg
hatch was calculated.
2.3. Developmental period, sex-ratio, adult longevity
The developmental period of C. cephalonica was studied on groundnut, cowpea and
bambara groundnut. With the exception of groundnuts which were in whole and broken forms
only, the rest of the food commodities were used in whole, broken and ®nely ground forms.
Three g aliquots of each form of a particular food commodity were introduced into glass vials
(2.5 cm dia. 7.6 cm deep) and weighed on an electronic balance. There were forty replicates
for each set-up with a particular food commodity. Two newly hatched ®rst instar larvae (0±
12 h) of C. cephalonica were introduced into each vial with the aid of a ®ne brush. Each vial
238
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
was covered with a muslin cloth held in place by a rubber band to allow for aeration and was
left undisturbed until emergence of moths. Daily moth emergence, developmental periods and
sex-ratios were recorded. Adult longevity was recorded for adults that emerged from
developmental studies and which were observed daily until death.
2.4. Fecundity
For this study, 25 uncollapsed eggs were introduced into 10 g of the broken form of each
food commodity in plastic Petri-dishes with covers. There were 20 replicates per food
commodity. Newly emerged males and females were paired and placed in oviposition cages.
The eggs laid by each female moth were removed and counted daily, till the death of the
female moth. The mean fecundity of the moths on the food commodities was determined.
2.5. Control of C. cephalonica using plant material
2.5.1. Preparation of material
Ripe C. sinensis peels were collected from orange vendors on the University campus. The
leaves of C. odorata were collected from the botanical gardens of the University of Ghana,
Legon while the leaves of E. crassipes were collected from the Kpeshie lagoon in Labadi-Accra.
The peels of C. sinensis and the leaves of C. odorata/E. crassipes were sun dried for 4 and 6
days respectively, and milled separately with a blender to a ®ne powder of particle size of
about 212 mm diameter.
2.5.2. Treatment of groundnuts
Lots of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 2.5 g of prepared plant powders (C. sinensis, C. odorata, E.
crassipes ) were added separately to 40 g of groundnuts in cylindrical plastic containers (6.9 cm
dia. 7.5 cm deep) and the containers shaken thoroughly to ensure even mixing. Three
replicates of each treatment and untreated groundnuts were set up. Thirty newly emerged ®rst
instar larvae (0±12 h) of C. cephalonica were introduced into each container using a ®ne brush.
The containers were left undisturbed for 1.5 months after which the damage caused by C.
cephalonica and the ecacy of the plant materials were assessed. Results were analysed by
ANOVA and the Student±Newman±Keuls method for pairwise comparison.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Biology
The percentage egg hatchability of C. cephalonica reported was 83% (i.e. 166 eggs hatched
out of a total of 200). This is comparable to that observed by other authors. Allotey (1986)
recorded 85% egg hatch of C. cephalonica, whereas Hodges (1979) observed a mean egg hatch
of 78%. Carmona (1958) and Karmel and Hassanein (1967) reported that within temperature
ranges of (20±328C) and relative humidities (r.h.) between 20±80% neither temperature nor
humidity had any eect on the number of eggs hatching. Cox et al. (1981) observed that at
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
239
20% r.h., there was lower hatch than at 50% r.h. Hodges (1979) showed that the larval diet of
the parental generation aected egg hatch.
From Table 1 it can be seen that there were signi®cant dierences in the developmental
periods of C. cephalonica reared on dierent foods (F = 21.52, P < 0.05). The mean
developmental periods ranged from 33.320.2 days on powdered cowpea to 45.321.8 days on
whole bambara groundnut, indicating that development of C. cephalonica was most rapid on
cowpea powder.
Generally, C. cephalonica developed more rapidly on the powdered forms of the pulses than
on the broken and whole forms. The order of increasing developmental periods can be given
as: powdered < broken < whole. There was no signi®cant dierence between C. cephalonica
developmental periods on whole and broken groundnut, and broken bambara and whole
cowpea.
Cox et al. (1981) noted that the physical forms of the food media (whole, broken, or ¯our)
did aect the developmental periods of C. cephalonica on the dierent food media. Also,
Hodges (1979) reported that C. cephalonica became established more rapidly in grains that
have been damaged than undamaged ones.
There were signi®cant dierences in the adult longevities of C. cephalonica (F = 31.12, P <
0.05) which emerged from the food media. The adult longevity of males ranged from 1.520.5
days on whole bambara groundnut to 11.921.3 days on whole groundnut (Table 2).
The adult longevities in the present study were comparable to those observed by Karmel and
Hassanein (1967), who recorded a female lifespan of 12.2 days and a male lifespan of 22.2
days. Allotey (1991a) observed that the lifespans of males and females of C. cephalonica were
13.4 2 0.9 and 8.5 2 0.9 days respectively on groundnut. Cox et al. (1981) reported that
unmated males live on the average 5 days longer than females.
The sex-ratios ({:|) of C. cephalonica ranged from 1:1 on whole groundnut and broken
bambara groundnut to 1:1.7 on the broken forms of cowpea and groundnut and 1:2.1 on
bambara groundnut powder (Table 3). Carmona (1958) recorded a sex-ratio ({:|) of approx.
Table 1
Mean developmental periods of C. cephalonica reared on dierent food media at 27±308C, 60±73% r.h. (N = 80)a
Food media
Mean developmental period2SE (days)
Cowpea (powder)
Groundnut (broken)
Groundnut (whole)
Bambara groundnut (powder)
Cowpea (broken)
Bambara groundnut (broken)
Cowpea (whole)
Bambara groundnut (whole)
33.320.2
35.920.5
36.320.4
37.120.9
37.420.5
39.320.8
42.520.9
45.321.8
a
ac (29±38)b
b (29±42)
b (29±43)
c (30±42)
c (29±42)
d (35±45)
d (42±43)
e (41±50)
n
% Emergence of moths
67
54
52
66
49
52
2
4
83.7
67.5
65.0
82.5
61.5
65.0
2.5
5.0
N = actual number of insect larvae introduced, n = number of emerged adults observed.
Developmental range.
c
Means in the same vertical column followed by the same letter do not dier signi®cantly at the 5% level by the
Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
b
240
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
Table 2
Summary of adult longevities of emerged C. cephalonica reared on dierent food media at 27±308C, 60±73% r.h
Mean adult longevity 2SE (days)
Food media
{{
Bambara groundnut (whole)
Cowpea (whole)
Cowpea (broken)
Bambara groundnut (broken)
Bambara groundnut (powder)
Cowpea (powder)
Groundnut (whole)
Groundnut (broken)
1.520.5
3.021.4
5.220.5
7.820.6
10.4920.7
10.820.6
11.921.3
11.520.7
a
b
||
ab (1±2)a
a (2±4)
b (3±15)
b (4±15)
c (3±29)
d (6±18)
c (6±28)
d (9±17)
1.520.5
00
8.320.7
11.721.0
14.621.2
12.620.6
16.521.2
13.120.8
a (1±2)
b (4±13)
c (3±22)
c (6±26)
c (5±18)
d (7±28)
d (9±24)
Figures in parentheses indicate longevity ranges.
Means in the same vertical column followed by the same letter do not dier signi®cantly at the 5% level.
1:1 on maize and 1.5:1 on groundnut. Table 4 shows that the mean fecundity of C. cephalonica
on the dierent pulses ranged from 128 2 5 on bambara to 157 2 8 on groundnut. Thus when
reared on groundnut, C. cephalonica laid more eggs than on cowpea and bambara. Allotey
(1991a) recorded C. cephalonica fecundities of 154 2 9 and 210 2 10 on maize and groundnut
respectively. These ®gures are comparable to those recorded in the present study.
3.2. Botanicals
Highest moth emergence was recorded on groundnut kernels treated with C. odorata at
dosages of 0.5 g and 2.0 g per 40 g of legume seeds, but dierences between botanicals were
not signi®cant when all dose levels were considered. E. crassipes suppressed the emergence of
Table 3
Summary of the sex-ratios of emerged C. cephalonica on dierent food media
Sex
Food media
Males
{{
Females
||
Total
emergence
Sex-ratio
{:|
Groundnut (whole)
Groundnut (broken)
Bambara groundnut (whole)
Bambara groundnut (broken)
Bambara groundnut (powder)
Cowpea (whole)
Cowpea (broken)
Cowpea (powder)
24 (49%)a
20 (37%)
1 (25%)
26 (50%)
21 (32%)
0 (0)
18 (37%)
27 (40%)
25 (51%)
34 (63%)
3 (75%)
26 (50%)
45 (68%)
2 (100%)
31 (63%)
40 (60%)
49
54
4
52
66
2
49
67
1:1.0
1:1.7
1:3
1:1
1:2.1
0:2
1:1.7
1:1.5
a
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage emergence per food commodity.
241
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
Table 4
Summary of mean fecundities of C. cephalonica reared on dierent food media
Food media
Mean fecundity (2SE)
Groundnut
Bambara groundnut
Cowpea
15728 (105±200)a
12825 (102±198)
14624 (95±167)
a
Fecundity range.
C. cephalonica to a greater extent at dosages of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g than C. sinensis and C.
odorata (F = 6.44, P < 0.05; Table 5). However, at a dosage of 2.5 g, the advantage was lost
and C. sinensis suppressed moth emergence more eectively than C. odorata and E. crassipes,
i.e. C. sinensis (40%) < C. odorata (52.2%) < E. crassipes (57.8%).
Insect damage in stored grains and pulses may amount to 10±40% in countries where
modern technologies have not been introduced (Shaaya et al., 1997). It is a common practice
among small scale farmers in Africa to protect their stored produce using plant materials
(Giles, 1964; Golob and Webley, 1980; Ivbijaro and Agbaje, 1986; Delobel and Malonga, 1987;
Allotey, 1991b; Saxena, 1989; Allotey and Goswami, 1994; Weaver et al., 1994; Allotey and
Dankwah, 1995). For example, Allotey and Goswami (1994) reported that leaves of neem
(Azadirachta indica A. Juss) caused 100% mortality of Plodia interpunctella (HuÈbner) at 15 g/
100 g groundnut and suppressed more than half the population of Ephestia cautella at 5 g/100 g
groundnut. Senguttuvan et al. (1995) reported on the ecacy of a range of plant products,
including neem leaf powder and edible oil in protecting stored groundnuts against the rice
moth, C. cephalonica and noted that even though all the plant products and edible oils
Table 5
Adult emergence of C. cephalonica from groundnut kernels treated with Citrus sinensis, Chromolaena odorata and
Eichhornia crassipes powdera
Dosage/mean emergence (2SE)
Plant materials
0.0 g
0.5 g
1.0 g
2.0 g
2.5 g
Citrus sinensis
Chromolaena odorata
Eichhornia crassipes
24.321.5 (81.1)b
24.321.5 (81.1)
24.321.5 (81.1)
21.020.6 (68.7)
22.022.3 (73.3)
20.022.1 (66.7)
17.021.2 (56.7)
17.025 (56.7)
14.322.3 (47.8)
15.320.9 (51.1)
19.020.9 (65.6)
8.3323.4 (27.8)
12.022.6 (40.0)
15.022.8 (52.2)
17.321.2 (57.8)
Comparison
0.0 vs 2.0
0.0 vs 2.5
0.0 vs 1.0
1.0 vs 2.0
P < 0.05c
S
S
S
NS
a
30 ®rst instar larvae were introduced into each jar for each condition per 40 g of kernels.
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage adult emergence.
c
Student±Newman±Keuls method for multiple comparison used.
b
242
J. Allotey, W. Azalekor / Journal of Stored Products Research 36 (2000) 235±243
aorded protection, neem leaf powder and neem oil were most eective (Saxena, 1989).
Admixture of cowpeas with dried, powdered citrus peels have been found to reduce infestation
and damage caused by C. maculatus (Taylor, 1975; Don Pedro, 1985). In experiments to assess
the insecticidal potential of A. indica, C. odorata and C. sinensis against C. maculatus, Allotey
and Dankwah (1995) reported that A. indica seed powder showed a higher ecacy than both
C. sinensis peel powder and the powder of C. odorata. At 1.0 g/40 g of legume seed, A. indica
was twice as eective as C. sinensis and C. odorata over a period of 40 days (Allotey and
Dankwah, 1995). The plant materials are within the reach of the resource poor farmer. In the
present study, C. sinensis at 2.5 g/40 g legume seed (=6.25 g/100 g legume seed) reduced moth
emergence by about 50% while higher levels of control were achieved by E. crassipes at lower
dosages (up to 5% w/w legume seed). Either plant product could be suggested for use to
suppress populations of C. cephalonica for short periods.
Acknowledgement
We thank Professor J.S. Djangmah, Head of the Department of Zoology, University of
Ghana, Legon for encouragement during this research.
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