Reading for Radio Course

Reading for Radio Course
Pioneer Era
Radio Pioneers
Radio has grown to the point where we now easily take it for granted. We turn it on and expect it
to be there. We expect that it will inform and/or entertain us. If we are not pleased with what we
hear on one station we quickly turn to another one.
It hasn't always been that way. The medium had its humble beginning more than a century ago.
Radio waves were first theorized in 1873 by James Clerk-Maxwell using mathematical formulas.
He published a "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism." Clerk-Maxwell determined that an
invisible energy that behaves like visible light must exist. That energy is what we now know to
be radio waves.
Almost a decade later German physicist Henrich Hertz, whose name is still used in radio, i.e.
(kHz, mHz) conducted the first experiments confirming the existence of the energy postulated by
Clerk-Maxwell. Hertz was able to measure the vibration of the waves. He proved that these
waves acted like light and heat waves and were susceptible to reflection and refraction. At this
time there was no known use for these waves.
Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi is significant because he proved that this electromagnetic
energy could be put to a practical use. That practical use was in the transmission of information.
Marconi demonstrated that it was possible to manipulate the waves to send telegraphic messages.
Marconi adapted the Morse code system of dots and dashes to interrupt the waves in a manner
similar to the on-off configuration of existing telegraphy.

Message, sender and receiver no long had to be wired together. Messages could now be sent
across water. Wireless, as it became known, allowed for ship-to-shore communication and
helped advance interoceanic travel and commerce.
When the Italian government expressed no interest in Marconi's invention, he went with his
British-born mother to England. Marconi's practical success was translated into commercial
success. He became one of six directors and a major stockholder of a company formed to foster
wireless.
When Marconi brought his invention to the United States, the Navy took a strong interest in it.
Other inventors began to speculate that if these "hertzian" waves could send telegraphic
messages, they could also transmit sound.
One of these inventors was Canadian Reginald Fessenden. He teamed with General Electric
Engineer F.W. Alexanderson to develop an alternator that produced a continuous wave that
could transmit sound. This is the principle of amplitude modulation (AM).

On Dec. 24, 1906, Fessenden used the 50,000-hertz alternator that he and Alexanderson had built
to transmit sound from Brant Rock, Massachusetts. Fessenden broadcast a Christmas Eve
program that startled teletype operators as far away as Norfolk, Va. Fessenden played the violin,
a phonograph of Handel's "Largo", read from the Bible, wished everyone a Merry Christmas and
promised to broadcast again on New Year's Eve.
Other radio experimenters include: Thomas E. Clark in Detroit and Charles D. "Doc" Herrold in

San Jose, California. Both were operating before 1910, Herrold opened the Herrold College of
Wireless and Engineering in San Jose. He and his students provided a weekly schedule of
programs and went door-to-door with receivers they had made to generate a listening audience.
Herrold and his students experimented with many of the formats still in use today. Herrold's
operation ended in 1917, when all non-government broadcasting was ordered off the air with the
start of World War I. Herrold's attempts to revive the station after the war were largely
unsuccessful. The station was later moved to San Francisco and became KCBS. Herrold is often
referred to as "Broadcasting's Forgotten Father."
Active during this period was inventor Lee De Forest. De Forest is credited with the invention of
the audion tube (later called the vacuum tube), a device used to amplify weak radio signals.
In addition to his work as an inventor, De Forest was also an early broadcaster. He presented
programs to early experimenters fascinated with the novelty of receiving programs out of the air.
Edwin Howard Armstrong was one of De Forest's major rivals. Major Armstrong, the "Father of
FM" is credited with improving on many of De Forest's inventions. Armstrong invented the
Regenerative Circuit and the Superheterodyne Circuit, which vastly improved radio. He also
offered a series of experimental broadcasts. It was Armstrong's idea to begin using a speaker to
listen to the radio. Early radio listening was done with "headsets."
During this period, radio was a curious experiment. It was David Sarnoff who in 1915 began to
identify radio's commercial potential. He began to see the possibility of "radio music boxes" in
every American home. He still saw radio as an appliance, little more than "talking furniture."

Sarnoff said, "The main revenue to be derived will be from the sale of the 'Radio Music Boxes',
which if manufactured in lots of one hundred thousand or so could yield a handsome profit."
When Sarnoff headed the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) he put his plan to sell "Radio
Music Boxes" into action. Broadcasting was set to become a major part of American life.
In 1920 KDKA Pittsburgh came on the air. It holds the much-disputed title of "First Station On
The Air"
Westinghouse Engineer Frank Conrad broadcast from his garage like many other hobbyists.
Following W.W.I, Westinghouse became a large firm as a result of manufacturing radio
receivers to fill military contracts. The company was also aware that RCA, David Sarnoff's
company and AT&T, the telephone company, owned most of the patents for the new industry.
Conrad teamed up with Horne's Department Store to provide receivers for the new station.

Westinghouse would manufacture and supply the receivers, Horne's Department Store would sell
the receivers for $10. Westinghouse also applied to the U.S. Department of Commerce for a
license and received the call sign KDKA on November 2, 1920. The station broadcast the
presidential election in which Warren G. Harding defeated James M. Cox. The concept of the
commercial radio station had been born.
KDKA is credited as the oldest station in the country because it was the first to do several things
simultaneously. 1. It was the first to receive a commercial license. 2. Conrad borrowed music
from a Wilkinsburg music store in exchange for mentioning the store on the air. 3. KDKA

broadcast a regular schedule. 4. The station's partnership with Horne's Department Store put
receivers into the hands of the listening audience.
Because of these factors KDKA is said to have fostered the notion of "radio as a mass medium"
(one to many).
Commercial at this time meant that KDKA and other pioneer stations were licensed by the US
Department of Commerce. Advertising still hadn't found it's way onto the airwaves.
Westinghouse established another radio station, WJZ in Newark, New Jersey, to serve the New
York area. Entertainment personalities were soon flocking to radio.
During this period, department stores, newspapers, colleges and universities and religious
organizations scrambled to set up radio stations. There was some notion of using the medium for
educational purposes but at the time the real fascination was with radio itself. Most owners were
content with the goodwill and publicity generated for their organizations.
AT&T was the first to realize the commercial potential of the new medium. In 1922, the
telephone company opened its broadcast facility, WEAF in New York, to paying customers.
These customers could use the facility for whatever they wished to put on the air. The concept
was known as toll broadcasting.
AT&T soon recognized a flaw in the toll broadcasting concept. Without an audience, no one was
willing to pay to use WEAF. Without programming, no audience was willing to listen to WEAF.
AT&T decided to supply a certain amount of programming to generate an audience and, as a
result, willing clients. WEAF was soon thriving. Radio's first commercial was for an apartment

in the Jackson Heights section of Queens.
The concept of toll broadcasting became an instant success. It lead to the broader use of radio as
an advertising medium.

References
Greenfield, T. A. (1989). Radio: A reference guide. Greenwood Press: Westport, CT.
Keith, M. C. and Krause, J. M. (1989). The Radio Station Focal Press: Boston.

O'Donnell, L., Hausman, C. Benoit, P. (1989). Radio station operations: management and
employee perspectives. Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

Chapter Resource Links
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The Broadcast Archive
Radio's Roots
Antique Radio
The Inventor of FM
Edwin Howard Armstrong
Broadcast FAQs
Early Stations in San Francisco
The First Hundred Stations
US Pioneer Broadcast Service Stations
Original Old-time Radio
Jeff Miller's Broadcasting History Collection
United States Early Broadcast History
Boston Radio Archives

Museum of Television and Radio.

Early Radio
Soon after KDKA began operating, early radio operators realized that they could easily
interconnect stations. The concept of interconnecting stations began when the owner of WMAF
in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts persuaded AT&T's WEAF, New York to supply it with
programming. WMAF paid a fee for unsponsored programs. Sponsored programs were free.
That same year (1922). WJZ licensed to Newark, New Jersey (now WABC New York) linked up
with WGY in Schnectady to broadcast the 1922 World Series. In 1923 WEAF, teamed with
WNAC in Boston to transmit a football game that was played in Chicago.
From this early beginning AT&T began developing what became know as chain broadcasting.
This practice of interconnecting radio stations soon lead to the development of networks. By
1924, it was possible to broadcast from coast to coast over a chain of 26 radio stations.
AT&T for obvious reasons took the lead in developing chain broadcasting. The telephone
company had also taken the lead with its development of toll broadcasting and by 1925 was
turning a profit of $150,000. The telephone company's broadcasting operations, however, were
proving to be costly.
Controversy was rising regarding restrictions AT&T placed on other broadcasters seeking to use
the company's telephone lines. The company, which is government-regulated, felt it could not
afford unfavorable publicity. Fearing the coming antitrust laws, AT&T decided to sell all of its

broadcast stations. The phone company took the role of interconnecting stations.

General Electric, (GE), The Radio Corporation of America (RCA), & Westinghouse joined
forces to develop a network of interconnected radio stations. The network know as NBC was
formed in 1926. By 1927 the new company was operating two networks, the red and the blue.
The NBC Blue network was sold in 1943. It became ABC in 1945. NBC also purchased WEAF
from AT&T and operated the station as the network flagship. (The station became WNBC. It is
now WFAN).
Radio developed quickly during the 1920s. KDKA received a license from the Commerce
Department in 1920. AT&T developed the concept of toll broadcasting in 1922. That same year,
WEAF and WMAF, followed by WJZ and WGY, began the concept of chain broadcasting. By
1924 it was possible to broadcast from coast to coast over 26 interconnected stations. AT&T's
broadcast facilities were making annual profits of $150,00 by 1925. RCA, GE and Westinghouse
joined forces to start NBC in 1926. By the end of the decade (1929) CBS became the second
network.

Early Advertising: "Potted Palms"
Early visionaries saw radio as a way to bring so-called "High Culture" into the American home.
Yet, the device had a knack for accelerating mass culture. Critics saw advertising as a
compromise to radio's potential as a cultural force. Many even lobbied for laws prohibiting the

use of the medium for advertising messages.
As a result, station owners approached advertising cautiously. Early presentation on radio
emphasized high culture even if the programs did not. Announcers and performers wore tuxedos
and gowns. Studios were elaborately furnished. Microphones were hidden in lampshades and
potted plants. The era is jokingly referred to as the "potted palm" era of broadcasting.
Radio's ability to reach into the home gave reason for early programmers to be cautious. Things
of common concern included: Is tooth brushing too personal a function to mention on the radio?
Is it safe to mention the price of a product?
This early caution lead to an interesting adaptation. Shows and performers were named after the
program sponsors. Among the more famous were the Gold Dust Twins, Goldy and Dusty, who
advertised Gold Dust laundry detergent. The Happiness Boys for Happiness Candy Stores, The
Interwoven Pair for Interwoven Socks, the Clicquot Club Eskimos for Clicquot Club soft drinks
and the Taystee Loafers for Taystee bread. All of those characters were performed by popular
singing duo Jones and Hare.
Sales pitches eventually were relaxed and became more common. Listeners soon grew
accustomed to the idea of commercials on the air. Many of these commercials became familiar
parts of the program and allowed programmers to exercise a degree of creativity.
Network radio radically changed communication in this country. For the first time, listeners from
coast to coast could hear major events while they were happening. Audiences in various parts of
the country could listen to the same programs. Radio became the country's first electronic mass

medium.

Radio's Golden Age
Radio's so-called "Golden Age" was very short. It lasted from 1926, the year that NBC was
formed, until 1949, the year after television's revenues surpassed radio's and the older medium's
revenues declined for the first time.
During the "Golden Age" radio was a mass entertainment medium. Early programs were much
like what we see on TV today, including: situation comedies, musical variety, drama, soap
operas, and game shows. Popular network / shows included: the Shadow, (Who know what evil
lurks within the hearts of men.) the Green Hornet, Mr. Keen: Tracer of Lost Persons, Gang
Busters, Sergeant Preston of the Yukon and Jack Armstrong: The All American Boy, which was
brought to you each week by Wheaties.
The most popular of the network shows, Amos 'N' Andy was built upon a racial stereotype. The
show began as Sam 'N' Henry on WGN Chicago. It moved to WMAQ in 1928 and became Amos
'N' Andy. Two white men, Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll, created and played the roles of
two black men who operated the "Fresh Air Taxi Company." Their $100,000-a-year salaries,
paid by NBC, made them the highest paid radio entertainers at the time. The program was so
popular that theater owners would not schedule their films and performances during the time the
show aired on Tuesday evenings.

Early Radio News
Information was also important in early radio. News at early radio stations was often no more
than reading newspaper stories on the air. Broadcasters soon figured that if they had access to the
wire services, they could develop their own news departments. At first, newspapers tried to limit
radio's access to the wire services. This was successful until United Press International (UPI)
broke ranks in 1935 and began serving radio stations. Newspapers soon found that radio helped
sales. People wanted to read in-depth what they had heard about on the radio.
During the Depression, radio began to assert itself as an information medium. On March 12,
1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt began his series of fireside chats. He saw radio as a way
to reach the masses and calm their worries during the economic downturn. Roosevelt also set
wheels in motion to create a government agency to regulate the new medium. The
Communications Act of 1934 established the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
Radio soon began demonstrating its ability to take listeners to the scene of what was happening.
One of the most dramatic examples was when listeners tuned in May 6, 1937, instead of hearing
about the routine arrival of the Hindenburg a dirigible from Germany. They heard instead a playby-play description of the dirigible's crash in Lakehurst, NJ.
By the end of the decade, Edward R. Murrow who became the most famous of the W.W.II
correspondents, began broadcasting from London. He described the nightly Blitzkrieg (the
German bombing raids), telling American listeners about the disruption of life in Europe.

Through Murrow and the other war correspondents Americans became familiar with the voices
of the principal European leaders: Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain, and Churchill. By the time
Pearl Harbor was bombed on Dec. 7, 1941 by the Japanese, U.S. public opinion was in favor of
the nation going to war.
Radio carried the war action from Europe and the Pacific into American homes. The names
Larry Lesuer, Charles Collingwood and Eric Sevareid became familiar to radio listeners. Radio
reporters landed along with the troops on the beaches of Normandy on D-day and covered the
war throughout Europe. On the Pacific front, radio reporters island hopped with the troops.
Americans were informed of everything from MacArthur's return to the Philippines to the
dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The war correspondents developed a gathering and reporting style that took advantage or radio's
immediacy. It is a style common to radio and television reporting today. CBS became the model
for network news reporting. By the late 1940s and into the early 1950s, radio was fully
developed as a news medium.
W.W.II stunted television's growth. Development on television, which had been demonstrated as
early as the 1920s, and was a hit at the 1936 World's Fair, was delayed by the war effort.
After the war, TV sets became available commercially in 1946. In just two short years,
television's revenues surpassed radio's. Radio's revenues declined in 1949. this marked the end of
radio's "Golden Age."
The programs that worked well on radio worked even better on television. Soon stars and shows
such as Jack Benny, Milton Berle and Our Miss Brooks were redesigning themselves for the
visual medium. The last of the network shows to leave radio were Ma Perkins a soap opera with
a loyal radio following into the 1960s and Don McNeill's Breakfast Club a variety/talk show that
was network radio's longest running program, 1933 - 1968.
Class note: The Breakfast Club is indirectly responsible for your instructor's interest in radio. As a child he took the
family's kitchen table radio apart looking for the little people who sing and make the music. Don MacNeil's
Breakfast Club heard on WKIP 1450AM Poughkeepsie, NY, was on the air at the time.

References
Greenfield, T. A. (1989). Radio: A reference guide. Greenwood Press: Westport, CT.
Keith, M. C. and Krause, J. M. (1989). The Radio Station Focal Press: Boston.
O'Donnell, L., Hausman, C. Benoit, P. (1989). Radio station operations: management and
employee perspectives. Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.

Chapter Resource Links
 Amos 'n' Andy

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Amos 'n' Andy
Radio Yester Year
Breakfast Club
Broadcast FAQs
Original Old-Time Radio
Museum of Television & Radio
War of the Worlds Radio Broadcast
Journal of Radio Studies
Library of American Broadcasting
Old Time Radio
OTR Sound Snippets
Radio Days
Radio Days - Edward R. Murrow
Radio Days - News
Pictures of Murrow
Edward R Murrow Information
Radio Days - Hindenberg
Radio Memories
Nostalgia Pages



Broadcasting: Basic Concepts

 In order to program a radio station it is important to understand some basic concepts. A
programmer may develop an excellent music format only to have it crippled by being
placed on an AM station.
 Transmission
 Radio transmission is a way of sending messages using radio wave propagation. Before
that can happen sound information must be converted into electrical form so that it can be
transmitted using electromagnetic energy. The process of turning sound into this form so
that it can be transmitted is called transduction.
 This involves two steps. First, sound is converted (encoded) into an electrical pattern.
Second, the electrical signal travels through a channel that allows the encoded sound to
reach a transmission point (transmitter) and then on to a reception point (receiver).
 Devises such as CD players, microphones, turntables, and tape recorders (transducers)
transform sound from a series of physical vibrations into electrical energy that can then
be transmitted. We can imagine electromagnetic energy which includes visible light,
infrared radiation and X rays, on a scale from low to high. This energy behaves like light
and travels through space at 186,000 miles per second, or 300 million meters per second.
 Radio waves, like other waves are measured by frequency, the number of times a wave
varies above and below a zero point. This is represented visually by drawing a horizontal
line representing zero. The wave can then be represented by drawing a line up (positive)
back down through the zero point and down (negative), then back up to the zero point.
One such oscillation on either side of zero is called a single cycle. Radio waves oscillate
many times per second.

 In addition to frequency, radio waves also have amplitude. Amplitude describes the
height or intensity of a given wave. The ability to manipulate variations in amplitude and
frequency makes possible the transmission of sound.

 Types of Stations
 Two transmission methods (systems of modulation) used are used. AM amplitude
modulation varies the amplitude (intensity) of the carrier, while the frequency remains
the same. FM encodes the sound information by changing the frequency, while the
amplitude remains constant.
 Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. AM is the older of the two
transmission systems. FM, the newer system, is now the dominant band. It accounts for
more than 75% of radio listeners.
 AM's advantage is that it travels great distances, particularly at night via skywave. Its
disadvantage is that it has limited frequency response. AM radio is restricted to 10
kilohertz. This limitation gives it less than the full-range of frequencies needed for ideal
fidelity. AM stations are restricted from producing sound above 5,000 cycles per second.
This results in a loss of the overtones that provide the richness and warmth that give
fullness to sound. This further disadvantages AM stations by reducing their dynamic
range, the difference in volume from soft to loud sound.
 Because AM transmission varies the amplitude of the wave, it is more susceptible to
interference. AM stations broadcast using medium frequency (MF) waves. Music has
almost disappeared from AM radio. Successful formats include: News, Talk, (Full
Service) and Sports.
 To the average listener, FM's obvious advantage is stereo. In FM stereo, the right and left
channels are transmitted on separate subcarriers. Stereo receivers detect both signals and
reproduce right and left channels. The mono signal (combined left and right) leaves the
transmitter as a single signal. In addition to stereo, FM benefits from having a wider
bandwidth than AM, 200 kilohertz vs 10 kilohertz. This wider bandwidth give FM a
frequency response that extends from below 10 Hertz to 15,000 Hertz. As a result the
listener hears a truer representation of sound. Most music formats are now heard on FM.
Talk and news, formats popular on AM are also heard on FM. WWBD FM, (formerly
talk, now '80s format "The Point") Philadelphia and WTOP FM, (news) Washington, DC
(WNEW, New York former Rock 'n' Roll Powerhouse is now a talk station as is KLSX in
Los Angeles) are examples.
 One of FM's other major advantages is a built in resistance to interference. Unlike AM,
FM transmission varies the frequency of the signal keeping the amplitude constant. Static
interacts with the amplitude of radio waves. This results, in FM being relatively
interference free (see No Static At All provided by WCRB FM, Boston.
 Diagrams
 FM does have disadvantages with respect to AM. It occupies the VHF band. Signals at
these higher frequencies attenuate quickly and travel line-of-sight, no further than the
horizon.
 FM signals are also prone to multipath interference. This happens when a bounced signal
interacts with the original signal inside your receiver.



Station Classes

 One of the most important things to learn about radio is that not all stations are created
equal. According to radio consultant Jay Williams, Jr. "Generally speaking when two
stations offer the same format in a like manner that is, comparative execution and
performance levels the outlet with the strongest and clearest signal will nearly always
garner the largest following" (Keith, 1987).
 AM Stations
 AM stations are those broadcast stations that occupy the portion of the broadcast
spectrum between 535khz - 1705khz.
 Classes of AM Stations
 §73.21 Classes of AM broadcast channels and stations.
 (a) Clear channel. A clear channel is one on which stations are assigned to serve wide
areas. These stations are protected from objectionable interference within their primary
service areas and, depending on the class of station, their secondary service areas.
Stations operating on these channels are classified as follows:
 (1) Class A station. A Class A station is an unlimited time station that operates on a clear
channel and is designed to render primary and secondary service over an extended area
and at relatively long distances from its transmitter. Its primary service area is protected
from objectionable interference from other stations on the same and adjacent channels,
and its secondary service area is protected from interference from other stations on the
same channel. The operating power shall not be less than 10kw nor more than 50 kW.
 (2) Class B station. A class B station is an unlimited time station which is designed to
render service only over a primary service area Class B stations are authorized to operate
with a minimum power of 0.25kw (or, if less than 0.25kw, an equivalent RMS antenna
field of at least 141 mV/m at 1 km) and a maximum power of 50kw, or 10kw for stations
that are authorized to operate in the 1605-1705kHz band.
 (3) Class D station. A class D station operates either daytime, limited time or unlimited
time with nighttime power less than 0.25kw (or, if less than 0.25kw and an equivalent
RMS antenna field of less than 141 mV/m at one km. Class D stations shall operate with
daytime powers not less than 0.25kw nor more than 50kw. Nighttime operations of Class
D stations are not afforded protection and must protect all Class A and Class B operations
during nighttime hours. New Class D stations that had not been previously licensed as
Class B will not be authorized.
 (b) Regional Channel. A regional channel is one on which Class B and Class D stations
may operate and serve principal center of population and the rural area contiguous
thereto.
 (c) Local channel. A local channel is one on which stations operate unlimited time and
serve primarily a community and the suburban and rural areas immediately contiguous
thereto.
 (1) Class C station. A Class C station is a station operating on a local channel and is
designed to render service only over a primary service area that may be reduced as a
consequence of interference in accordance with §73.182. The power shall not be less than
0.25kw, nor more than 1kw. Class C stations that are licensed to operate with 0.1kw may
continue to do so.
 §73.25 Clear channels: Class A, Class B and Class D stations.

 The frequencies in the following tabulations are designated as clear channels and
assigned for use by the classes of stations given:
 (a) On each of the following channels, one Class A station may be assigned, operating
with power of 50kw; 640, 650, 660, 670, 700, 720, 750, 760, 770, 780, 820, 830, 840,
870, 880, 890, 1020, 1030, 1040, 1100, 1120, 1160, 1180, 1200 and 1210 kHz. In Alaska,
these frequencies can be used by class A stations subject to the conditions set forth in
§73.182(a)(1)(ii). On the channels listed in this paragraph, Class B and Class D stations
may be assigned.
 (b) to each of the following channels there may be assigned Class A, Class B and Class D
stations: 680, 710, 810, 850, 940, 1000, 1060, 1070, 1080, 1090, 1110, 1130, 1140, 1170,
1190, 1500, 1520, 1530, 1540, 1550 and 1560 kHz.
 (c) Class A, Class B and Class D stations may be assigned on 540, 690, 730, 740, 800,
860, 900, 990, 110, 1050, 1220, 1540, 1570 and 1580 kHz.
 §73.26 Regional channels: Class B and Class D stations.
 (a) the following frequencies are designated as regional channels and are assigned for use
by Class B and Class D stations: 550, 560, 570, 580, 590, 600, 610, 620, 630, 790, 910,
920, 930, 950, 960, 970, 980, 1150, 1250, 1260, 1270, 1280, 1290, 1300, 1310, 1320,
1330, 1350, 1360, 1370, 1380, 1390, 1410, 1420, 1430, 1440, 1460, 1470, 1480, 1590,
1600, 1610, 1620, 1630, 1640, 1650, 1660, 1670, 1680, 1690 and 1700 kHz.
 (b) Additionally, in Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands the
frequencies 1230, 1240, 1340, 1400, 1450 and 1490 kHz are designated as Regional
channels, and are assigned for use by class B stations. Stations formerly licensed to these
channels in those locations class C stations are redesignated as Class B stations.
 §73.27 Local channels; Class C stations.
 Within the conterminous 48 states, the following frequencies are designated as local
channels, and are assigned for use by class C stations: 1230, 1240, 1340, 1400, 1450 and
1490 kHz.
 §73.201 Numerical designation of FM broadcast channels.
 The FM broadcast band consists of that portion of the radio frequency spectrum between
88 megacycles per second (MHz) and 108 MHz. It is divided into 100 channels of 200
kHz each. For convenience, the frequencies available for FM broadcasting (including
those assigned to noncommercial educational broadcasting) are given numerical
designations which are shown in the table below:
 Note: Channels 201-220 are designated for noncommercial broadcasting only
(frequencies between 88 and 92).
<
Frequency
Channel Number
Frequency
Channel Number
88.1 MHz
201
98.1 MHz
251
88.3 MHz
202
98.3 MHz
252
88.5 MHz
203
98.5 MHz
253
88.7 MHz
204
98.7 MHz
254
88.9 MHz
205
98.9 MHz
255
89.1 MHz
206
99.1 MHz
256
89.3 MHz
207
99.3 MHz
257
89.5 MHz
208
99.5 MHz
258

89.7 MHz
89.9 MHz
90.1 MHz
90.3 MHz
90.5 MHz
90.7 MHz
90.9 MHz
91.1 MHz
91.3 MHz
91.5 MHz
91.7 MHz
91.9 MHz
92.1 MHz
92.3 MHz
92.5 MHz
92.7 MHz
92.9 MHz
93.1 MHz
93.3 MHz
93.5 MHz
93.7 MHz
93.9 MHz
94.1 MHz
94.3 MHz
94.5 MHz
94.7 MHz
94.9 MHz
95.1 MHz
95.3 MHz
95.5 MHz
95.7 MHz
95.9 MHz
96.1 MHz
96.3 MHz
96.5 MHz
96.7 MHz
96.9 MHz
97.1 MHz
97.3 MHz
97.5 MHz
97.7 MHz
97.9 MHz

209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
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99.7 MHz
99.9 MHz
100.1 MHz
100.3 MHz
100.5 MHz
100.7 MHz
100.9 MHz
101.1 MHz
101.3 MHz
101.5 MHz
101.7 MHz
101.9 MHz
102.1 MHz
102.3 MHz
102.5 MHz
102.7 MHz
102.9 MHz
103.1 MHz
103.3 MHz
103.5 MHz
103.7 MHz
103.9 MHz
104.1 MHz
104.3 MHz
104.5 MHz
104.7 MHz
104.9 MHz
105.1 MHz
105.3 MHz
105.5 MHz
105.7 MHz
105.9 MHz
106.1 MHz
106.3 MHz
106.5 MHz
106.7 MHz
106.9 MHz
107.1 MHz
107.3 MHz
107.5 MHz
107.7 MHz
107.9 MHz

259
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 §73.205 Zones.
 For the purpose of allotments and assignments, the United States is divided into three
zones as follows:
 (a) Zone 1 consists of the portion of the United States located within the confines of the
following lines drawn on the United States Alberts Equal area Projection Map (based on
the standard parallels 29 1/2 and 45 1/2; North American datum); Beginning at the most
easterly point on the State boundary line located at North Latitude 3749' and West
Longitude 80 12' 30"; thence westerly along the southern boundary line lines of the States
of West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois to a point at the junction of the Illinois,
Kentucky, and Missouri state boundary lines; thence northerly along the western
boundary line of the State of Illinois to a point at the junction of the Illinois, Iowa, and
Wisconsin state boundary lines; thence easterly along the northern state boundary line of
Illinois to the 90th meridian; thence north along this meridian to the 43.5-parallel; thence
east along the parallel to the United states-Canada border; thence southerly and following
that border until it again intersects the 43.5 parallel; thence east along this parallel to the
71st meridian; thence in a straight line to the intersection of the 69th meridian and the
45th-parallel; thence east along the 45th parallel to the Atlantic Ocean. When any of the
above lines pass through a city, the city shall be considered located in Zone 1. (See
Figure of §73.699 [in complete copy of the rules]).
 (b) Zone 1A consists of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and that portion of the State of
California which is located south of the 40th parallel.
 (c) Zone II consists of Alaska, Hawaii and the rest of the United States which is not
located in either Zone I or Zone IA.
 §73.210 Station classes.
 (a) The rules applicable to a particular station, including minimum and maximum
facilities requirements are determined by its class. Possible class designations depend
upon the zone in which the station's transmitter is located. The zones are defined in
§73.205. Allotted station classes are indicated in the Table of Allotments, §73.202. Class
A, B1 and B stations may be authorized in Zones I and I-A. Class A, C3, C2, C1 and C
stations may be authorized in Zone II.
 §73.211 Power and antenna height requirements.
 (a) Minimum requirements.
 (1) Except as provided in paragraphs (a)(3) and (b)(2) of this section, FM stations must
operate with a minimum effective Radiated power (ERP) as follows:
 (i) The minimum ERP for Class A stations is 0.1kw
(ii) The ERP for Class B1 stations must exceed 6kw.
(iii) The ERP for Class B stations must exceed 25kw
(iv) The ERP for Class C3 stations must exceed 6kw.
(v) The ERP for Class C2 stations must exceed 25kw.
(vi) The ERP for Class C1 stations is 100kw.
(vii) The minimum ERP for Class C stations is 100kw.
 (2) Class C stations must have an antenna height above average terrain (HAAT) of at
least 300 meters (984 feet). No minimum HAAT is specified for Classes A, B1, B, C3,
C2, or C1 stations.

Station Class

Maximum ERP

A
B1
B
C3
C2
C1
C

6kw(7.8 dBk)
25kw(14.0 dBk)
50kw(17.0 dBk)
25kw(14.0 dBk)
50kw(17.0 dBk)
100kw20.0 dBk)
100kw20.0 dBk)

HAAT
(meters) (feet)
100 (328)
100(328)
150(492)
100(328)
150(492)
299(981)
600(1968)

Contour
28
39
52
39
52
72
92

 References
 Keith, M. C. (1987). Radio programming: Consultancy and Formatics Focal Press:
Boston.
 O'Donnell, L. M., Hausman, C., Benoit, P. (1989). Radio station operations:
Management and employee perspectives. Wadsworth: Belmont, CA.
 Keith, M. C. and Krause, J. M. (1989). The Radio Station Focal Press: Boston.
 Broadcasting and Cable Yearbook 1997 (1997). R.R. Bowker: New Providence, NJ.
 Federal Communications Commission Rules Part 73 (1997). Rules Service Company:
Rockville, MD.

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Chapter Resource Links
Chart of electromagnetic energy.
Figure single cycle.
AM wave.
FM wave.
Figure skywave & ground wave.
Figure line-of-sight.
FigureZone1.
WWBD FM Talk radio on FM.
WTOP FM News radio on FM.
No Static At All provided by WCRB FM, Boston.
WMBR at MIT list of radio stations on the World Wide Web.
Gebbie Press Radio on the Web
BRS Radio Directory
Airwaves Journal The radio watcher project.
FCC Homepage
FCC AM factsheet.
AM Stereo FCC explanation of AM stereo.
The Basics of AM Radio presented by Radio World.
FCC FM factsheet.
FCC Conversion converts channel number to FM frequency.
FCC Contours contours for FM station classes.
FCC Spacing standards for FM station spacing.

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National Association of Broadcasters
Rec.Radio.Broadcasting Usenet newsgroup.
Journal of Radio Studies
DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting
Eureka 147 DAB
In-Band On-Channel DAB
Lucent Digital Radio
USA Digital Radio

SEC. 202. BROADCAST OWNERSHIP.
(a) NATIONAL RADIO STATION OWNERSHIP RULE CHANGES REQUIREDThe Commission shall modify section 73.3555 of its regulations (47 C.F.R. 73.3555) by
eliminating any provisions limiting the number of AM or FM broadcast stations which may be
owned or controlled by one entity nationally.
(b) LOCAL RADIO DIVERSITY(1) APPLICABLE CAPS- The Commission shall revise section 73.3555(a) of its
regulations (47 C.F.R. 73.3555) to provide that-(A) in a radio market with 45 or more commercial radio stations, a party may
own, operate, or control up to 8 commercial radio stations, not more than 5 of
which are in the same service (AM or FM);
(B) in a radio market with between 30 and 44 (inclusive) commercial radio
stations, a party may own, operate, or control up to 7 commercial radio stations,
not more than 4 of which are in the same service (AM or FM);
(C) in a radio market with between 15 and 29 (inclusive) commercial radio
stations, a party may own, operate, or control up to 6 commercial radio stations,
not more than 4 of which are in the same service (AM or FM); and
(D) in a radio market with 14 or fewer commercial radio stations, a party may
own, operate, or control up to 5 commercial radio stations, not more than 3 of
which are in the same service (AM or FM), except that a party may not own,
operate, or control more than 50 percent of the stations in such market.
(2) EXCEPTION- Notwithstanding any limitation authorized by this subsection, the
Commission may permit a person or entity to own, operate, or control, or have a
cognizable interest in, radio broadcast stations if the Commission determines that such
ownership, operation, control, or interest will result in an increase in the number of radio
broadcast stations in operation.

Minority ownership in media shrinks
By Tim Jones

Tribune Media Writer The economic model was established more than 30 years ago, when chain
stores and shopping malls sprouted from cheap land on the outskirts of small towns and
methodically squeezed the commercial life out of many of the little storefronts downtown.
Now the Wal-Martizing of radio and television means one of the original mom-and-pop
businesses--owning a commercial radio or TV station--is falling victim to that corporate ethos,
too. But the stunning pace of consolidation in broadcasting raises troubling philosophical
questions because of its particular impact on individual and minority ownership.
Although minority ownership has always been low, it now stands at 2.8 percent of the nation's
11,475 commercial radio and TV stations, according to the Commerce Department. That's down
from 3.1 percent in 1996.
``The decline is troubling because historically there has been bipartisan support in this country
for the notion that it is important to have a diversity of ownership in our broadcast stations
because it is good for the public and good for democracy,'' Federal Communications
Commission Chairman William Kennard said in an interview.
But Kennard, the first black person to chair the government's chief communications regulatory
panel, asserts that, at heart, the changes in minority ownership transcend race and paint a much
wider picture of what is going on in all of broadcasting.
``This is as much an issue about small business as it is about minorities. There is a whole echelon
of small businesses that don't have opportunities in this business like they used to,'' he said.
It is not at all clear what, if anything, can be done to reverse the trend that is dramatically altering
the industry founded by local entrepreneurs and built on community service. The diversity of
voices is eroding, especially in black-owned radio, where the biggest ownership drops have
occurred.
And usually cash-strapped small owners--regardless of race--face enormous obstacles to not only
enter but to stay in a business increasingly being taken over by deep-pocketed conglomerates. In
short, the small operators are being priced out.
``In all candor, it would be virtually impossible to get in today. I know we could not re-create our
company today,'' said Don Cornwell, chairman and chief executive officer of New York-based
Granite Broadcasting Corp., which owns and operates 11 network affiliated television stations in
nine states, including Illinois.
Cornwell is black and is the dominant player among the nation's 12 black television station
owners. Last month, Granite announced it will buy KOFY-TV in San Francisco for $174 million.
``We've been fortunate,'' said Cornwell, noting that Granite had established itself in the TV
business before Congress deregulated much of the broadcasting industry last year. The
Telecommunications Reform Act of 1996 sent prices for broadcast properties skyrocketing,
because most ownership limits were removed.

That spurred a buying binge--what John Douglas, president of Douglas Broadcasting, of Palo
Alto, Calif., calls ``a stampede.''
``It's like barbarians at the gate. The fuel that is the catalyst is money. If you have money you can
participate, but money is something that minorities typically do not have access to in large
amounts,'' said Douglas, a black man whose company owns 19 major market radio stations in six
states and the District of Columbia.
``The possibilities are getting smaller and smaller,'' Douglas said. Since March 1996, nearly
3,900 radio stations--roughly 40 percent of the total--have changed hands in deals totaling more
than $30.1 billion. The percentage of television station transactions is similar--384 deals,
exceeding $16.5 billion.
Before and after comparisons are revealing. In 1995, prior to last year's broadcast deregulation,
CBS bought a black-owned UHF television station in Detroit, WGPR-TV, for $24 million. Last
December, 10 months after deregulation, Granite bought WXON-TV, another UHF station in the
Detroit market, for $175 million.
In radio, the multibillion-dollar consolidation spree has created radio giants--Capstar
Broadcasting, Clear Channel Communications, Chancellor Broadcasting, Jacor Communications
and Westinghouse--owning more than 100 and, in some cases, many hundreds of radio stations.
Government regulations allow a single owner to control as many as eight radio stations in a
market.
That has given the big operators some major competitive advantages: They can consolidate
business operations of stations they own; they can control certain listening formats in a market,
such as urban contemporary or country, and--most important--they can control 50 percent or
more of the radio advertising in the market. This means they can operate more efficiently and
profitably than a single radio station operator.
Since overall national ownership limits in radio have been lifted, it is conceivable that a single
owner could own, say, 2,000 stations. Also possible is the vision weaved by some analysts, that
four or five big corporate owners will control the overwhelming majority of the nation's radio
stations.
The message from all this to many individual operators is simple: Take the money and run, or be
crushed. ``A lot of times the economics dictate that you sell out,'' said Larry Irving, assistant
secretary of the Commerce Department.
``Group owners are the name of the game now. Radio has historically been diverse and local, and
increasingly it is becoming neither,'' Irving said.
Irving said he sees no hope for making significant changes in radio ownership rules, ``but what
we have to work against is the radio-ization of television,'' he said. Television companies,
including Tribune Co., owner of the Chicago Tribune, have been lobbying for a relaxation of TV

ownership rules. The broadcast lobby is pushing for the right to own more than one TV station in
a single market.
The government has sponsored an effort to make seed money available for small businesses to
enter radio. But the treasury is a pittance, only $25 million.
The FCC's Kennard said the commission will study the fallout from radio deregulation, which he
said was much greater than anyone anticipated. ``It's easy to say that consolidation is the
problem, and I suspect that is the case, but it would be irresponsible not to look deeper and try to
understand a little bit better why financing sources are drying up for smaller new entrants,''
Kennard said.
``I think that many people in this country will wake up to the fact that the broadcast industry is
fundamentally changing,'' he said, adding that it is ``imperative'' for the government to try to
reverse the trend of shrinking broadcast opportunities.
Douglas is not optimistic. ``I'm a former securities analyst, and I could see the handwriting on
the wall. `He who can collect the most marbles will win, especially the pretty ones,' '' Douglas
said.
Copyright Chicago Tribune (c) 1997

Basic Format Elements
There are certain elements that are common to all formats. These can be thought of as building
blocks. Programmers blend different types and amounts of music, news, public affairs, features,
public service announcements, commercials, contests, promotions, jingles, and announcing styles
to attract audiences. This combination of elements is called a format. Different formats and
different combinations of elements within formats attract different audiences. Each of those
building blocks is vital in its own way.

Music
Music is perhaps the most obvious and most important part of any format, with the exception of
news, talk and sports. Even with these formats music plays an important part of helping the
station establish an identity. More goes into programming music than the average listener
suspects. Program Directors, Consultants and Music Directors don’t just grab a stack of a
particular type of CDs and play them randomly throughout the day. Programmers analyze trade
magazines such as Billboard and Radio and Records, they perform auditorium tests and run
focus groups before adding selections to their playlists.

Codification
After programmers assemble their playlists they then decide when certain songs will be heard on
the air. Some songs are morning songs and best played at 8 a.m. Others work best during midday
or during evening hours. The general rule is that uptempo songs tend to be favored during the

day, while softer slow tempo songs are favored during the evening hours. Mid-tempo songs may
be played throughout the day to give a station’s sound balance. For example it’s not uncommon
for an Adult Contemporary station to feature songs which sound nearly Top 40 during the day
and feature “loves songs” during evening hours.
Programmers use various categories when building a coding scheme. For example tempo might
be one category, arrangement might be another. These categories are assigned codes. An
uptempo song may be coded with a “U” while a slow song will receive an “S”. Likewise, a song
with a single instrument such as a guitar might receive a “1” while one with a full orchestra will
receive a “3”.
Songs are often further coded according to gender of the artist, and lyrical mood. A bluesy lyric
might receive a “B” while a cheerful lyric would receive a “C”. An “M” or an “F” would be used
to designate the artist’s gender or perhaps a “D” for a male/female duet.
Thus a fully orchestrated uptempo song performed by a female artist with a cheerful lyric might
be coded U/3/C/F . The “U” represents the tempo. In this case it is uptempo The “3” represents
the degree of orchestration. In this case it is full orchestra. The “C” represents lyrical mood. In
this case cheerful. The “F” represents the artist’s gender, female.
Likewise a blues song performed by a male guitarist might receive a code of S/1/B/M. In this
case the “S” represents slow tempo; the “1” represents single instrument; the “B” represents
bluesy lyric and the “M” represents the performer’s gender, male.
Once the programmer determines codes, he/she is ready to put the selections into rotation.

Rotation
Rotation is used to establish a hierarchy by which programmers determine when and how often
selections will be played on the station. The goal is to play popular songs frequently enough to
entertain the audience but not so often as to bore them. At one time programmers used index
cards and rotation sheets that gave the air-staff rules for determining the next acceptable piece of
music. Programmers now use computerized scheduling tools such as Selector and MusicMaster
(Detailed Selector Info).
Rotation categories differ from station to station but the purpose of the categories is to allow the
programmer to determine how often songs are heard. These rotation categories are placed on a
wheel or hot clock. The hot clock gives the air-staff a visual representation of when the
categories of songs are to be played during the station’s rotation. Programmers construct hot
clocks to reflect dayparts and audience demographics. It is not uncommon for stations to have
many hot clocks depending upon time of day.
Programmers now place their predefined categories into programs like Selector and MusicMaster
which then provide them with playlists. Some stations are run entirely by computer.