Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue6.1996:
Total teacher ef fectiveness: new conception and
improvement
Yin Cheong Cheng
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
Kwok Tung Tsui
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
Based on the traditional
conception of teacher
effectiveness, proposes three
strategies for improving it:
short-term, long-term and
dynamic strategies. Argues
that the dynamic strategy is
preferable, but that all of
them have strong limitations
because they ignore the
complexity of teacher
effectiveness and narrow the
concept to the individual
teacher, particularly in a
classroom context. Proposes
a new conceptual framework
of total teacher effectiveness,
whereby the total quality of
the teacher competence layer
contributes to the total
quality of the teacher
performance layer and the
latter contributes to the total
quality of the student learning
experience layer and then to
the quality of the student
learning outcomes layer.
Explains that the framework
suggests a holistic approach
to improving teacher
effectiveness with the
emphasis on the improvement
of whole layers of teacher
competence and performance
instead of fragmentary
improvement of teaching
behaviour. Advises that in
order to ensure total layer
quality and maximize teacher
effectiveness, a congruence
development cycle should be
established within the teacher
layers to ensure congruence
and pursue total teacher
effectiveness. Suggests that
the proposed conceptual
framework can provide a new
direction for studying and
improving teacher effectiveness in particular and school
effectiveness in general.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [ 1996] 7 –1 7
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Tea ch er effectiven ess is often a m a jor issu e in
cu r r en t m ovem en ts of edu ca tion r efor m a n d
sch ool im pr ovem en t. N o m a tter wh ich w ave
of r efor m we a r e r idin g on , it is gen er a lly
a gr eed th a t th e tea ch er is th e k ey elem en t for
th e su ccess of sch ool edu ca tion [1-3]. Tr a dition a l stu dies on tea ch er effectiven ess focu s
la r gely on th e per for m a n ce of in dividu a l
tea ch er s in cla ssr oom s. Th is n a r r ow con ception of tea ch er effectiven ess h a s its lim ita tion s a n d ca n n o lon ger m eet th e n eeds of
ch a n gin g sch ool en vir on m en ts, pa r ticu la r ly
wh en pa r en ts a n d th e pu blic a r e dem a n din g
h igh qu a lity in sch ool edu ca tion .
In th e la st two deca des, in or der to im pr ove
th e per for m a n ce of tea ch er s, policy-m a k er s,
tea ch er tr a in in g in stitu tion s a n d sch ools
h ave design ed a n d im plem en ted a gr ea t
n u m ber of in n ova tion s in tea ch in g tech n iqu es, m eth odologies a n d su per vision . In
Hon g Kon g, a lt h ou gh a h u ge a m ou n t of
r esou r ces h a d b een in vest ed in t o
ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s in it ia t ed by a n u m b er of
ed u ca t ion a l p olicies in t h e p a st d eca d e[4],
t h e p er for m a n ce of st u d en t s a s a wh ole w a s
d eclin in g a t a sign ifica n t r a t e. T h e p olicy m a k er s a n d t h e p u blic b e ga n t o b e aw a r e of
t h e im p or t a n ce of t ea ch er p er for m a n ce st u d en t s’ ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es a n d t r ied t o
m a k e p olicy effor t s for im p r ov in g t ea ch er
q u a lit y a n d effect iven ess[3]. In ev it a b ly, t h er e
is a n u r gen t n eed t o u n d er st a n d t h e com p lex
n a t u r e of t ea ch er effect iven ess a n d t o
d evelop n ew st r a t e gies t o im p r ove it if w e
w is h t o a ch ieve b et t er st u d en t lea r n in g
ou t com es. T h er efor e, t h is p a p er a im s t o
est a blis h a fr a m ewor k for u n d er st a n d in g
t h e n a t u r e a n d d evelop m en t of t ea ch er effect iven es s.
T h is p a p er w ill fir st r ev iew a n d id en t ify
t h e st r a t e gies a n d t h eir lim it a t ion s for
im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven ess t h a t a r e
b a sed on t r a d it ion a l con ce p t s. T h en it w ill
d evelop a fr a m ewor k of t ot a l t ea ch er
effect iven ess, for u n d er st a n d in g t h e
p r ocess a n d d evelop m en t of t ea ch er
effect iven ess, in clu d in g m u lt i-levels a n d
m u lt i-d om a in s, t o u n d er st a n d t h e com p lex
n a t u r e of t ea ch er effect iven ess in sch ool
or ga n iza t ion . It is h op ed t h a t t h is fr a m ewor k
ca n b r in g a h olist ic a p p r oa ch t o st u dy in g
a n d im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven ess.
Traditional concepts of teacher
ef fectiveness
In r ecen t deca des, th e topic of tea ch er
effectiven ess h a s con tin u ed to a ttr a ct th e
a tten tion of r esea r ch er s, edu ca tor s a n d pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion s. However, Or n stein [5]
poin ts ou t th a t th e liter a tu r e on tea ch in g
effectiven ess, or tea ch er effectiven ess, is a
m or a ss of ill-defin ed a n d ch a n gin g con cepts.
To differ en t people, th e defi n ition of tea ch er
effectiven ess cou ld be ver y differ en t.
Appr oa ch es to pr esen tin g th is con cept a r e
a lso ver y differ en t. Som e r esea r ch er s focu s
on tea ch er per son a lities, tr a its, beh aviou r s,
a ttitu des, va lu es, a bilities, com peten ces a n d
m a n y oth er per son a l ch a r a cter istics. Som e
oth er r esea r ch er s a r e m or e con cer n ed w ith
th e tea ch in g pr ocess (in clu din g fa ctor s su ch
a s tea ch in g styles, tea ch er -stu den t in ter a ction s a n d cla ssr oom clim a te, etc.) or th e
tea ch in g ou tcom es (in clu din g fa ctor s su ch a s
stu den ts’ a ca dem ic a ch ievem en ts, per son a l
developm en t a n d lea r n in g exper ien ces, etc.).
Despite th ou sa n ds of stu dies con du cted in th e
la st 50 yea r s, it is difficu lt, if n ot im possible,
to a r r ive a t gen er a lly a ccepted con clu sion s.
Few power fu l gen er a liza tion s con cer n in g
tea ch er effectiven ess h ave been esta blish ed[6,7]. In differ en t tim es du r in g th e pa st
deca des, th e stu dies m igh t em ph a size differ en t a spects of tea ch er effectiven ess[8,9]. Som e
sch ola r s h ave given cr iticism s on th e u n der lyin g ph ilosoph y, m eth odologies a n d fin din gs in
th ese stu dies of tea ch er effectiven ess. Th ey
su ggested th a t th e existin g per spectives of
tea ch er effectiven ess, su ch a s th e tea ch er
tr a it per spective, th e tea ch er beh aviou r
per spective a n d th e pr ocess-pr odu ct of
tea ch in g per spective cou ld n ot be su ccessfu l
in expla in in g or a n a lysin g th e com plexity of
tea ch er effectiven ess[8-10].
Som e k ey tr a dition a l con cepts of tea ch er
effectiven ess ca n be su m m a r ized a n d
discu ssed befor e str a te gies for im pr ovin g
tea ch er effectiven ess a r e r eviewed. As
su ggested by An der son [11], effective tea ch er s
a r e th ose wh o a ch ieve th e goa ls th ey set by
th em selves or th e goa ls set for th em by oth er s
su ch a s sch ool pr in ciples, edu ca tion a dm in istr a tor s a n d pa r en ts. Accor din g to
Or n stein [5], effective tea ch er s m u st h ave a
[7 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
body of k n ow ledge essen tia l for tea ch in g, a n d
k n ow h ow to a pply it. By in te gr a tin g th ese
two con ception s, effective tea ch er s m ay be
a ssu m ed to be th ose wh o possess th e r eleva n t
com peten ce (in clu din g n ecessa r y pr ofession a l k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d a ttitu des) a n d
u se th e com peten ce a ppr opr ia tely to a ch ieve
th eir set goa ls. F r om th is lin e of th in k in g, th e
u n der sta n din g of tea ch er effectiven ess m u st
be ba sed on th e lin k a ges between tea ch er
com peten ce, tea ch er per for m a n ce a n d set
goa ls or expected edu ca tion a l ou tcom es.
Structure of teacher ef fectiveness
Medley’s[12] str u ctu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess is a ver y com pr eh en sive fr a m ewor k
wh ich ca n in te gr a te th e tea ch er tr a it per spective, th e tea ch er beh aviou r per spective a n d
th e pr ocess-pr odu ct of tea ch in g per spective to
expla in th e r ela tion sh ips between tea ch er
com peten ce, tea ch er per for m a n ce, stu den t
lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d edu ca tion a l ou tcom es. He expla in ed th a t:
Th e ter m “tea ch er effectiven ess” w ill be
u sed to r efer to th e r esu lts a tea ch er gets or
to th e a m ou n t of pr ogr ess th e pu pils m a k e
tow a r d som e specified goa ls of edu ca tion .
On e im plica tion of th is defin ition is th a t
tea ch er effectiven ess m u st be defin ed, a n d
ca n on ly be a ssessed, in ter m s of beh aviou r s
of pu pils, n ot beh aviou r s of tea ch er s. For
th is r ea son , a n d beca u se th e a m ou n t th a t
pu pils lea r n is str on gly a ffected by fa ctor s
n ot u n der th e tea ch er ’s con tr ol, tea ch er
effectiven ess w ill be r e ga r ded n ot a s a sta ble
ch a r a cter istic of th e tea ch er a s a n in dividu a l bu t a s a pr odu ct of th e in ter a ction
between cer ta in tea ch er ch a r a cter istics a n d
oth er fa ctor s th a t va r y a ccor din g to th e
situ a tion in wh ich th e tea ch er wor k s…
Accor din g to th is con ception , Medley[12]
pr oposed th a t th e str u ctu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de n in e im por ta n t com pon en ts:
1 P r e-existin g tea ch er ch a r a cter istics – th e
k n ow ledge, a bilities a n d beliefs th a t a
tea ch er possesses on en ter in g in to th e
tea ch er tr a in in g pr ogr a m m e).
2 Tea ch er com peten ce – th e set of k n ow ledge, a bilities a n d beliefs th a t a tea ch er
possesses a n d br in gs to th e a ctu a l tea ch in g
en vir on m en t on com pletion of th e tea ch er
tr a in in g pr ogr a m m e.
3 Tea ch er per for m a n ce – th e beh aviou r of a
tea ch er wh en tea ch in g th a t m ay ch a n ge
wh en th e tea ch in g en vir on m en t is
ch a n ged.
4 Stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce – th e
exper ien ce fr om in ter a ction s between
tea ch er a n d th e stu den ts in th e pr ocess of
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g.
[8 ]
5 Stu den t beh aviou r or lea r n in g ou tcom es –
th e pr ogr ess stu den ts m a k e tow a r ds a
defin ed edu ca tion a l goa l.
6 Tea ch er tr a in in g – for bu ildin g u p tea ch er
com peten ce.
7 E xter n a l tea ch in g con text – in clu din g
sch ool or ga n iza tion a l str u ctu r e,
m a n a gem en t, cu ltu r e, tea ch in g fa cilities,
r esou r ces, cu r r icu lu m , sch ool goa l a n d
m ission , etc.
8 In ter n a l tea ch in g con text – in clu din g cla ss
size a n d com position , pu pil a bilities, cla ssr oom clim a te, tea ch er -pu pil
r ela tion sh ip, etc.
9 In dividu a l stu den t ch a r a cter istics –
in dividu a l stu den ts’ pr eviou s lea r n in g
exper ien ce, ph ysica l a n d in tellectu a l
a bilities, lea r n in g styles a n d oth er per son a l ch a r a cter istics.
Ch en g[9] fu r th er developed Medley’s[12]
str u ctu r e by th e in clu sion of two m or e com pon en ts, n a m ely tea ch er eva lu a tion a n d pr ofession a l developm en t, a s sh ow n in F igu r e 1.
Th e str u ctu r e in dica tes th e pr ocedu r a l in ter r ela tion sh ips a m on g th e com pon en ts of
tea ch er effectiven ess:
1 Stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es a r e th e pr odu ct
of th e in ter a ction between stu den ts’
lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d in dividu a l
ch a r a cter istics.
2 Stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce is a ffected by
both tea ch er per for m a n ce a n d in ter n a l
tea ch in g con text.
3 Tea ch er per for m a n ce is deter m in ed by th e
in ter a ction between tea ch er com peten ce
a n d exter n a l tea ch in g con text.
4 Tea ch er tr a in in g a n d pr e-existin g tea ch er
ch a r a cter istics ca n con tr ibu te to tea ch er
com peten ce.
5 Tea ch er eva lu a tion a ctivities th a t
a r e ba sed on th e in for m a tion fr om
tea ch er per for m a n ce, stu den t lea r n in g
exper ien ce a n d lea r n in g ou tcom es ca n
fa cilita te th e developm en t of tea ch er
com peten ce.
6 P r ofession a l developm en t a ctivities wh ich
a r e su ppor ted by th e ch a r a cter istics of
exter n a l a n d in ter n a l tea ch in g con text,
tea ch er per for m a n ce, stu den ts’ in dividu a l
ch a r a cter istics, lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d
ou tcom es ca n con tr ibu te to developm en t
of tea ch er com peten ce a n d tea ch er
edu ca tion .
All th e com pon en ts of th e str u ctu r e ca n
dir ectly or in dir ectly r ela te to tea ch er
effectiven ess.
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Figure 1
Struc ture o f te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss
Te ac he r e valuatio n
ac tivitie s
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
Pre -e xisting
te ac he r
c harac te ristic s
Te ac he r
e duc atio n
Te ac he r
c o mpe te nc e
Te ac he r
performanc e
Exte rnal
te ac hing
c o nte xt
Stude nt
le arning
e xpe rie nc e
Inte rnal
te ac hing
c o nte xt
Stude nt
le arning
o utc o me s
Individual
stude nt
c harac teristic s
Pro fe ssio nal
de ve lo pme nt
ac tivitie s
Source: adapte d fro m Me dle y [1 2 ] and Che ng [9 ]
Strategies for improving teacher
ef fectiveness
F r om th e a bove str u ctu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess, Ch en g[13] su ggested th er e m ay be th r ee
differ en t str a te gies wh ich ca n be u sed to
im pr ove or en h a n ce tea ch er effectiven ess: th e
sh or t-ter m str a te gy, th e lon g-ter m str a te gy
a n d th e dyn a m ic str a te gy.
The short-term strategy
Th e sh or t-ter m str a te gy is th e tr a dition a l a n d
m ost com m on ly-u sed str a te gy for im pr ovin g
tea ch er effectiven ess. It focu ses on ch a n gin g
over t tea ch er per for m a n ce (m a in ly in ter m s
of tea ch in g beh aviou r s) to a da pt to th e tea ch in g con text. Sh or t-ter m tr a in in g or piecem ea l
pr a ctica l a dvice a r e u sed to cor r ect tea ch er s’
wea k n esses a n d u n desir a ble beh aviou r s. Th e
str a te gy is ba sed on th r ee a ssu m ption s. F ir st,
tea ch in g con text is som eth in g “given ” a n d
n ot a lter a ble. In or der to a ch ieve a good qu a lity of stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es, tea ch er s
m u st a ccom m oda te or a dju st th eir beh aviou r s to th e in ter n a l tea ch in g con text.
Secon d, tea ch er beh aviou r in cla ssr oom s
m u st be cor r ected or ch a n ged if u n sa tisfa ctor y stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d ou tcom e a r e iden tified. Th ir d, som e str a igh tfor w a r d pr escr iption s su ch a s sta n da r d tea ch in g
beh aviou r s a n d m eth ods cou ld r ea dily be
u sed by a ll tea ch er s: cu r r icu lu m pla n n er s
a n d tea ch er tr a in er s often develop a n d
in tr odu ce a gr ea t n u m ber of sta n da r d
tea ch in g beh aviou r s to sch ooltea ch er s.
Sch ool in spector s a n d a dm in istr a tor s give
pr a ctica l a dvice on tea ch in g beh aviou r s to
tea ch er s du r in g sch ool in spection s a n d
tea ch er a ssessm en t. Th is str a te gy a ssu m es
th a t th e tea ch er is a n im plem en ter, su bject to
bein g im pr oved for better edu ca tion a l ou tcom e a n d, in evita bly, th e r ole of tea ch er is
ver y pa ssive a n d exter n a lly m a n a ged. To a
cer ta in exten t, som e fr a gm en ta r y, su per ficia l
a n d ta n gible effects m ay be a ch ieved by cor r ectin g cer ta in tea ch er beh aviou r s in th e
cla ssr oom . However, th e effects often ca n n ot
be in ter n a lized a n d th e u sefu ln ess of th is
tr a dition a l str a te gy is qu ite lim ited. It m ay
n ot su ccessfu lly in du ce a n y lon g-ter m a n d
system a tic im pr ovem en t in tea ch er effectiven ess beca u se it ign or es th e im por ta n ce of
tea ch er com peten ce to tea ch er per for m a n ce
in th e cla ssr oom . With ou t developm en t in
tea ch er com peten ce, per sisten t a n d effective
ch a n ge in tea ch in g beh aviou r is a lm ost
im possible.
The long-term strategy
Th e lon g-ter m str a te gy focu ses on str en gth en in g tea ch er com peten ce so th a t tea ch er s
ca n h ave su fficien t pr ofession a l k n ow ledge,
tech n iqu es a n d con fiden ce to develop th eir
ow n tea ch in g styles, a da pt to th e exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l tea ch in g con texts a n d per for m effectively in th e cla ssr oom . Str en gth en in g
tea ch er com peten ce is a con tin u ou s lon gter m pr ocess in volvin g system a tic lea r n in g
a n d r efl ection . As sh ow n in F igu r e 1, esta blish m en t of th e tea ch er eva lu a tion system
a n d th e pr ofession a l developm en t system is
n ecessa r y for developin g tea ch er com peten ce
a n d bu ildin g u p lon g-ter m tea ch er effectiven ess. Th r ou gh su m m a tive, for m a tive a n d
[9 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
dia gn ostic tea ch er eva lu a tion , tea ch er s m ay
lea r n con tin u ou sly a n d develop r eper toir es of
pr ofession a l com peten ce wh ich ca n be u sed
to a da pt to differ en t tea ch in g con texts a n d
ca r r y ou t tea ch in g ta sk s effectively[14].
Th r ou gh system a tic pr ofession a l developm en t tea ch er s ca n gr ow a n d develop to
a cqu ir e n ew k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d a ttitu des
wh ich in tu r n pr om ote or im pr ove th eir
tea ch in g per for m a n ce a t differ en t sta ges of
th eir ca r eer s. Obviou sly, th is str a te gy is
m u ch better th a n th e sh or t-ter m str a te gy
beca u se it m ay h ave lon g-ter m , system a tic
a n d in ter n a lized effects on tea ch er s’ com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce. Bu t th e str a te gy still
h a s lim ita tion s. Sim ila r to th e sh or t-ter m
str a te gy, it a ssu m es th a t th e exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l con texts of tea ch in g a r e “given s”
a n d sta tic. Tea ch er s a r e con sider ed a s developin g im plem en ter s, a n d th ey n eed to a da pt
th eir tea ch in g beh aviou r s to tea ch in g con texts. To som e exten t, th e r ole of th e tea ch er
is pa ssive a n d m oder a tely exter n a lly m a n a ged. Th er efor e, th is str a te gy does n ot expect
th e a ctive r ole of tea ch er s in ch a n gin g th e
in ter n a l a n d exter n a l con texts of tea ch in g
a n d cr ea tin g a n im pr oved en vir on m en t for
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. In oth er wor ds,
tea ch er effectiven ess m ay n ot be m a xim ized.
The dynamic strategy
In view of th e lim ita tion s of sh or t-ter m a n d
lon g-ter m str a te gies, a dyn a m ic str a te gy ca n
be pr oposed for im pr ovin g tea ch er effectiven ess. It a ssu m es th a t m ost of th e com pon en ts
a ssocia ted w ith th e str u ctu r e of tea ch er
effectiven ess (F igu r e 1) ca n be a lter ed. In
or der to m a xim ize tea ch er effectiven ess, both
tea ch er s’ com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce a n d
tea ch in g con texts sh ou ld be ch a n ged. Also,
tea ch er s sh ou ld n ot on ly a da pt to th e tea ch in g con texts bu t a lso a dopt th e r ole of ch a n ge
a gen t. Th er efor e, th is str a te gy a im s a t
em power in g tea ch er s a s ch a n ge a gen ts,
edu ca tion a l lea der s a n d pr ofession a l
im plem en ter s, su ch th a t th ey ca n play a n
a ctive r ole in im pr ovin g both exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l tea ch in g con texts a n d m a xim izin g
th eir effectiven ess a t both or ga n iza tion a l
level a n d cla ssr oom level. Th e a ctivities of
pr ofession a l developm en t a n d tea ch er eva lu a tion sh ou ld be fu r th er developed a n d
str en gth en ed to h elp tea ch er s to develop n ot
on ly k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d a ttitu des bu t a lso
cr itica l m in ds a n d self-r efl ection a n d selfm a n a gem en t sk ills[15]. Follow in g th is lin e of
th in k in g, th e con cept of tea ch er effectiven ess
sh ou ld n ot be con fin ed to tea ch er beh aviou r
or per for m a n ce in th e cla ssr oom . It sh ou ld be
exten ded to in cor por a te or ga n iza tion a l
a spects su ch a s tea ch er in volvem en t a n d
lea der sh ip in cu r r icu lu m ch a n ges a n d
[ 10 ]
edu ca tion r efor m s. In oth er wor ds, im pr ovin g
tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld be a lon g-ter m
a n d dyn a m ic pr ocess in volvin g n ot on ly
tea ch er s’ pr ofession a l gr ow th a n d a lso
sch ools’ con tin u ou s ch a n ge a n d developm en t.
Th e effects of th is str a te gy on tea ch er s a n d
sch ools a r e lon g ter m , system a tic a n d ca n be
in ter n a lized a n d in stitu tion a lized.
Ba sed on th e a bove discu ssion s, th e ch a r a cter istics of th e sh or t-ter m , lon g-ter m a n d
dyn a m ic str a te gies a r e su m m a r ized in
Ta ble I. Of th e th r ee, th e dyn a m ic str a te gy
a ppea r s to be pr efer a ble.
Limitations of the traditional
concepts and strategies
Sin ce a ll th e a bove str a te gies a r e ba sed on th e
tr a dition a l con cepts of tea ch er effectiven ess,
w ith th e focu s pr im a r ily on in dividu a l tea ch er s, pa r ticu la r ly in a cla ssr oom con text,
in evita bly th er e is a ser iou s con ceptu a l
ba r r ier lim itin g th e effectiven ess of th ese
str a te gies, even th e dyn a m ic str a te gy.
Tr a dition a lly, th e tea ch in g pr ocess is often
a ssu m ed to h a ppen on ly a t th e in dividu a l
level. Th a t is, in dividu a l tea ch er s per for m
tea ch in g a n d in dividu a l stu den ts r eceive
tea ch er s’ in str u ction a n d lea r n . Th is sim plistic a ppr oa ch is r eflected in m ost stu dies on
tea ch er effectiven ess, wh ich exa m in e tea ch er
effectiven ess m a in ly a t a n in dividu a l level.
However, th is n a r r ow con ception of tea ch er
effectiven ess is ch a n gin g, ow in g to th e in du ction of br oa der con cepts of edu ca tion a l
pr ocesses[16,17]. F ir st, sch ool edu ca tion is
u su a lly pla n n ed a n d im plem en ted a t th e
pr ogr a m m e level or th e wh ole sch ool level.
Cu r r en tly, sch ool m a n a gem en t r efor m s a n d
effective sch ool m ovem en ts em ph a size th e
wh ole sch ool a ppr oa ch to th e im pr ovem en t of
sch ool per for m a n ce a n d stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es[18-20]. It a ssu m es th a t stu den ts a r e
ta u gh t n ot on ly by in dividu a l tea ch er s bu t
a lso by gr ou ps of tea ch er s or by wh ole sch ool
tea ch er s. In or der to m a xim ize sch ool effectiven ess, m or e a tten tion sh ou ld be pa id to
over a ll tea ch er effectiven ess a t gr ou p a n d
sch ool levels. Secon d, ba sed on ou r pr eviou s
discu ssion , a su ccessfu l tea ch er effectiven ess
pr ogr a m m e r elies on a sta ff developm en t
pr ogr a m m e wh ich br in gs a bou t n ot on ly
in dividu a l tea ch er developm en t bu t a lso
gr ou p a n d sch ool developm en t[21]. Th er efor e,
tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld n ot be stu died
solely a t th e in dividu a l level bu t a lso a t th e
gr ou p, pr ogr a m m e a n d sch ool levels. Obviou sly, th e str a te gies ba sed on th e tr a dition a l
con cept a t th e in dividu a l level h ave lim ita tion s a n d a r e n ot su fficien t to en h a n ce
tea ch er effectiven ess a t th e gr ou p a n d sch ool
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
Table I
The c harac te ristic s o f
strate gie s fo r impro ving
te ac hing e ffe c tive ne ss
Characteristics
Short-term strategy
Long-term strategy
Dynamic strategy
Conc erns
Change teac her performanc e
Strengthen teac her c ompetenc e so that teac her
Develop teac her c ompetenc e so that teac her c an
performanc e is improved
improve teac hing c ontexts and maximize
effec tiveness
Assumption about teac hing c ontext
Design
Means
Implementation
Ends
Role of teac her
Externally managed
External and internal c ontext are “ givens”
External and internal c ontext are “ givens”
External and internal c ontexts are alterable and
and static
and static
dynamic
Disc rete, piec emeal
Systematic , long-term planning
Systematic and dynamic , long-term planning
Foc us on overt performanc e
Fac ilitate professional development
Aims at long-term dynamic professional
Provide short-term training or piec emeal
Establish teac her evaluation system
Develop teac her evaluation system
prac tic al advic e
Fac ilitate professional development
Enhanc e professional development
Foc us on weakness
Foc us on inc reasing c ompetenc e
Ensure professional development
Correc t undesirable behaviours
Develop personal repertoire
Develop and empower to ac t as c hange agent
Presc riptions and instruc tions given by
Continuous learning through evaluation and
Continuous learning and reflec tion through c hange,
administrators, experts or outside agenc ies
development ac tivities
experiment, evaluation and development ac tivities
Help teac her adapt to internal c ontext
Help teac her adapt to external and internal
Fac ilitate teac her to c hange and adapt to external
c ontexts
and internal
Very passive, adjusted to teac hing c ontext
Passive, to adapt to teac hing c ontext
Ac tive, to c hange teac hing c ontexts
As implementer to be improved
As developing implementer
As developing leader, professional implementer and
Externally managed
Moderately externally managed
c hange agent
Self-managing
Effec t on teac her effec tiveness
Short term
[ 11 ]
Long term
Long term
Fragmentary
Systematic
Systematic and dynamic
Superfic ial
Internalized
Internalized and institutionalized
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
tea ch er effectiven ess a t th e gr ou p a n d sch ool
levels.
Conceptual framework of total
teacher ef fectiveness
Ta k in g th e lim ita tion s of th e tr a dition a l
con cepts in to con sider a tion , a n ew con ceptu a l fr a m ewor k of tota l tea ch er effectiven ess
ca n be pr oposed, a s follow s.
Levels of teacher effectiveness
Tr a dition a l tea ch er effectiven ess im pr ovem en t pr ogr a m m es focu s on in dividu a l
tea ch er per for m a n ce in a cla ssr oom .
P r in cipa ls a n d a dm in istr a tor s tr y to m a n ipu la te in dividu a l tea ch er s’ com peten ce a n d
per for m a n ce in a n a ttem pt to im pr ove
stu den ts’ beh aviou r a l ou tcom es. It is
a ssu m ed th a t wh en in dividu a l tea ch er per for m a n ce is im pr oved, in dividu a l stu den ts, th en
th e wh ole cla ss a n d, fin a lly, a ll stu den ts in th e
sch ool w ill h ave a cor r espon din g im pr ovem en t in lea r n in g ou tcom es. In r ea lity, th e
situ a tion is m u ch m or e com plica ted. F ir st,
th e Colem a n stu dy m ay be u sed a s a n illu str a tion . Th e stu dy fi n din gs h a d been in ter pr eted
a s pr oof th a t sch ools h a d little effect on stu den t lea r n in g, a lth ou gh a ccor din g to Ba r r
a n d Dr eeben [22] it w a s m isin ter pr eted. How ever, it dem on str a tes th a t wh en tea ch er,
sch ool a n d stu den t ch a r a cter istics wer e a ll
a ggr e ga ted to th e sch ool level (or cla ss level),
th e in dividu a l tea ch er effectiven ess or con tr ibu tion wou ld be dim in ish ed a n d deter ior a ted.
Good et a l.[23] a r gu e th a t: “if tea ch er s m a k e a
differ en ce, a n d if pu pils a r e to be exposed to
both good a n d poor tea ch in g, th en it sh ou ld
n ot be su r pr isin g th a t m a n y sch ools (cla sses)
a r e fou n d to be qu ite sim ila r in th eir effects
on stu den ts”. Obviou sly, th e im pr ovem en t of
in dividu a l tea ch er s does n ot n ecessa r ily
pr om ise over a ll sch ool effectiven ess. Secon d,
tea ch er s often wor k in isola ted con dition s
wh er e th ey seldom see or h ea r on e a n oth er
tea ch [14,24]. Th is isola tion a n d pr iva cy w ill
h in der tea ch er s’ lea r n in g a n d sh a r in g of
th eir su ccesses w ith collea gu es. Ow in g to
th ese con str a in ts, in dividu a l tea ch er s m u st
wor k a lon e to iden tify pr oblem s, develop
solu tion s a n d ch oose a lter n a tives[25-27].
F u r th er m or e, a s sch ool settin gs becom e m or e
com plex a n d dem a n d gr ea ter a ccou n ta bility,
in dividu a l tea ch er s’ effor ts h ave less im pa ct.
On th e con tr a r y, in or der to in cr ea se tea ch er
a n d sch ool effectiven ess, a gr ou p effor t is
r equ ir ed[28]. It is believed th a t th e syn er gy of
a gr ou p is poten tia lly gr ea ter th a n th e su m of
th e en er gies of its m em ber s. In oth er wor ds, a
gr ou p effor t wou ld pr odu ce gr ea ter effect
th a n th e gr ou p’s m ost com peten t m em ber s
[ 12 ]
cou ld h ave a ch ieved a lon e. In fa ct, tea ch er s
wh o wor k a s tea m s or gr ou ps n ot on ly u se
th eir en er gy effectively bu t a lso cr ea te n ew
en er gy[29,30]. It is obviou s th a t wh en tea ch er s a ct togeth er th ey m ay h ave a better
ch a n ce of in flu en cin g a n d ch a n gin g th e con str a in ts given by th e exter n a l a n d in ter n a l
tea ch in g con texts. Th er efor e, th e con sider a tion of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de
n ot on ly th e in dividu a l level bu t a lso th e
gr ou p a n d sch ool levels.
Domains of effectiveness
Medley[12] su ggests th a t tea ch er com peten ce
r efer s to th e set of k n ow ledge, a bilities a n d
beliefs a tea ch er possesses a n d th a t tea ch er
per for m a n ce is th e u se of k n ow ledge a n d sk ill
in th e cla ssr oom . Or n stein [5] cla im s th a t
ever y tea ch er h a s h is/ h er ow n tea ch in g style,
wh ich is a com posite of per son a lity a n d ph ilosoph y, eviden t by beh aviou r a n d a ttitu de.
Ru bin [31] a r gu es th a t tea ch in g style in volves
ch oices a m on g a lter n a tives, a n d th e ch oices
tea ch er s m a k e a ctu a lly dem on str a te th eir
per ceived im a ges a n d r oles. Th r ou gh th eir
style, tea ch er s in te gr a te th e th eor ies or peda gogy in wh ich th ey believe a n d th e pr a ctices
th ey a dopt in th e cla ssr oom . F r om th e liter a tu r e, it is clea r th a t tea ch er com peten ce a n d
per for m a n ce sh ou ld in volve th e elem en ts of
beliefs, va lu es, per ception s, a ttitu des, k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d beh aviou r s. F u r th er m or e,
tea ch er s’ tea ch in g pr ocesses in flu en ce stu den ts’ lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d ou tcom es; a n d
stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es a r e u su a lly r ecogn ized a s th e r esu lt of lea r n in g pr ocesses in
ter m s of cogn itive, a ffective a n d beh aviou r a l
ch a n ge a n d developm en t. Follow in g th is lin e
of th in k in g, we m ay a ssu m e th a t th e con sider a tion of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de
th e qu a lity of tea ch er com peten ce a n d
tea ch er per for m a n ce in va r iou s dom a in s
su ch a s th e beh aviou r a l, th e a ffective a n d th e
cogn itive; a n d th is tea ch er qu a lity m ay h ave
effects on stu den ts in va r iou s dom a in s
a ccor din gly.
The concept of total teacher effectiveness
Ta k in g th e th r ee dom a in s (a ffective, beh aviou r a l a n d cogn itive) a n d th e th r ee levels
(in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels) in to
con sider a tion , th e n a tu r e a n d ch a r a cter istics
of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld be stu died a t
m u lti-levels a n d m u lti-dom a in s. Bor r ow in g
Ch en g’s[16] idea of th e sch ool pr ocess m a tr ix,
we ca n pr opose a n ew con ceptu a l fr a m ewor k
of tota l tea ch er effectiven ess for in vestiga tin g
th e com plica ted n a tu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess. Th is fr a m ewor k is illu str a ted a s sh ow n
in F igu r e 2.
Th e fr a m ewor k a ssu m es th a t tea ch er
effectiven ess is in evita bly r ela ted to tea ch er s’
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Figure 2
Co nc e ptual frame wo rk o f to tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss
Te ac hing
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
Te ac he r
c o mpe te nc e
laye r
Te ac he r
performanc e
laye r
Le arning
Stude nt
e xpe rie nc e
laye r
Stude nt
le arning
o utc o me s
laye r
Co gnitive do main
Affe c tive do main
Be havio ural
do main
Individual le ve l
Gro up le ve l
Sc ho o l le ve l
Te ac he r
Stude nt
Exte rnal
Inte rnal
Pre -e xisting
Te ac hing c o nte xt
Te ac hing c o nte xt
Stude nt c harac te ristic s
tea ch in g pr ocesses a n d stu den ts’ lea r n in g
pr ocesses. Th er efor e, th e con cept of tea ch er
effectiven ess in volves two im por ta n t
ca te gor ies of a ctor s (tea ch er s a n d stu den ts) a t
th r ee differ en t levels (in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d
sch ool). Th e pr ocesses a n d effects of tea ch in g
a n d lea r n in g m ay occu r in th e beh aviou r a l,
a ffective a n d cogn itive dom a in s of differ en t
a ctor s a t differ en t levels. Specifi ca lly, tea ch er
effectiven ess sh ou ld in volve th e beh aviou r a l,
a ffective a n d cogn itive per for m a n ce of a ll
tea ch er s a n d stu den ts a t in dividu a l, gr ou p
a n d sch ool levels. Th is con cept of tea ch er
effectiven ess is differ en t fr om th e tr a dition a l
th in k in g, wh ich focu ses m a in ly on th e in dividu a l level of tea ch er or stu den t a n d ign or es
th e m u ltiplicity of per for m a n ces of tea ch er s
a n d stu den ts. Th e n ew con cept ca n be ca lled
tota l tea ch er effectiven ess beca u se it ca n
pr ovide a h olistic pictu r e of th e n a tu r e of
tea ch er effectiven ess by ta k in g in to con sider a tion m u lti-dom a in s of com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce of tea ch er s a n d stu den ts a t th e
m u lti-levels. Th e ch a r a cter istics of th is tota l
tea ch er effectiven ess fr a m ewor k a r e fu r th er
illu str a ted in th e follow in g section s.
Layers of teacher ef fectiveness
As sh ow n in F igu r e 2, tea ch er effectiven ess is
r ela ted to th e tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g pr ocesses in volvin g tea ch er com peten ce, tea ch er
per for m a n ce, stu den t exper ien ce a n d stu den t
lea r n in g ou tcom e layer s. Th e tea ch er com peten ce layer is th e tota l beh aviou r a l, a ffective
a n d cogn itive com peten ce of tea ch er s a t th e
in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels. Th is
layer r epr esen ts th e tota l sta tic qu a lity of
tea ch er s. Th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer is
th e tota l per for m a n ce of tea ch er s in th e th r ee
dom a in s a t th e th r ee levels. It r epr esen ts th e
dyn a m ic qu a lity of tea ch er s in th e tea ch in g
pr ocess. In gen er a l, th e qu a lity of tea ch er
per for m a n ce layer is positively a ssocia ted
w ith th e qu a lity of th e tea ch er com peten ce
layer. In a ddition , th e r ela tion sh ip between
th ese two layer s ca n be m oder a ted by th e
in fl u en ce of th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text
(e.g. or ga n iza tion a l fa ctor s, lea der sh ip a n d
sch ool en vir on m en t, etc.). Th e stu den t exper ien ce layer r epr esen ts th e tota l lea r n in g exper ien ce of stu den ts in th e th r ee dom a in s a t th e
in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels. Th e
stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es layer r epr esen ts
th e tota l lea r n in g ou tcom es of stu den ts in th e
th r ee dom a in s a t th e th r ee levels. In gen er a l,
th e qu a lity of th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer
a s a wh ole h a s a positive im pa ct on th e
qu a lity of th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce
layer, a n d th e la tter h a s a positive r ela tion sh ip w ith th e qu a lity of th e stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es layer. Aga in , th ese r ela tion sh ips
m ay be a ffected by th e ch a r a cter istics of
in ter n a l tea ch in g con text (in clu din g stu den t
su bcu ltu r e, cla ssr oom clim a te, stu den t a bility
gr ou pin g, lea r n in g en vir on m en t etc.).
Teacher competence layer
Th e tea ch er com peten ce layer, in ter a ctin g
w ith th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text, a ffects th e
tea ch er per for m a n ce layer. Wh en tea ch er s
wor k in depen den tly a s in dividu a ls, th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text m ay often dom in a te th e
[ 13 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
per for m a n ce of in dividu a l tea ch er s. In dividu a l tea ch er s m ay h ave to a da pt to th e en vir on m en t in or der to a ch ieve a cer ta in level of
tea ch in g per for m a n ce. In th is r espect, th e
r ole of tea ch er s ten ds to be pa ssive a n d
tea ch er effectiven ess is lim ited. It is n ot su r pr isin g th a t m ost im pr ovem en t a n d en r ich m en t pr ogr a m m es im plem en ted to im pr ove
som e beh aviou r a l a spects of in dividu a l
tea ch er per for m a n ce a r e often n ot su ccessfu l,
if n ot fa ilu r es[21]. Th er efor e, we su ggest th a t
th e tea ch er com peten ce layer sh ou ld be
im pr oved (in clu din g com peten ce in m u ltidom a in s a t m u lti-levels) so th a t tea ch er s ca n
be em power ed to wor k colla bor a tively, a s a
gr ou p or a s a wh ole sch ool tea m . In th ese
cir cu m sta n ces, tea ch er s ca n a ct a s a str on g
collective for ce to in flu en ce a n d ch a n ge th e
con dition s of th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text,
n ot ju st a da pt to it. Th e h igh er qu a lity of
tea ch er com peten ce layer ca n pr om ise better
oppr tu n ities for tea ch er s to a ct a s a ch a n ge
a gen t a n d in itia te edu ca tion r efor m s wh ich ,
in tu r n , pr om ote over a ll tea ch er per for m a n ce
a n d stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es.
Teacher performance layer
Th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer, in ter a ctin g
w ith th e in ter n a l tea ch in g con text, in fl u en ces
th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer.
Cu r r en tly, th e m ost com m on a ppr oa ch to
im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of stu den ts’ lea r n in g
exper ien ce a n d ou tcom es is to im pr ove a n d
ch a n ge th e beh aviou r s of a cer ta in tea ch er a t
a cer ta in poin t in or per iod of tim e. Th is
a ppr oa ch is often in effective. Th er e a r e two
r ea son s for th is. F ir st, stu den t per for m a n ce
a t a n y poin t in tim e is th e cu m u la tive effect of
th e per for m a n ce of a n u m ber of tea ch er s. Let
u s ta k e a loca l secon da r y sch ool a s a n exa m ple. Th er e a r e a bou t ten to 12 su bject tea ch er s
tea ch in g th e sa m e cla ss a t secon da r y on e,
a n oth er ten to 12 su bject tea ch er s a t
secon da r y two, a n d som e m or e tea ch er s a t th e
r em a in in g yea r s. It is clea r th a t in dividu a l
stu den t per for m a n ce a t a n y poin t in tim e
sh ou ld be a cu m u la tive effect of h is or h er
pa st a n d pr esen t tea ch er s; a n d sh ou ld n ot be
th e sole effect of a n y pa r ticu la r tea ch er.
Th er efor e, if we w a n t to im pr ove stu den ts’
lea r n in g exper ien ce, we sh ou ld im pr ove th e
wh ole tea ch er per for m a n ce layer, in clu din g
th e th r ee levels a n d th e th r ee dom a in s.
Secon d, in a n or m a l tea ch in g en vir on m en t,
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g pr ocesses ta k e pla ce in
th e cla ssr oom . Th is m ea n s th a t, m ost of th e
tim e, th e tea ch er w ill tea ch a gr ou p of stu den ts a s a wh ole. If we ta k e th e tea ch er -stu den t r a tio in to con sider a tion , we ca n see th a t
a n in dividu a l tea ch er ’s in flu en ce on in dividu a l stu den ts m ay n ot be a s str on g a s wh en
com pa r ed w ith th e in fl u en ce fr om th e in ter [ 14 ]
n a l tea ch in g con text (e.g. stu den ts’ peer
gr ou ps, cla ssr oom clim a te, cla ss size, etc.). In
or der to h ave a str on ger in flu en ce on th e
in ter n a l tea ch in g con text a n d th e stu den t
lea r n in g exper ien ce layer, th e im pr ovem en t
of th e wh ole tea ch er per for m a n ce layer, n ot
ju st in dividu a l tea ch er s, sh ou ld be im por ta n t.
In sh or t, wh en tea ch er per for m a n ce a s a
wh ole layer ca n a ct on th e stu den ts a t th e
sa m e tim e a n d in th e sa m e dir ection , th er e
w ill be a gr ea ter ch a n ce to develop a gr ea ter
lea r n in g en vir on m en t a n d h ave better stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ces a n d ou tcom es.
Student experience layer and student
learning outcomes layer
Un der th e in flu en ce of th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer a n d in ter n a l tea ch in g con text,
a ll stu den ts a t in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool
levels ca n a ch ieve lea r n in g exper ien ce in
th eir a ffective, beh aviou r a l a n d cogn itive
dom a in s. Th r ou gh stu den ts’ fu r th er lea r n in g
pr ocesses, th e lea r n in g exper ien ce ca n be
con ver ted in to stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es in
m u lti-dom a in s a t m u lti-levels. Th e stu den t
lea r n in g ou tcom es layer in F igu r e 2 r epr esen ts th e tota l stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es.
Obviou sly, th e pr e-existin g stu den t ch a r a cter istics (e.g. IQ, fa m ily ba ck gr ou n d, etc.) m ay
a lso a ffect th e con ver sion pr ocess of lea r n in g
exper ien ce in to lea r n in g ou tcom es a n d th e
qu a lity of ou tcom es. Th e a ssessm en t of tota l
tea ch er effectiven ess is ba sed m a in ly on th e
qu a lity of th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce
layer a n d th e stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es
layer, ta k in g th e tea ch er com peten ce layer
a n d tea ch er per for m a n ce layer in to con sider a tion . Th e r esu lts of a ssessm en t ca n be u sed
to im pr ove th e lea r n in g exper ien ce layer, th e
tea ch er per for m a n ce layer a n d th e tea ch er
com peten ce layer. In oth er wor ds, th er e
sh ou ld be feedba ck loops fr om th e la tter
layer s to th e for m er : th e stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es layer to th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer to th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer
to tea ch er com peten ce layer, a s sh ow n in
F igu r e 2.
A holistic approach to improving
teacher ef fectiveness
Th e a bove fr a m ewor k of tota l tea ch er effectiven ess pr ovides a h olistic a ppr oa ch to
im pr ovin g tea ch er effectiven ess. In or der to
m a xim ize tea ch er effectiven ess, im pr ovem en t of wh ole tea ch er com peten ce layer a n d
wh ole tea ch er per for m a n ce layer sh ou ld
r epla ce fr a gm en ta r y im pr ovem en t of tea ch er
com peten ce or per for m a n ce. In oth er wor ds,
th e im pr ovem en t effor t on tea ch er com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce sh ou ld cover th e
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
a ffective, beh aviou r a l a n d cogn itive dom a in s
a t th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels.
Accor din g to th e con cept of con gr u en ce in
system [17,32,33], wh eth er tea ch er com peten ce
is con gr u en t a cr oss th e a ffective, beh aviou r a l
a n d cogn itive dom a in s a n d a cr oss th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels (i.e. con gr u en ce
w ith in th e tea ch er com peten ce layer ) ca n
a ffect th e con tr ibu tion of th e tea ch er com peten ce layer to th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer.
Th e gr ea ter th e con gr u en ce of tea ch er com peten ce a cr oss dom a in s a n d a cr oss levels, th e
gr ea ter th e con tr ibu tion of th e tea ch er com peten ce layer to th e tea ch er per for m a n ce
layer. Th e con gr u en ce a cr oss dom a in s r epr esen ts th e exten t to wh ich a ffective com peten ce, beh aviou r a l com peten ce a n d cogn itive
com peten ce of tea ch er s a r e m u tu a lly su ppor ted a n d r ein for ced in con tr ibu tin g to
tea ch er s’ a ction a n d per for m a n ce. Th e con gr u en ce a cr oss levels r epr esen ts th e exten t to
wh ich th e com peten ce of in dividu a l tea ch er s,
gr ou ps of tea ch er s a n d wh ole sch ool tea ch er s
a r e m u tu a lly su ppor ted a n d r ein for ced in
con tr ibu tin g to tea ch er s’ a ction s a n d per for m a n ce. Sim ila r ly, th e gr ea ter th e con gr u en ce
of tea ch er per for m a n ce a cr oss dom a in s a n d
a cr oss levels (i.e. con gr u en ce w ith in th e
tea ch er per for m a n ce layer ), th e gr ea ter th e
con tr ibu tion of th e tea ch er per for m a n ce
layer to th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer.
Also, th e gr ea ter th e con gr u en ce of stu den t
lea r n in g exper ien ce a cr oss dom a in s a n d
a cr oss levels (i.e. con gr u en ce w ith in th e stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es layer ), th e gr ea ter th e
con tr ibu tion of th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer to th e stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es
layer.
Ba sed on th e con cept of con gr u en ce w ith in
layer s, th e a ppr oa ch to im pr ovin g tea ch er
effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de a ssu r a n ce of
con gr u en ce w ith in th e tea ch er com peten ce
layer, w ith in th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer
a n d w ith in th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce
layer. Th is h olistic a ppr oa ch is ver y differ en t
fr om th e tr a dition a l th in k in g wh ich focu ses
on ly on fr a gm en ta r y a n d over t a spects of
tea ch er per for m a n ce w ith ou t ta k in g tota lity
a n d con gr u en ce in to con sider a tion .
between th e va lu es a n d beliefs of edu ca tion
a n d m a n a gem en t in sch ool a n d th e con gr u en ce of per for m a n ce in th eir a ffective, beh aviou r a l or tech n ica l, a n d cogn itive dom a in s.
Th e developm en t pr ogr a m m e su ppor ts th em
to m a k e a con tin u ou s lea r n in g cycle for th eir
ow n developm en t a n d im pr ovem en t. Th is is
in lin e w ith th e liter a tu r e in th e field of
tea ch er developm en t a n d sch ool ch a n ges
[24,34-37].
Th e developm en t cycle m ay sta r t a t th e
in dividu a l tea ch er level a n d focu s on over t
per for m a n ce, m a ster in g tea ch in g a n d cla ssr oom m a n a gem en t tech n iqu es. Th en ,
tea ch er s sh ou ld be su ppor ted to h ave
oppor tu n ities a t th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d
sch ool levels to r eflect on th eir va lu es, beliefs
a n d th e m ea n in gs of edu ca tion a n d sch ool
m a n a gem en t. F r om th e r eflection by th em selves or a m on g th em selves, th ey ca n r eor ga n ize th eir cogn itive str u ctu r e, r esh a pe th eir
tea ch in g styles a n d r e-esta blish th eir pr ofession a l con fiden ce a n d com m itm en t. Th r ou gh
self-lea r n in g a s a n in dividu a l or a s a gr ou p,
th ey a r e m or e w illin g to co-oper a te a n d m or e
ca pa ble of a ch ievin g better tea ch in g per for m a n ce [35,38]. A su bsta n tia l liter a tu r e
su ppor ts th e idea th a t, n o m a tter wh eth er a t
in dividu a l level, th e gr ou p level, or th e wh ole
sch ool level, tea ch er s’ per for m a n ce is
lin k ed w ith th eir beliefs, a ttitu des,
sa tisfa ction , com m itm en t a n d sen se of
a ch ievem en t[14,24,39-41]. Th er efor e, th e
developm en t cycle sh ou ld in clu de a str on g
com pon en t on th e a ffective a n d cogn itive
dom a in s in a ddition to th e beh aviou r a l or
tech n ica l com pon en t for tea ch er s a t m u ltilevels.
Sim ila r ly, a t th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer, tea ch er s ca n h elp to esta blish
con tin u ou s stu den t developm en t cycles a t th e
in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels a cr oss th e
beh aviou r, a ffective a n d cogn itive dom a in s
th a t h elp stu den ts to lea r n , exper ien ce, r eflect
a n d develop to a ch ieve m a xim u m lea r n in g
ou tcom es. Obviou sly, th e stu den t lea r n in g
exper ien ce layer is dr iven by th e tea ch er
per for m a n ce layer. Developm en t of tea ch er
layer s w ill r esu lt in desir a ble developm en t in
stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d en d u p w ith
desir a ble stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es.
Teacher ef fectiveness development
cycle
Accor din g to Ch en g[17,20] a n d Ch en g a n d
Ta m [21], th e developm en t cycle ca n be u sed to
str en gth en th e qu a lity of tea ch er layer s a n d
en su r e con gr u en ce w ith in tea ch er layer s.
Specifica lly, a lon g-ter m pr ogr a m m e of sta ff
(tea ch er ) developm en t m ay be esta blish ed a t
th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels to
fa cilita te th eir r efl ection on th e con gr u en ce
Conclusion
Ba sed on th e tr a dition a l con cept of tea ch er
effectiven ess, th er e a r e th r ee str a te gies for
im pr ovin g tea ch er effectiven ess: th e sh or tter m str a te gy, th e lon g-ter m str a te gy a n d th e
dyn a m ic str a te gy. Com pa r a tively, th e
dyn a m ic str a te gy is pr efer a ble bu t a ll of th em
h ave lim ita tion s beca u se th ese str a te gies
[ 15 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
[ 16 ]
ign or e th e com plexity of tea ch er effectiven ess
a n d n a r r ow th e con ception of th e in dividu a l
tea ch er, pa r ticu la r ly in a cla ssr oom con text.
Th e con ceptu a l fr a m ewor k of tota l tea ch er
effectiven ess pr ovides a n ew per spective for
investiga tin g th e pr ocess a n d develop
improvement
Yin Cheong Cheng
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
Kwok Tung Tsui
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
Based on the traditional
conception of teacher
effectiveness, proposes three
strategies for improving it:
short-term, long-term and
dynamic strategies. Argues
that the dynamic strategy is
preferable, but that all of
them have strong limitations
because they ignore the
complexity of teacher
effectiveness and narrow the
concept to the individual
teacher, particularly in a
classroom context. Proposes
a new conceptual framework
of total teacher effectiveness,
whereby the total quality of
the teacher competence layer
contributes to the total
quality of the teacher
performance layer and the
latter contributes to the total
quality of the student learning
experience layer and then to
the quality of the student
learning outcomes layer.
Explains that the framework
suggests a holistic approach
to improving teacher
effectiveness with the
emphasis on the improvement
of whole layers of teacher
competence and performance
instead of fragmentary
improvement of teaching
behaviour. Advises that in
order to ensure total layer
quality and maximize teacher
effectiveness, a congruence
development cycle should be
established within the teacher
layers to ensure congruence
and pursue total teacher
effectiveness. Suggests that
the proposed conceptual
framework can provide a new
direction for studying and
improving teacher effectiveness in particular and school
effectiveness in general.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [ 1996] 7 –1 7
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Tea ch er effectiven ess is often a m a jor issu e in
cu r r en t m ovem en ts of edu ca tion r efor m a n d
sch ool im pr ovem en t. N o m a tter wh ich w ave
of r efor m we a r e r idin g on , it is gen er a lly
a gr eed th a t th e tea ch er is th e k ey elem en t for
th e su ccess of sch ool edu ca tion [1-3]. Tr a dition a l stu dies on tea ch er effectiven ess focu s
la r gely on th e per for m a n ce of in dividu a l
tea ch er s in cla ssr oom s. Th is n a r r ow con ception of tea ch er effectiven ess h a s its lim ita tion s a n d ca n n o lon ger m eet th e n eeds of
ch a n gin g sch ool en vir on m en ts, pa r ticu la r ly
wh en pa r en ts a n d th e pu blic a r e dem a n din g
h igh qu a lity in sch ool edu ca tion .
In th e la st two deca des, in or der to im pr ove
th e per for m a n ce of tea ch er s, policy-m a k er s,
tea ch er tr a in in g in stitu tion s a n d sch ools
h ave design ed a n d im plem en ted a gr ea t
n u m ber of in n ova tion s in tea ch in g tech n iqu es, m eth odologies a n d su per vision . In
Hon g Kon g, a lt h ou gh a h u ge a m ou n t of
r esou r ces h a d b een in vest ed in t o
ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s in it ia t ed by a n u m b er of
ed u ca t ion a l p olicies in t h e p a st d eca d e[4],
t h e p er for m a n ce of st u d en t s a s a wh ole w a s
d eclin in g a t a sign ifica n t r a t e. T h e p olicy m a k er s a n d t h e p u blic b e ga n t o b e aw a r e of
t h e im p or t a n ce of t ea ch er p er for m a n ce st u d en t s’ ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es a n d t r ied t o
m a k e p olicy effor t s for im p r ov in g t ea ch er
q u a lit y a n d effect iven ess[3]. In ev it a b ly, t h er e
is a n u r gen t n eed t o u n d er st a n d t h e com p lex
n a t u r e of t ea ch er effect iven ess a n d t o
d evelop n ew st r a t e gies t o im p r ove it if w e
w is h t o a ch ieve b et t er st u d en t lea r n in g
ou t com es. T h er efor e, t h is p a p er a im s t o
est a blis h a fr a m ewor k for u n d er st a n d in g
t h e n a t u r e a n d d evelop m en t of t ea ch er effect iven es s.
T h is p a p er w ill fir st r ev iew a n d id en t ify
t h e st r a t e gies a n d t h eir lim it a t ion s for
im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven ess t h a t a r e
b a sed on t r a d it ion a l con ce p t s. T h en it w ill
d evelop a fr a m ewor k of t ot a l t ea ch er
effect iven ess, for u n d er st a n d in g t h e
p r ocess a n d d evelop m en t of t ea ch er
effect iven ess, in clu d in g m u lt i-levels a n d
m u lt i-d om a in s, t o u n d er st a n d t h e com p lex
n a t u r e of t ea ch er effect iven ess in sch ool
or ga n iza t ion . It is h op ed t h a t t h is fr a m ewor k
ca n b r in g a h olist ic a p p r oa ch t o st u dy in g
a n d im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven ess.
Traditional concepts of teacher
ef fectiveness
In r ecen t deca des, th e topic of tea ch er
effectiven ess h a s con tin u ed to a ttr a ct th e
a tten tion of r esea r ch er s, edu ca tor s a n d pr ofession a l or ga n iza tion s. However, Or n stein [5]
poin ts ou t th a t th e liter a tu r e on tea ch in g
effectiven ess, or tea ch er effectiven ess, is a
m or a ss of ill-defin ed a n d ch a n gin g con cepts.
To differ en t people, th e defi n ition of tea ch er
effectiven ess cou ld be ver y differ en t.
Appr oa ch es to pr esen tin g th is con cept a r e
a lso ver y differ en t. Som e r esea r ch er s focu s
on tea ch er per son a lities, tr a its, beh aviou r s,
a ttitu des, va lu es, a bilities, com peten ces a n d
m a n y oth er per son a l ch a r a cter istics. Som e
oth er r esea r ch er s a r e m or e con cer n ed w ith
th e tea ch in g pr ocess (in clu din g fa ctor s su ch
a s tea ch in g styles, tea ch er -stu den t in ter a ction s a n d cla ssr oom clim a te, etc.) or th e
tea ch in g ou tcom es (in clu din g fa ctor s su ch a s
stu den ts’ a ca dem ic a ch ievem en ts, per son a l
developm en t a n d lea r n in g exper ien ces, etc.).
Despite th ou sa n ds of stu dies con du cted in th e
la st 50 yea r s, it is difficu lt, if n ot im possible,
to a r r ive a t gen er a lly a ccepted con clu sion s.
Few power fu l gen er a liza tion s con cer n in g
tea ch er effectiven ess h ave been esta blish ed[6,7]. In differ en t tim es du r in g th e pa st
deca des, th e stu dies m igh t em ph a size differ en t a spects of tea ch er effectiven ess[8,9]. Som e
sch ola r s h ave given cr iticism s on th e u n der lyin g ph ilosoph y, m eth odologies a n d fin din gs in
th ese stu dies of tea ch er effectiven ess. Th ey
su ggested th a t th e existin g per spectives of
tea ch er effectiven ess, su ch a s th e tea ch er
tr a it per spective, th e tea ch er beh aviou r
per spective a n d th e pr ocess-pr odu ct of
tea ch in g per spective cou ld n ot be su ccessfu l
in expla in in g or a n a lysin g th e com plexity of
tea ch er effectiven ess[8-10].
Som e k ey tr a dition a l con cepts of tea ch er
effectiven ess ca n be su m m a r ized a n d
discu ssed befor e str a te gies for im pr ovin g
tea ch er effectiven ess a r e r eviewed. As
su ggested by An der son [11], effective tea ch er s
a r e th ose wh o a ch ieve th e goa ls th ey set by
th em selves or th e goa ls set for th em by oth er s
su ch a s sch ool pr in ciples, edu ca tion a dm in istr a tor s a n d pa r en ts. Accor din g to
Or n stein [5], effective tea ch er s m u st h ave a
[7 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
body of k n ow ledge essen tia l for tea ch in g, a n d
k n ow h ow to a pply it. By in te gr a tin g th ese
two con ception s, effective tea ch er s m ay be
a ssu m ed to be th ose wh o possess th e r eleva n t
com peten ce (in clu din g n ecessa r y pr ofession a l k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d a ttitu des) a n d
u se th e com peten ce a ppr opr ia tely to a ch ieve
th eir set goa ls. F r om th is lin e of th in k in g, th e
u n der sta n din g of tea ch er effectiven ess m u st
be ba sed on th e lin k a ges between tea ch er
com peten ce, tea ch er per for m a n ce a n d set
goa ls or expected edu ca tion a l ou tcom es.
Structure of teacher ef fectiveness
Medley’s[12] str u ctu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess is a ver y com pr eh en sive fr a m ewor k
wh ich ca n in te gr a te th e tea ch er tr a it per spective, th e tea ch er beh aviou r per spective a n d
th e pr ocess-pr odu ct of tea ch in g per spective to
expla in th e r ela tion sh ips between tea ch er
com peten ce, tea ch er per for m a n ce, stu den t
lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d edu ca tion a l ou tcom es. He expla in ed th a t:
Th e ter m “tea ch er effectiven ess” w ill be
u sed to r efer to th e r esu lts a tea ch er gets or
to th e a m ou n t of pr ogr ess th e pu pils m a k e
tow a r d som e specified goa ls of edu ca tion .
On e im plica tion of th is defin ition is th a t
tea ch er effectiven ess m u st be defin ed, a n d
ca n on ly be a ssessed, in ter m s of beh aviou r s
of pu pils, n ot beh aviou r s of tea ch er s. For
th is r ea son , a n d beca u se th e a m ou n t th a t
pu pils lea r n is str on gly a ffected by fa ctor s
n ot u n der th e tea ch er ’s con tr ol, tea ch er
effectiven ess w ill be r e ga r ded n ot a s a sta ble
ch a r a cter istic of th e tea ch er a s a n in dividu a l bu t a s a pr odu ct of th e in ter a ction
between cer ta in tea ch er ch a r a cter istics a n d
oth er fa ctor s th a t va r y a ccor din g to th e
situ a tion in wh ich th e tea ch er wor k s…
Accor din g to th is con ception , Medley[12]
pr oposed th a t th e str u ctu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de n in e im por ta n t com pon en ts:
1 P r e-existin g tea ch er ch a r a cter istics – th e
k n ow ledge, a bilities a n d beliefs th a t a
tea ch er possesses on en ter in g in to th e
tea ch er tr a in in g pr ogr a m m e).
2 Tea ch er com peten ce – th e set of k n ow ledge, a bilities a n d beliefs th a t a tea ch er
possesses a n d br in gs to th e a ctu a l tea ch in g
en vir on m en t on com pletion of th e tea ch er
tr a in in g pr ogr a m m e.
3 Tea ch er per for m a n ce – th e beh aviou r of a
tea ch er wh en tea ch in g th a t m ay ch a n ge
wh en th e tea ch in g en vir on m en t is
ch a n ged.
4 Stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce – th e
exper ien ce fr om in ter a ction s between
tea ch er a n d th e stu den ts in th e pr ocess of
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g.
[8 ]
5 Stu den t beh aviou r or lea r n in g ou tcom es –
th e pr ogr ess stu den ts m a k e tow a r ds a
defin ed edu ca tion a l goa l.
6 Tea ch er tr a in in g – for bu ildin g u p tea ch er
com peten ce.
7 E xter n a l tea ch in g con text – in clu din g
sch ool or ga n iza tion a l str u ctu r e,
m a n a gem en t, cu ltu r e, tea ch in g fa cilities,
r esou r ces, cu r r icu lu m , sch ool goa l a n d
m ission , etc.
8 In ter n a l tea ch in g con text – in clu din g cla ss
size a n d com position , pu pil a bilities, cla ssr oom clim a te, tea ch er -pu pil
r ela tion sh ip, etc.
9 In dividu a l stu den t ch a r a cter istics –
in dividu a l stu den ts’ pr eviou s lea r n in g
exper ien ce, ph ysica l a n d in tellectu a l
a bilities, lea r n in g styles a n d oth er per son a l ch a r a cter istics.
Ch en g[9] fu r th er developed Medley’s[12]
str u ctu r e by th e in clu sion of two m or e com pon en ts, n a m ely tea ch er eva lu a tion a n d pr ofession a l developm en t, a s sh ow n in F igu r e 1.
Th e str u ctu r e in dica tes th e pr ocedu r a l in ter r ela tion sh ips a m on g th e com pon en ts of
tea ch er effectiven ess:
1 Stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es a r e th e pr odu ct
of th e in ter a ction between stu den ts’
lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d in dividu a l
ch a r a cter istics.
2 Stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce is a ffected by
both tea ch er per for m a n ce a n d in ter n a l
tea ch in g con text.
3 Tea ch er per for m a n ce is deter m in ed by th e
in ter a ction between tea ch er com peten ce
a n d exter n a l tea ch in g con text.
4 Tea ch er tr a in in g a n d pr e-existin g tea ch er
ch a r a cter istics ca n con tr ibu te to tea ch er
com peten ce.
5 Tea ch er eva lu a tion a ctivities th a t
a r e ba sed on th e in for m a tion fr om
tea ch er per for m a n ce, stu den t lea r n in g
exper ien ce a n d lea r n in g ou tcom es ca n
fa cilita te th e developm en t of tea ch er
com peten ce.
6 P r ofession a l developm en t a ctivities wh ich
a r e su ppor ted by th e ch a r a cter istics of
exter n a l a n d in ter n a l tea ch in g con text,
tea ch er per for m a n ce, stu den ts’ in dividu a l
ch a r a cter istics, lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d
ou tcom es ca n con tr ibu te to developm en t
of tea ch er com peten ce a n d tea ch er
edu ca tion .
All th e com pon en ts of th e str u ctu r e ca n
dir ectly or in dir ectly r ela te to tea ch er
effectiven ess.
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Figure 1
Struc ture o f te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss
Te ac he r e valuatio n
ac tivitie s
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
Pre -e xisting
te ac he r
c harac te ristic s
Te ac he r
e duc atio n
Te ac he r
c o mpe te nc e
Te ac he r
performanc e
Exte rnal
te ac hing
c o nte xt
Stude nt
le arning
e xpe rie nc e
Inte rnal
te ac hing
c o nte xt
Stude nt
le arning
o utc o me s
Individual
stude nt
c harac teristic s
Pro fe ssio nal
de ve lo pme nt
ac tivitie s
Source: adapte d fro m Me dle y [1 2 ] and Che ng [9 ]
Strategies for improving teacher
ef fectiveness
F r om th e a bove str u ctu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess, Ch en g[13] su ggested th er e m ay be th r ee
differ en t str a te gies wh ich ca n be u sed to
im pr ove or en h a n ce tea ch er effectiven ess: th e
sh or t-ter m str a te gy, th e lon g-ter m str a te gy
a n d th e dyn a m ic str a te gy.
The short-term strategy
Th e sh or t-ter m str a te gy is th e tr a dition a l a n d
m ost com m on ly-u sed str a te gy for im pr ovin g
tea ch er effectiven ess. It focu ses on ch a n gin g
over t tea ch er per for m a n ce (m a in ly in ter m s
of tea ch in g beh aviou r s) to a da pt to th e tea ch in g con text. Sh or t-ter m tr a in in g or piecem ea l
pr a ctica l a dvice a r e u sed to cor r ect tea ch er s’
wea k n esses a n d u n desir a ble beh aviou r s. Th e
str a te gy is ba sed on th r ee a ssu m ption s. F ir st,
tea ch in g con text is som eth in g “given ” a n d
n ot a lter a ble. In or der to a ch ieve a good qu a lity of stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es, tea ch er s
m u st a ccom m oda te or a dju st th eir beh aviou r s to th e in ter n a l tea ch in g con text.
Secon d, tea ch er beh aviou r in cla ssr oom s
m u st be cor r ected or ch a n ged if u n sa tisfa ctor y stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d ou tcom e a r e iden tified. Th ir d, som e str a igh tfor w a r d pr escr iption s su ch a s sta n da r d tea ch in g
beh aviou r s a n d m eth ods cou ld r ea dily be
u sed by a ll tea ch er s: cu r r icu lu m pla n n er s
a n d tea ch er tr a in er s often develop a n d
in tr odu ce a gr ea t n u m ber of sta n da r d
tea ch in g beh aviou r s to sch ooltea ch er s.
Sch ool in spector s a n d a dm in istr a tor s give
pr a ctica l a dvice on tea ch in g beh aviou r s to
tea ch er s du r in g sch ool in spection s a n d
tea ch er a ssessm en t. Th is str a te gy a ssu m es
th a t th e tea ch er is a n im plem en ter, su bject to
bein g im pr oved for better edu ca tion a l ou tcom e a n d, in evita bly, th e r ole of tea ch er is
ver y pa ssive a n d exter n a lly m a n a ged. To a
cer ta in exten t, som e fr a gm en ta r y, su per ficia l
a n d ta n gible effects m ay be a ch ieved by cor r ectin g cer ta in tea ch er beh aviou r s in th e
cla ssr oom . However, th e effects often ca n n ot
be in ter n a lized a n d th e u sefu ln ess of th is
tr a dition a l str a te gy is qu ite lim ited. It m ay
n ot su ccessfu lly in du ce a n y lon g-ter m a n d
system a tic im pr ovem en t in tea ch er effectiven ess beca u se it ign or es th e im por ta n ce of
tea ch er com peten ce to tea ch er per for m a n ce
in th e cla ssr oom . With ou t developm en t in
tea ch er com peten ce, per sisten t a n d effective
ch a n ge in tea ch in g beh aviou r is a lm ost
im possible.
The long-term strategy
Th e lon g-ter m str a te gy focu ses on str en gth en in g tea ch er com peten ce so th a t tea ch er s
ca n h ave su fficien t pr ofession a l k n ow ledge,
tech n iqu es a n d con fiden ce to develop th eir
ow n tea ch in g styles, a da pt to th e exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l tea ch in g con texts a n d per for m effectively in th e cla ssr oom . Str en gth en in g
tea ch er com peten ce is a con tin u ou s lon gter m pr ocess in volvin g system a tic lea r n in g
a n d r efl ection . As sh ow n in F igu r e 1, esta blish m en t of th e tea ch er eva lu a tion system
a n d th e pr ofession a l developm en t system is
n ecessa r y for developin g tea ch er com peten ce
a n d bu ildin g u p lon g-ter m tea ch er effectiven ess. Th r ou gh su m m a tive, for m a tive a n d
[9 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
dia gn ostic tea ch er eva lu a tion , tea ch er s m ay
lea r n con tin u ou sly a n d develop r eper toir es of
pr ofession a l com peten ce wh ich ca n be u sed
to a da pt to differ en t tea ch in g con texts a n d
ca r r y ou t tea ch in g ta sk s effectively[14].
Th r ou gh system a tic pr ofession a l developm en t tea ch er s ca n gr ow a n d develop to
a cqu ir e n ew k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d a ttitu des
wh ich in tu r n pr om ote or im pr ove th eir
tea ch in g per for m a n ce a t differ en t sta ges of
th eir ca r eer s. Obviou sly, th is str a te gy is
m u ch better th a n th e sh or t-ter m str a te gy
beca u se it m ay h ave lon g-ter m , system a tic
a n d in ter n a lized effects on tea ch er s’ com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce. Bu t th e str a te gy still
h a s lim ita tion s. Sim ila r to th e sh or t-ter m
str a te gy, it a ssu m es th a t th e exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l con texts of tea ch in g a r e “given s”
a n d sta tic. Tea ch er s a r e con sider ed a s developin g im plem en ter s, a n d th ey n eed to a da pt
th eir tea ch in g beh aviou r s to tea ch in g con texts. To som e exten t, th e r ole of th e tea ch er
is pa ssive a n d m oder a tely exter n a lly m a n a ged. Th er efor e, th is str a te gy does n ot expect
th e a ctive r ole of tea ch er s in ch a n gin g th e
in ter n a l a n d exter n a l con texts of tea ch in g
a n d cr ea tin g a n im pr oved en vir on m en t for
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. In oth er wor ds,
tea ch er effectiven ess m ay n ot be m a xim ized.
The dynamic strategy
In view of th e lim ita tion s of sh or t-ter m a n d
lon g-ter m str a te gies, a dyn a m ic str a te gy ca n
be pr oposed for im pr ovin g tea ch er effectiven ess. It a ssu m es th a t m ost of th e com pon en ts
a ssocia ted w ith th e str u ctu r e of tea ch er
effectiven ess (F igu r e 1) ca n be a lter ed. In
or der to m a xim ize tea ch er effectiven ess, both
tea ch er s’ com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce a n d
tea ch in g con texts sh ou ld be ch a n ged. Also,
tea ch er s sh ou ld n ot on ly a da pt to th e tea ch in g con texts bu t a lso a dopt th e r ole of ch a n ge
a gen t. Th er efor e, th is str a te gy a im s a t
em power in g tea ch er s a s ch a n ge a gen ts,
edu ca tion a l lea der s a n d pr ofession a l
im plem en ter s, su ch th a t th ey ca n play a n
a ctive r ole in im pr ovin g both exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l tea ch in g con texts a n d m a xim izin g
th eir effectiven ess a t both or ga n iza tion a l
level a n d cla ssr oom level. Th e a ctivities of
pr ofession a l developm en t a n d tea ch er eva lu a tion sh ou ld be fu r th er developed a n d
str en gth en ed to h elp tea ch er s to develop n ot
on ly k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d a ttitu des bu t a lso
cr itica l m in ds a n d self-r efl ection a n d selfm a n a gem en t sk ills[15]. Follow in g th is lin e of
th in k in g, th e con cept of tea ch er effectiven ess
sh ou ld n ot be con fin ed to tea ch er beh aviou r
or per for m a n ce in th e cla ssr oom . It sh ou ld be
exten ded to in cor por a te or ga n iza tion a l
a spects su ch a s tea ch er in volvem en t a n d
lea der sh ip in cu r r icu lu m ch a n ges a n d
[ 10 ]
edu ca tion r efor m s. In oth er wor ds, im pr ovin g
tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld be a lon g-ter m
a n d dyn a m ic pr ocess in volvin g n ot on ly
tea ch er s’ pr ofession a l gr ow th a n d a lso
sch ools’ con tin u ou s ch a n ge a n d developm en t.
Th e effects of th is str a te gy on tea ch er s a n d
sch ools a r e lon g ter m , system a tic a n d ca n be
in ter n a lized a n d in stitu tion a lized.
Ba sed on th e a bove discu ssion s, th e ch a r a cter istics of th e sh or t-ter m , lon g-ter m a n d
dyn a m ic str a te gies a r e su m m a r ized in
Ta ble I. Of th e th r ee, th e dyn a m ic str a te gy
a ppea r s to be pr efer a ble.
Limitations of the traditional
concepts and strategies
Sin ce a ll th e a bove str a te gies a r e ba sed on th e
tr a dition a l con cepts of tea ch er effectiven ess,
w ith th e focu s pr im a r ily on in dividu a l tea ch er s, pa r ticu la r ly in a cla ssr oom con text,
in evita bly th er e is a ser iou s con ceptu a l
ba r r ier lim itin g th e effectiven ess of th ese
str a te gies, even th e dyn a m ic str a te gy.
Tr a dition a lly, th e tea ch in g pr ocess is often
a ssu m ed to h a ppen on ly a t th e in dividu a l
level. Th a t is, in dividu a l tea ch er s per for m
tea ch in g a n d in dividu a l stu den ts r eceive
tea ch er s’ in str u ction a n d lea r n . Th is sim plistic a ppr oa ch is r eflected in m ost stu dies on
tea ch er effectiven ess, wh ich exa m in e tea ch er
effectiven ess m a in ly a t a n in dividu a l level.
However, th is n a r r ow con ception of tea ch er
effectiven ess is ch a n gin g, ow in g to th e in du ction of br oa der con cepts of edu ca tion a l
pr ocesses[16,17]. F ir st, sch ool edu ca tion is
u su a lly pla n n ed a n d im plem en ted a t th e
pr ogr a m m e level or th e wh ole sch ool level.
Cu r r en tly, sch ool m a n a gem en t r efor m s a n d
effective sch ool m ovem en ts em ph a size th e
wh ole sch ool a ppr oa ch to th e im pr ovem en t of
sch ool per for m a n ce a n d stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es[18-20]. It a ssu m es th a t stu den ts a r e
ta u gh t n ot on ly by in dividu a l tea ch er s bu t
a lso by gr ou ps of tea ch er s or by wh ole sch ool
tea ch er s. In or der to m a xim ize sch ool effectiven ess, m or e a tten tion sh ou ld be pa id to
over a ll tea ch er effectiven ess a t gr ou p a n d
sch ool levels. Secon d, ba sed on ou r pr eviou s
discu ssion , a su ccessfu l tea ch er effectiven ess
pr ogr a m m e r elies on a sta ff developm en t
pr ogr a m m e wh ich br in gs a bou t n ot on ly
in dividu a l tea ch er developm en t bu t a lso
gr ou p a n d sch ool developm en t[21]. Th er efor e,
tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld n ot be stu died
solely a t th e in dividu a l level bu t a lso a t th e
gr ou p, pr ogr a m m e a n d sch ool levels. Obviou sly, th e str a te gies ba sed on th e tr a dition a l
con cept a t th e in dividu a l level h ave lim ita tion s a n d a r e n ot su fficien t to en h a n ce
tea ch er effectiven ess a t th e gr ou p a n d sch ool
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
Table I
The c harac te ristic s o f
strate gie s fo r impro ving
te ac hing e ffe c tive ne ss
Characteristics
Short-term strategy
Long-term strategy
Dynamic strategy
Conc erns
Change teac her performanc e
Strengthen teac her c ompetenc e so that teac her
Develop teac her c ompetenc e so that teac her c an
performanc e is improved
improve teac hing c ontexts and maximize
effec tiveness
Assumption about teac hing c ontext
Design
Means
Implementation
Ends
Role of teac her
Externally managed
External and internal c ontext are “ givens”
External and internal c ontext are “ givens”
External and internal c ontexts are alterable and
and static
and static
dynamic
Disc rete, piec emeal
Systematic , long-term planning
Systematic and dynamic , long-term planning
Foc us on overt performanc e
Fac ilitate professional development
Aims at long-term dynamic professional
Provide short-term training or piec emeal
Establish teac her evaluation system
Develop teac her evaluation system
prac tic al advic e
Fac ilitate professional development
Enhanc e professional development
Foc us on weakness
Foc us on inc reasing c ompetenc e
Ensure professional development
Correc t undesirable behaviours
Develop personal repertoire
Develop and empower to ac t as c hange agent
Presc riptions and instruc tions given by
Continuous learning through evaluation and
Continuous learning and reflec tion through c hange,
administrators, experts or outside agenc ies
development ac tivities
experiment, evaluation and development ac tivities
Help teac her adapt to internal c ontext
Help teac her adapt to external and internal
Fac ilitate teac her to c hange and adapt to external
c ontexts
and internal
Very passive, adjusted to teac hing c ontext
Passive, to adapt to teac hing c ontext
Ac tive, to c hange teac hing c ontexts
As implementer to be improved
As developing implementer
As developing leader, professional implementer and
Externally managed
Moderately externally managed
c hange agent
Self-managing
Effec t on teac her effec tiveness
Short term
[ 11 ]
Long term
Long term
Fragmentary
Systematic
Systematic and dynamic
Superfic ial
Internalized
Internalized and institutionalized
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
tea ch er effectiven ess a t th e gr ou p a n d sch ool
levels.
Conceptual framework of total
teacher ef fectiveness
Ta k in g th e lim ita tion s of th e tr a dition a l
con cepts in to con sider a tion , a n ew con ceptu a l fr a m ewor k of tota l tea ch er effectiven ess
ca n be pr oposed, a s follow s.
Levels of teacher effectiveness
Tr a dition a l tea ch er effectiven ess im pr ovem en t pr ogr a m m es focu s on in dividu a l
tea ch er per for m a n ce in a cla ssr oom .
P r in cipa ls a n d a dm in istr a tor s tr y to m a n ipu la te in dividu a l tea ch er s’ com peten ce a n d
per for m a n ce in a n a ttem pt to im pr ove
stu den ts’ beh aviou r a l ou tcom es. It is
a ssu m ed th a t wh en in dividu a l tea ch er per for m a n ce is im pr oved, in dividu a l stu den ts, th en
th e wh ole cla ss a n d, fin a lly, a ll stu den ts in th e
sch ool w ill h ave a cor r espon din g im pr ovem en t in lea r n in g ou tcom es. In r ea lity, th e
situ a tion is m u ch m or e com plica ted. F ir st,
th e Colem a n stu dy m ay be u sed a s a n illu str a tion . Th e stu dy fi n din gs h a d been in ter pr eted
a s pr oof th a t sch ools h a d little effect on stu den t lea r n in g, a lth ou gh a ccor din g to Ba r r
a n d Dr eeben [22] it w a s m isin ter pr eted. How ever, it dem on str a tes th a t wh en tea ch er,
sch ool a n d stu den t ch a r a cter istics wer e a ll
a ggr e ga ted to th e sch ool level (or cla ss level),
th e in dividu a l tea ch er effectiven ess or con tr ibu tion wou ld be dim in ish ed a n d deter ior a ted.
Good et a l.[23] a r gu e th a t: “if tea ch er s m a k e a
differ en ce, a n d if pu pils a r e to be exposed to
both good a n d poor tea ch in g, th en it sh ou ld
n ot be su r pr isin g th a t m a n y sch ools (cla sses)
a r e fou n d to be qu ite sim ila r in th eir effects
on stu den ts”. Obviou sly, th e im pr ovem en t of
in dividu a l tea ch er s does n ot n ecessa r ily
pr om ise over a ll sch ool effectiven ess. Secon d,
tea ch er s often wor k in isola ted con dition s
wh er e th ey seldom see or h ea r on e a n oth er
tea ch [14,24]. Th is isola tion a n d pr iva cy w ill
h in der tea ch er s’ lea r n in g a n d sh a r in g of
th eir su ccesses w ith collea gu es. Ow in g to
th ese con str a in ts, in dividu a l tea ch er s m u st
wor k a lon e to iden tify pr oblem s, develop
solu tion s a n d ch oose a lter n a tives[25-27].
F u r th er m or e, a s sch ool settin gs becom e m or e
com plex a n d dem a n d gr ea ter a ccou n ta bility,
in dividu a l tea ch er s’ effor ts h ave less im pa ct.
On th e con tr a r y, in or der to in cr ea se tea ch er
a n d sch ool effectiven ess, a gr ou p effor t is
r equ ir ed[28]. It is believed th a t th e syn er gy of
a gr ou p is poten tia lly gr ea ter th a n th e su m of
th e en er gies of its m em ber s. In oth er wor ds, a
gr ou p effor t wou ld pr odu ce gr ea ter effect
th a n th e gr ou p’s m ost com peten t m em ber s
[ 12 ]
cou ld h ave a ch ieved a lon e. In fa ct, tea ch er s
wh o wor k a s tea m s or gr ou ps n ot on ly u se
th eir en er gy effectively bu t a lso cr ea te n ew
en er gy[29,30]. It is obviou s th a t wh en tea ch er s a ct togeth er th ey m ay h ave a better
ch a n ce of in flu en cin g a n d ch a n gin g th e con str a in ts given by th e exter n a l a n d in ter n a l
tea ch in g con texts. Th er efor e, th e con sider a tion of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de
n ot on ly th e in dividu a l level bu t a lso th e
gr ou p a n d sch ool levels.
Domains of effectiveness
Medley[12] su ggests th a t tea ch er com peten ce
r efer s to th e set of k n ow ledge, a bilities a n d
beliefs a tea ch er possesses a n d th a t tea ch er
per for m a n ce is th e u se of k n ow ledge a n d sk ill
in th e cla ssr oom . Or n stein [5] cla im s th a t
ever y tea ch er h a s h is/ h er ow n tea ch in g style,
wh ich is a com posite of per son a lity a n d ph ilosoph y, eviden t by beh aviou r a n d a ttitu de.
Ru bin [31] a r gu es th a t tea ch in g style in volves
ch oices a m on g a lter n a tives, a n d th e ch oices
tea ch er s m a k e a ctu a lly dem on str a te th eir
per ceived im a ges a n d r oles. Th r ou gh th eir
style, tea ch er s in te gr a te th e th eor ies or peda gogy in wh ich th ey believe a n d th e pr a ctices
th ey a dopt in th e cla ssr oom . F r om th e liter a tu r e, it is clea r th a t tea ch er com peten ce a n d
per for m a n ce sh ou ld in volve th e elem en ts of
beliefs, va lu es, per ception s, a ttitu des, k n ow ledge, sk ills a n d beh aviou r s. F u r th er m or e,
tea ch er s’ tea ch in g pr ocesses in flu en ce stu den ts’ lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d ou tcom es; a n d
stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es a r e u su a lly r ecogn ized a s th e r esu lt of lea r n in g pr ocesses in
ter m s of cogn itive, a ffective a n d beh aviou r a l
ch a n ge a n d developm en t. Follow in g th is lin e
of th in k in g, we m ay a ssu m e th a t th e con sider a tion of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de
th e qu a lity of tea ch er com peten ce a n d
tea ch er per for m a n ce in va r iou s dom a in s
su ch a s th e beh aviou r a l, th e a ffective a n d th e
cogn itive; a n d th is tea ch er qu a lity m ay h ave
effects on stu den ts in va r iou s dom a in s
a ccor din gly.
The concept of total teacher effectiveness
Ta k in g th e th r ee dom a in s (a ffective, beh aviou r a l a n d cogn itive) a n d th e th r ee levels
(in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels) in to
con sider a tion , th e n a tu r e a n d ch a r a cter istics
of tea ch er effectiven ess sh ou ld be stu died a t
m u lti-levels a n d m u lti-dom a in s. Bor r ow in g
Ch en g’s[16] idea of th e sch ool pr ocess m a tr ix,
we ca n pr opose a n ew con ceptu a l fr a m ewor k
of tota l tea ch er effectiven ess for in vestiga tin g
th e com plica ted n a tu r e of tea ch er effectiven ess. Th is fr a m ewor k is illu str a ted a s sh ow n
in F igu r e 2.
Th e fr a m ewor k a ssu m es th a t tea ch er
effectiven ess is in evita bly r ela ted to tea ch er s’
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Figure 2
Co nc e ptual frame wo rk o f to tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss
Te ac hing
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
Te ac he r
c o mpe te nc e
laye r
Te ac he r
performanc e
laye r
Le arning
Stude nt
e xpe rie nc e
laye r
Stude nt
le arning
o utc o me s
laye r
Co gnitive do main
Affe c tive do main
Be havio ural
do main
Individual le ve l
Gro up le ve l
Sc ho o l le ve l
Te ac he r
Stude nt
Exte rnal
Inte rnal
Pre -e xisting
Te ac hing c o nte xt
Te ac hing c o nte xt
Stude nt c harac te ristic s
tea ch in g pr ocesses a n d stu den ts’ lea r n in g
pr ocesses. Th er efor e, th e con cept of tea ch er
effectiven ess in volves two im por ta n t
ca te gor ies of a ctor s (tea ch er s a n d stu den ts) a t
th r ee differ en t levels (in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d
sch ool). Th e pr ocesses a n d effects of tea ch in g
a n d lea r n in g m ay occu r in th e beh aviou r a l,
a ffective a n d cogn itive dom a in s of differ en t
a ctor s a t differ en t levels. Specifi ca lly, tea ch er
effectiven ess sh ou ld in volve th e beh aviou r a l,
a ffective a n d cogn itive per for m a n ce of a ll
tea ch er s a n d stu den ts a t in dividu a l, gr ou p
a n d sch ool levels. Th is con cept of tea ch er
effectiven ess is differ en t fr om th e tr a dition a l
th in k in g, wh ich focu ses m a in ly on th e in dividu a l level of tea ch er or stu den t a n d ign or es
th e m u ltiplicity of per for m a n ces of tea ch er s
a n d stu den ts. Th e n ew con cept ca n be ca lled
tota l tea ch er effectiven ess beca u se it ca n
pr ovide a h olistic pictu r e of th e n a tu r e of
tea ch er effectiven ess by ta k in g in to con sider a tion m u lti-dom a in s of com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce of tea ch er s a n d stu den ts a t th e
m u lti-levels. Th e ch a r a cter istics of th is tota l
tea ch er effectiven ess fr a m ewor k a r e fu r th er
illu str a ted in th e follow in g section s.
Layers of teacher ef fectiveness
As sh ow n in F igu r e 2, tea ch er effectiven ess is
r ela ted to th e tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g pr ocesses in volvin g tea ch er com peten ce, tea ch er
per for m a n ce, stu den t exper ien ce a n d stu den t
lea r n in g ou tcom e layer s. Th e tea ch er com peten ce layer is th e tota l beh aviou r a l, a ffective
a n d cogn itive com peten ce of tea ch er s a t th e
in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels. Th is
layer r epr esen ts th e tota l sta tic qu a lity of
tea ch er s. Th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer is
th e tota l per for m a n ce of tea ch er s in th e th r ee
dom a in s a t th e th r ee levels. It r epr esen ts th e
dyn a m ic qu a lity of tea ch er s in th e tea ch in g
pr ocess. In gen er a l, th e qu a lity of tea ch er
per for m a n ce layer is positively a ssocia ted
w ith th e qu a lity of th e tea ch er com peten ce
layer. In a ddition , th e r ela tion sh ip between
th ese two layer s ca n be m oder a ted by th e
in fl u en ce of th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text
(e.g. or ga n iza tion a l fa ctor s, lea der sh ip a n d
sch ool en vir on m en t, etc.). Th e stu den t exper ien ce layer r epr esen ts th e tota l lea r n in g exper ien ce of stu den ts in th e th r ee dom a in s a t th e
in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels. Th e
stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es layer r epr esen ts
th e tota l lea r n in g ou tcom es of stu den ts in th e
th r ee dom a in s a t th e th r ee levels. In gen er a l,
th e qu a lity of th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer
a s a wh ole h a s a positive im pa ct on th e
qu a lity of th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce
layer, a n d th e la tter h a s a positive r ela tion sh ip w ith th e qu a lity of th e stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es layer. Aga in , th ese r ela tion sh ips
m ay be a ffected by th e ch a r a cter istics of
in ter n a l tea ch in g con text (in clu din g stu den t
su bcu ltu r e, cla ssr oom clim a te, stu den t a bility
gr ou pin g, lea r n in g en vir on m en t etc.).
Teacher competence layer
Th e tea ch er com peten ce layer, in ter a ctin g
w ith th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text, a ffects th e
tea ch er per for m a n ce layer. Wh en tea ch er s
wor k in depen den tly a s in dividu a ls, th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text m ay often dom in a te th e
[ 13 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
per for m a n ce of in dividu a l tea ch er s. In dividu a l tea ch er s m ay h ave to a da pt to th e en vir on m en t in or der to a ch ieve a cer ta in level of
tea ch in g per for m a n ce. In th is r espect, th e
r ole of tea ch er s ten ds to be pa ssive a n d
tea ch er effectiven ess is lim ited. It is n ot su r pr isin g th a t m ost im pr ovem en t a n d en r ich m en t pr ogr a m m es im plem en ted to im pr ove
som e beh aviou r a l a spects of in dividu a l
tea ch er per for m a n ce a r e often n ot su ccessfu l,
if n ot fa ilu r es[21]. Th er efor e, we su ggest th a t
th e tea ch er com peten ce layer sh ou ld be
im pr oved (in clu din g com peten ce in m u ltidom a in s a t m u lti-levels) so th a t tea ch er s ca n
be em power ed to wor k colla bor a tively, a s a
gr ou p or a s a wh ole sch ool tea m . In th ese
cir cu m sta n ces, tea ch er s ca n a ct a s a str on g
collective for ce to in flu en ce a n d ch a n ge th e
con dition s of th e exter n a l tea ch in g con text,
n ot ju st a da pt to it. Th e h igh er qu a lity of
tea ch er com peten ce layer ca n pr om ise better
oppr tu n ities for tea ch er s to a ct a s a ch a n ge
a gen t a n d in itia te edu ca tion r efor m s wh ich ,
in tu r n , pr om ote over a ll tea ch er per for m a n ce
a n d stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es.
Teacher performance layer
Th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer, in ter a ctin g
w ith th e in ter n a l tea ch in g con text, in fl u en ces
th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer.
Cu r r en tly, th e m ost com m on a ppr oa ch to
im pr ovin g th e qu a lity of stu den ts’ lea r n in g
exper ien ce a n d ou tcom es is to im pr ove a n d
ch a n ge th e beh aviou r s of a cer ta in tea ch er a t
a cer ta in poin t in or per iod of tim e. Th is
a ppr oa ch is often in effective. Th er e a r e two
r ea son s for th is. F ir st, stu den t per for m a n ce
a t a n y poin t in tim e is th e cu m u la tive effect of
th e per for m a n ce of a n u m ber of tea ch er s. Let
u s ta k e a loca l secon da r y sch ool a s a n exa m ple. Th er e a r e a bou t ten to 12 su bject tea ch er s
tea ch in g th e sa m e cla ss a t secon da r y on e,
a n oth er ten to 12 su bject tea ch er s a t
secon da r y two, a n d som e m or e tea ch er s a t th e
r em a in in g yea r s. It is clea r th a t in dividu a l
stu den t per for m a n ce a t a n y poin t in tim e
sh ou ld be a cu m u la tive effect of h is or h er
pa st a n d pr esen t tea ch er s; a n d sh ou ld n ot be
th e sole effect of a n y pa r ticu la r tea ch er.
Th er efor e, if we w a n t to im pr ove stu den ts’
lea r n in g exper ien ce, we sh ou ld im pr ove th e
wh ole tea ch er per for m a n ce layer, in clu din g
th e th r ee levels a n d th e th r ee dom a in s.
Secon d, in a n or m a l tea ch in g en vir on m en t,
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g pr ocesses ta k e pla ce in
th e cla ssr oom . Th is m ea n s th a t, m ost of th e
tim e, th e tea ch er w ill tea ch a gr ou p of stu den ts a s a wh ole. If we ta k e th e tea ch er -stu den t r a tio in to con sider a tion , we ca n see th a t
a n in dividu a l tea ch er ’s in flu en ce on in dividu a l stu den ts m ay n ot be a s str on g a s wh en
com pa r ed w ith th e in fl u en ce fr om th e in ter [ 14 ]
n a l tea ch in g con text (e.g. stu den ts’ peer
gr ou ps, cla ssr oom clim a te, cla ss size, etc.). In
or der to h ave a str on ger in flu en ce on th e
in ter n a l tea ch in g con text a n d th e stu den t
lea r n in g exper ien ce layer, th e im pr ovem en t
of th e wh ole tea ch er per for m a n ce layer, n ot
ju st in dividu a l tea ch er s, sh ou ld be im por ta n t.
In sh or t, wh en tea ch er per for m a n ce a s a
wh ole layer ca n a ct on th e stu den ts a t th e
sa m e tim e a n d in th e sa m e dir ection , th er e
w ill be a gr ea ter ch a n ce to develop a gr ea ter
lea r n in g en vir on m en t a n d h ave better stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ces a n d ou tcom es.
Student experience layer and student
learning outcomes layer
Un der th e in flu en ce of th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer a n d in ter n a l tea ch in g con text,
a ll stu den ts a t in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool
levels ca n a ch ieve lea r n in g exper ien ce in
th eir a ffective, beh aviou r a l a n d cogn itive
dom a in s. Th r ou gh stu den ts’ fu r th er lea r n in g
pr ocesses, th e lea r n in g exper ien ce ca n be
con ver ted in to stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es in
m u lti-dom a in s a t m u lti-levels. Th e stu den t
lea r n in g ou tcom es layer in F igu r e 2 r epr esen ts th e tota l stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es.
Obviou sly, th e pr e-existin g stu den t ch a r a cter istics (e.g. IQ, fa m ily ba ck gr ou n d, etc.) m ay
a lso a ffect th e con ver sion pr ocess of lea r n in g
exper ien ce in to lea r n in g ou tcom es a n d th e
qu a lity of ou tcom es. Th e a ssessm en t of tota l
tea ch er effectiven ess is ba sed m a in ly on th e
qu a lity of th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce
layer a n d th e stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es
layer, ta k in g th e tea ch er com peten ce layer
a n d tea ch er per for m a n ce layer in to con sider a tion . Th e r esu lts of a ssessm en t ca n be u sed
to im pr ove th e lea r n in g exper ien ce layer, th e
tea ch er per for m a n ce layer a n d th e tea ch er
com peten ce layer. In oth er wor ds, th er e
sh ou ld be feedba ck loops fr om th e la tter
layer s to th e for m er : th e stu den t lea r n in g
ou tcom es layer to th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer to th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer
to tea ch er com peten ce layer, a s sh ow n in
F igu r e 2.
A holistic approach to improving
teacher ef fectiveness
Th e a bove fr a m ewor k of tota l tea ch er effectiven ess pr ovides a h olistic a ppr oa ch to
im pr ovin g tea ch er effectiven ess. In or der to
m a xim ize tea ch er effectiven ess, im pr ovem en t of wh ole tea ch er com peten ce layer a n d
wh ole tea ch er per for m a n ce layer sh ou ld
r epla ce fr a gm en ta r y im pr ovem en t of tea ch er
com peten ce or per for m a n ce. In oth er wor ds,
th e im pr ovem en t effor t on tea ch er com peten ce a n d per for m a n ce sh ou ld cover th e
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
a ffective, beh aviou r a l a n d cogn itive dom a in s
a t th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels.
Accor din g to th e con cept of con gr u en ce in
system [17,32,33], wh eth er tea ch er com peten ce
is con gr u en t a cr oss th e a ffective, beh aviou r a l
a n d cogn itive dom a in s a n d a cr oss th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels (i.e. con gr u en ce
w ith in th e tea ch er com peten ce layer ) ca n
a ffect th e con tr ibu tion of th e tea ch er com peten ce layer to th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer.
Th e gr ea ter th e con gr u en ce of tea ch er com peten ce a cr oss dom a in s a n d a cr oss levels, th e
gr ea ter th e con tr ibu tion of th e tea ch er com peten ce layer to th e tea ch er per for m a n ce
layer. Th e con gr u en ce a cr oss dom a in s r epr esen ts th e exten t to wh ich a ffective com peten ce, beh aviou r a l com peten ce a n d cogn itive
com peten ce of tea ch er s a r e m u tu a lly su ppor ted a n d r ein for ced in con tr ibu tin g to
tea ch er s’ a ction a n d per for m a n ce. Th e con gr u en ce a cr oss levels r epr esen ts th e exten t to
wh ich th e com peten ce of in dividu a l tea ch er s,
gr ou ps of tea ch er s a n d wh ole sch ool tea ch er s
a r e m u tu a lly su ppor ted a n d r ein for ced in
con tr ibu tin g to tea ch er s’ a ction s a n d per for m a n ce. Sim ila r ly, th e gr ea ter th e con gr u en ce
of tea ch er per for m a n ce a cr oss dom a in s a n d
a cr oss levels (i.e. con gr u en ce w ith in th e
tea ch er per for m a n ce layer ), th e gr ea ter th e
con tr ibu tion of th e tea ch er per for m a n ce
layer to th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer.
Also, th e gr ea ter th e con gr u en ce of stu den t
lea r n in g exper ien ce a cr oss dom a in s a n d
a cr oss levels (i.e. con gr u en ce w ith in th e stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es layer ), th e gr ea ter th e
con tr ibu tion of th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer to th e stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es
layer.
Ba sed on th e con cept of con gr u en ce w ith in
layer s, th e a ppr oa ch to im pr ovin g tea ch er
effectiven ess sh ou ld in clu de a ssu r a n ce of
con gr u en ce w ith in th e tea ch er com peten ce
layer, w ith in th e tea ch er per for m a n ce layer
a n d w ith in th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce
layer. Th is h olistic a ppr oa ch is ver y differ en t
fr om th e tr a dition a l th in k in g wh ich focu ses
on ly on fr a gm en ta r y a n d over t a spects of
tea ch er per for m a n ce w ith ou t ta k in g tota lity
a n d con gr u en ce in to con sider a tion .
between th e va lu es a n d beliefs of edu ca tion
a n d m a n a gem en t in sch ool a n d th e con gr u en ce of per for m a n ce in th eir a ffective, beh aviou r a l or tech n ica l, a n d cogn itive dom a in s.
Th e developm en t pr ogr a m m e su ppor ts th em
to m a k e a con tin u ou s lea r n in g cycle for th eir
ow n developm en t a n d im pr ovem en t. Th is is
in lin e w ith th e liter a tu r e in th e field of
tea ch er developm en t a n d sch ool ch a n ges
[24,34-37].
Th e developm en t cycle m ay sta r t a t th e
in dividu a l tea ch er level a n d focu s on over t
per for m a n ce, m a ster in g tea ch in g a n d cla ssr oom m a n a gem en t tech n iqu es. Th en ,
tea ch er s sh ou ld be su ppor ted to h ave
oppor tu n ities a t th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d
sch ool levels to r eflect on th eir va lu es, beliefs
a n d th e m ea n in gs of edu ca tion a n d sch ool
m a n a gem en t. F r om th e r eflection by th em selves or a m on g th em selves, th ey ca n r eor ga n ize th eir cogn itive str u ctu r e, r esh a pe th eir
tea ch in g styles a n d r e-esta blish th eir pr ofession a l con fiden ce a n d com m itm en t. Th r ou gh
self-lea r n in g a s a n in dividu a l or a s a gr ou p,
th ey a r e m or e w illin g to co-oper a te a n d m or e
ca pa ble of a ch ievin g better tea ch in g per for m a n ce [35,38]. A su bsta n tia l liter a tu r e
su ppor ts th e idea th a t, n o m a tter wh eth er a t
in dividu a l level, th e gr ou p level, or th e wh ole
sch ool level, tea ch er s’ per for m a n ce is
lin k ed w ith th eir beliefs, a ttitu des,
sa tisfa ction , com m itm en t a n d sen se of
a ch ievem en t[14,24,39-41]. Th er efor e, th e
developm en t cycle sh ou ld in clu de a str on g
com pon en t on th e a ffective a n d cogn itive
dom a in s in a ddition to th e beh aviou r a l or
tech n ica l com pon en t for tea ch er s a t m u ltilevels.
Sim ila r ly, a t th e stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce layer, tea ch er s ca n h elp to esta blish
con tin u ou s stu den t developm en t cycles a t th e
in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels a cr oss th e
beh aviou r, a ffective a n d cogn itive dom a in s
th a t h elp stu den ts to lea r n , exper ien ce, r eflect
a n d develop to a ch ieve m a xim u m lea r n in g
ou tcom es. Obviou sly, th e stu den t lea r n in g
exper ien ce layer is dr iven by th e tea ch er
per for m a n ce layer. Developm en t of tea ch er
layer s w ill r esu lt in desir a ble developm en t in
stu den t lea r n in g exper ien ce a n d en d u p w ith
desir a ble stu den t lea r n in g ou tcom es.
Teacher ef fectiveness development
cycle
Accor din g to Ch en g[17,20] a n d Ch en g a n d
Ta m [21], th e developm en t cycle ca n be u sed to
str en gth en th e qu a lity of tea ch er layer s a n d
en su r e con gr u en ce w ith in tea ch er layer s.
Specifica lly, a lon g-ter m pr ogr a m m e of sta ff
(tea ch er ) developm en t m ay be esta blish ed a t
th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels to
fa cilita te th eir r efl ection on th e con gr u en ce
Conclusion
Ba sed on th e tr a dition a l con cept of tea ch er
effectiven ess, th er e a r e th r ee str a te gies for
im pr ovin g tea ch er effectiven ess: th e sh or tter m str a te gy, th e lon g-ter m str a te gy a n d th e
dyn a m ic str a te gy. Com pa r a tively, th e
dyn a m ic str a te gy is pr efer a ble bu t a ll of th em
h ave lim ita tion s beca u se th ese str a te gies
[ 15 ]
Yin Che o ng Che ng and
Kwo k Tung Tsui
To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss:
ne w c o nc e ptio n and
impro ve me nt
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7
[ 16 ]
ign or e th e com plexity of tea ch er effectiven ess
a n d n a r r ow th e con ception of th e in dividu a l
tea ch er, pa r ticu la r ly in a cla ssr oom con text.
Th e con ceptu a l fr a m ewor k of tota l tea ch er
effectiven ess pr ovides a n ew per spective for
investiga tin g th e pr ocess a n d develop