Sociogenesis of Tattoos in Brunei Daruss

NUR HIDAYAH BTE HAJI ZAINAL ARIFFIN
11B1161

SUPERVISED BY:
PROF SOLVAY GERKE

THESIS:
SOCIOGENESIS OF TATTOOS IN BRUNEI DARUSSALAM

Table of Contents

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Acknowledgements

3

Abstract

4

Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Sociogenesis of Tattoos in Brunei Darussalam
1.3 Background

5
6
7

Chapter 2: Ethnographical Findings
2.1 The Past (Kerong)
2.1.1. Nene Angah
2.1.2. Ah Joup anak Rading
2.1.3. Awang Hujan Anak Muit
2.1.4 Analysis

12
12
19

29
33

2.2. Contemporary Practices
2.2.1. Arian
2.2.2. Bryant
2.2.3. Ilham
2.2.4. Analysis

36
38
42
44
46

Chapter 3: Changes
3.1 Globalization
3.2 Religion
3.3 Scientific Advancement
3.4 Politics

3.5 Education
3.6 Economics
3.7 Gender
3.8 Perception
3.9 Media

50
50
51
54
55
56
57
58
60
63

Chapter 4: Literary Review

65

Chapter 5: Methodology

70

Chapter 6: Limitations and Implications for Future Study.

73

Chapter 7: Conclusion

72

Bibliography
Appendices

76
82

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Acknowledgements
Firstly I would like to thank my research assistants Fizzah Fendi, Bashirah Maidin
and Aqilah Boestamam for accompanying me to head to designated locations and
giving me ideas and inspiration. I would also like to thank Professor Solvay Gerke
for letting me have this eye opening topic and guiding me on what is relevant, I
would not have any form of drive because I felt like writing everything. And last but
not least I would like to dedicate this towards my participants who have been
giving me materials and shedding the best light and explanation to contribute
towards my thesis.
Thank you my fiancé, Faizul Morni for tolerating me during the stressful times of
Final Year and still wanting to marry me - and my family for always giving me
brain fuel for those many sleepless nights.
I dedicate this to my father, Col Haji Zainal Ariffin bin DP Haji Ahmad, for always
being my inspiration in every aspect of life and always being the rock to my windy
days.

Abstract
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“There is no known culture which people do not paint, pierce, tattoo,
reshape or simply adorn their bodies”
- Gay and Whittington (2002)
Tattoos have existed in diverse array of cultures - proven archeologically, and
have experience some form of change. In this thesis I will use a concept explained
by Graaf and Maier (1994)1 in their Sociogenesis Reexamined which is the idea of
sociogenesis - the evolution of societies or a particular society, community or a
social unit2 due to interpersonal experiences – in the view of George Herbert
Mead’s interpretation of Charles Darwin3 - the development of humans and the
changing of the society during the evolution. This thesis is to uncover the
sociogenesis – the progression in perception, methods, and culture of tattoos in
Brunei. And also to distinguish the difference between the situation of tattoos
somewhere around 50 years ago and now. Some of the notable things that have
caused the changes in Brunei Darussalam are religion, globalization, media and

education where each topic will be discussed intensively. The main research
question for this would be, to explain the sociogenesis of tattooing in Brunei. The
data collection for this essay is gathered through 12 open-ended interviews with
several participants who have tattoos and also those who are well versed in the
history and art of it. Results of this study will show the sociogenesis of tattoo the changes of perception, art, purpose, methods, and ideology throughout time,
in Brunei.

CHAPTER : 1
1 Graaf and Maier (1994), Sociogenesis Reexamined, Springer Science and
Business Media. P.1.
2 Merriam Webster Dictionary (Unknown) Source: http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/sociogenesis, Date Retrieved: 26th March 2015.
3 Graaf and Maier (1994), Sociogenesis Reexamined, Springer Science and
Business Media. P. 2.
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1.1. Introduction
Tattoos have been relevant through out ancient times with evidence of an “Ice

Man” called Ötzi4, preserved by ice, aging back to eras before the Egyptian
mummies, which backdates to 5,300 years where as the mummies are 4,000
years. The existence of tattoos as Levy theorized in her writing ‘Tattoos in
Modern Society’ (2008) explained that reasons for tattoos have been suggested
to include – adornment, indication of status, magical powers, amulets or health
care (acupuncture)5. The word “tattoo” is originally ‘tataw’ or ‘tatau’ or ‘tattaw’
derived from the Polynesian word – “ta” a Polynesian word referring to striking
(Scutt & Gotch, 2007)6.

Figure 1: Timeline of tattoos7

1.2. The Sociogenesis of Tattoos in Brunei

4 Levy (2008), Tattoos in Modern Society, The Rosen Publishing Group. P. 9.
5 Ibid.
6 Scutt, R.W.B., & Gotch, C. (2003). Early European encounters with Polynesian
tattoos. In J.D. Lloyd (Ed.), Body Piercing and Tattoos (pp. 33-44). Farmington Hills:
Greenhaven Press.
7 Frecentese (2013), Tattooing Identity: An Analysis of Historical Contemporary
Tattooing Practices Among Members of The Military Community, Thesis: The

Colorado College.
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Sociogenesis is a term coined by Norbert Elias, German sociologist in his The
Civilizing Process8, which is the civilizing process over time repeated in the
psychogenesis of an individual’s life – however in this thesis I will use
sociogenesis in the form of society rather than an individual – by measuring the
progression using individuals who are around their youths and those who are a
generation older. Blunden (2012) explains, which is closer to my scope of
research – ‘the unfolding of a multitude of real social situations in any
community, as opposed to broad social formations’ 9

An overview of the sociegenesis of tattoos in Brunei is that tattoos were used as a
‘rite of passage’ symbol and slowly progressing into a form of individuality and
fashion statement.

1.3. Background

8 Elias (2000), The Civilizing Process, Wiley.
9 Blunden (2012), Ontogenesis, Ethnogenesis, Sociogenesis and Phylogenesis.
Source: http://home.mira.net/~andy/works/ontogenesis.htm.
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During my visit to the Musee du Quai Branly, the array of showcase from each
country was detailed – and I was determined to see the insert on Brunei.
However, that section was concluded under
Borneo. Which triggered me to make this
thesis – to prove that Brunei does have its
own brand of tattoo. In explaining the section
of olden cultural practices of tattoos in Brunei

–

I have dug way back to histories around the Figure 2 : The poster for Tatoueurs

Tatoues.

17 century, where missionaries would have
th

some details on tattoo practices in Brunei. In
this section I will try to elucidate pthe origins and background of Brunei in
relation to tattooing activities.

So starting off by the 16th century, Brunei was a well-organized and prosperous
Malay-Islamic Sultanate, ruling almost all Northern Borneo, which became one of
the main ports of calls during the era 10. Then in the 19th century James Brooke
interfered with the Malay world politics, and extracted gifts from the royals to a
point where he virtually extorted enormous tracts of land along the
northwestern coasts of Borneo, which constitutes two-third of the Bruneian
states11. Even though the past loss, practices in tribes around Borneo in remote
and in central areas still maintained where tattooing is one of them 12, and is

10 Tajuddin (2012), Malaysia in the World Economy (1824-2011): Capitalism,
Ethnic Divisions and ‘Managed’ Democracy, Lexington Books : Pennsylvania. P.35.
11 Ibid.
12 Keppel (2014), The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido for the Suppression of
Piracy, Bookpubber.
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usually done by people of the remote areas or ‘orang Ulu13’. Sir Henry Keppel
(2014) mentioned of the types of orang Ulu that practices tattooing in his The
Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido for the Suppression of Piracy 14 and notes down
some of the tribes in which he has encountered to practice tattooing - the Dusun,
the Murut, the Kadians, the Kayans, the Milanaus (Tatows, Balanian and
Kanowit), Dayak (Dayak Darat and Dayak Laut). Sellato (1989) then further
explains that Ibans, Kelabit, Kadazan, Dusun, Murut, Ngaju, Kayan Kenyah and
Penan were documented to have practice some form of traditional tattooing 15.
Sigar (2014) also reports that explained that the Muruts or specifically known by
their types as the Lun Bawangs to also have been practicing tattoos16.

13 Orang Ulu : upriver people and us a term used to collectively describe the
numerous tribes that live upriver in Sarawak vast interior.
Welman (Unknown), Borneo Trilogy Sarawak: Volume 2, Booksmango. P. 138.
14 Keppel (2014), The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido for the Suppression of
Piracy, Bookpubber. P. 35.
15 Sellato and Perret (1989), Naga dan Burung Enggang: Kalimantan, Sarawak,
Sabah dan Brunei, Elf Aquitaine Indonésie. P. 169.
16 Sigar (2014), Storytelling: Social Progression of the Lun Bawang in Temburong,
Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
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Figure 3: Distribution of Tattoo Practicing Tribes by Oditous 17

Keppel (2015) also explains that in many instances that the people in Borneo
share the same culture and ideologies with little dissimilarities, though such
claims can only been seen from an outsider, but those who are local will know the
difference between a culture to another. This lumping of identity phenomenon is
as Yen Espiritu (1992) terms as panethnicity where Americans tend to generalize
17 Oditous (Unknown), Distribution of Tattoo Tribes, Photobucket. Source:
http://s452.photobucket.com/user/oditous/media/album3/dayak-tribes-ofborneo-1.jpg.html.
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Asian Americans to be a singular type of race, overlooking their background
details18. However, having said that - many of my respondents explains that most
of their origins come from various places in Sarawak, and have settled in Brunei
for four generations19 explains that culture is the same, if not, it is only distinct in
clan names20 21 22.

Having said that, the older generation addresses the practice of tattooes, as
‘kerong’ is usually associated with the Ibans. The culture of tattooing however is
slowly dying down since the intrusion of religion and education among the Iban,
Murut and Dusun, which changed much of the perception of tattoos, making the
ideologies that shrouds around the concept of tattoos to be different from the
olden days.

There was not much secondary materials regarding tattoos in Brunei apart from
interviewing the descendants of the tattoo practicing tribes, Dr Asbol (2015)
explained that anything regarding tattooing is not considered as ‘Brunei culture’
and is only practiced notoriously by Ibans, explaining the exclusion is due to the
fact that Ibans are not part of Brunei’s ‘puak jati’. Historians including Dr Asbol,
further explains that the Ibans were not written in the Constitution as
Bumiputera23 by the Bruneian authorities as the Ibans only entered Brunei from

18 Espiritu (1993), Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and
Identities, Temple University Press. P. 174.
19 Ah Joup Anak Rading (2015), Personal Interview.
20 Ibid
21 Nenek Angah (2015), Personal Interview.
22 Hujan Anak Muit (2015), Personal Interview.
23 Bumiputera – Sons of the Soil, member of the Malay Ethnic Group.
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Sarawak during the reign of the ‘White Rajah’ of the Brooke family24. Conversely
some theorists believe that Ibans are still Bruneian by identity 25, by socialization,
by loyalty, and as seen in Figure 3, can be found within the geographical area of
Brunei. Even as arguments state that Ibans are politically excluded, there are a
number of Iban people living in Brunei such as places like Kampong Amo and
Kampong Labi in which I have covered in this thesis, but as reported by Tassim et
al (2013) the Iban population is dispersed all in the four districts in Brunei 26
filling up to at least 6% equivalent to 19,400 people in 1997 27. And on top of that
other ethnicities like those mentioned by Keppel (2015), Sigar (2014) & Sellato
(1989) where the Dusun or the Murut (Lun Bawang) to be part of the 7 ethnic
groups of Brunei28 – who used to practice tattooing.

CHAPTER 2: ETHNOGRAPHICAL FINDINGS
2.1. The Past: Kerong
24 Minority Rights Group International (2008), World Directory of Minorities and
Indigenous Peoples – Brunei Darussalam: Dusun, Murut, Kedayan, Iban Tutong,
Penan, Source: http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d48c.html
25 Leake (1989), Brunei: The Modern Southeast Asian Islamic Sultanate,
McFarland.
26 Tassim et al (2013), Why is the Iban Tribe Excluded From The Official ‘Tujuh
Puak Brunei’ and What Is Their Experience Being Born and Raised in Bruneian
Society?, University Brunei Darussalam.
27 IBP USA (2007), Brunei Air Force Handbook, Int’l Business Publication. P. 37.
28 Ethnic Groups in Brunei: Brunei Kedayan, Tutong, Dusun, Murut, Belait,
Malays and Bisaya (Government of Brunei, 1989).
Odé (1997), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Austronesian
Linguistics: Leiden 22-27 August 1994, Rodopi. P.2.
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In this section I have included three men aged from 51-70 from the Belait
(Kampong Melayan), Muara (Kampong Mentiri) and Temburong (Kampong
Amo), firstly to find respondents who practiced traditional forms of tattoos and
to understand if the geographical difference would have an effect in towards the
perception, traditions and culture of tattooing in Brunei. I will address tattoos in
the context of how it is used in Brunei for this age group – ‘kerong’.

2.1.1 Nene Angah

He has always been a cheerful man with thick spectacles and always wearing a
songkok29. But only until when I had a mission to finish this thesis was when I
first found out that Nene Angah (middle grandfather : term to call sibling or in
laws of grandparents30) is a convert that has a removed kerong on his arms upon
conversion. Nene Angah has married into the family and migrated from Kampong
Telagus, Daerah Simujian in Sarawak, and is now 59 years old and lived in Brunei
ever since he turned 12. Married to my grandmother’s sister, it was easy for me
to tap and gain permission as I have been close to Nene Angah – growing up, but
most of our conversations were always regarding current life – school,
relationships and jokes.

29 Songkok or Kopiah is usually a traditional headgear that symbolizes Islamic
malay men or boys. Rozan Yunos (23 September 2007), The Origin of the Songkok
or ‘Kopiah’, Borneo Bullitien.
30 Rozan Yunos (2008), Family Relationship Monikers in Brunei, The Brunei
Times, Published on the: January 20th 2008.
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Figure 4: Simunjian to Brunei31

Nene Angah, started off explaining that traditionally, kerongs were created by
mixing ‘karak kuali’ (which is the soot from cooking utensils) and then mixing it
with coconut water. The needles is then poured into the kerong utensil (Figure 6)
and then hammering it into the skin, and spoke much about the pain and then
associating such pain to bravery. The variation of colors only goes around dark
green depending on the skin tone of the kerong bearer.

31 Google Maps (2015), Simunjian – Brunei, Source:
https://www.google.com.bn/maps/dir/Brunei/Simunjan+Sarawak+Malaysia/@
4.1316719,110.609308,6z/data=!4m13!4m12!1m5!1m1!
1s0x3218994b04b8b9d1:0x5dfe3580dd09dad6!2m2!1d114.727669!
2d4.535277!1m5!1m1!1s0x31fbeae5b784ab8d:0x9398043be987c641!2m2!
1d110.9153318!2d1.072972. Date Retrieved: 15th March 2015.
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Figure 5: Interior of Iban Longhouse32.
Notice the kuali in which the soot will be gathered.
© Bridgeman Art Library / Sarawak, Malaysia / Photo © Luca Tettoni

Figure 6: Needle and Hammer33.
Some of the prominent tattoo styles are the ‘bunga terung’ that means eggplant
flower (refer Figure 7 and 8), which is a symbol of masculinity, responsibility,
bravery, having warrior-like qualities - a symbol of rite of passage for an Iban boy.
The Bunga Terung is achieved when after they bajalai (source jalan - journey) in
search of knowledge, wealth and after going for ngayau. The bunga terung must
be worn as a pair as a balance to protect both sides of the body. The symbolic
meaning of the Bunga Terung taken from the concept of the eggplant flower and
tadpole egg fused together– where the frog will soon sprout hind legs (Figure 9)
and then symbolically show that the man is going to ‘walk’ the jungle to fulfill
32 © Bridgeman Art Library / Sarawak, Malaysia / Photo © Luca Tettoni
Figure 1: Interior of Iban Longhouse, Bridgeman Art Library, Image Source:
http://www.magnoliabox.com/art/346166/interior-of-a-dayak-iban-longhouse,
Date Retrieved; 3rd March 2015
33 Ibanology(Unknown), Iban Tattooing Needle and Hammer , Source:
https://ibanology.wordpress.com/category/main-asal/page/2/
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their bajalai quests. The tali nyawa literally means ‘life coil’, which shape is
derived from the tadpole’s transparent belly and then symbolically refers to the
transition (Figure 10).

Figure 7: Bunga Terung34

34 Sarawakiana (2014), Maksud Disebalik Tatu ‘Bunga Terung Kaum Iban’,
Source : http://www.sarawakiana.net/2014/05/maksud-disebalik-tatu-bungaterung-kaum.html, Date Published: 9th May 2014.
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Figure 8: The Eggplant Flower by Juan Buitrago35

Figure 9: The Growth of a tadpole to a frog by Neeha36

35 Juan Buitrago (Unknown), The Eggplant Flower, Dayak Impressions, Source:
http://dayakimpressions.com, Published on: 2nd January 2013.
36 Neeha (Unknown), The Growth of a Tadpole to a Frog, Source:
https://www.withfriendship.com/images/h/35235/Tadpole-picture.gif,
Published on 2nd January 2013.
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Figure 10: ‘Tali Nyawa’ the underside of the Tadpole intestines, in which the Iban
has composed this to their ‘bunga terung’. Picture by Eldronius 37
In the Iban context, one is bestowed a kerong based on their social achievements
and merit and it signifies bravery and intelligence, which can be collected from
various events. One of the main events, Nene Angah explained is the Ngayau38, an
event where Ibans go hunting for heads to showcase their braveness – and for
the amount of heads brought back – that signifies their bravery and social
standing – and this will be kerong-ed on his skin and his Ilang (sword).

37 Eldronius (2010), ‘Tali Nyawa’ The Underside of a Tadpole’s Intestines, Flickr,
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/19749359@N00/4689950176/.
38 Ngayau is an Iban term for a traditional activity, which is compulsory for adult
males where they will decapitate heads of enemies. Durin et al (Unknown),
Simbolisme Ngayau dalam Motif Seni Tenunan Iban, Source: ,
http://ir.unimas.my/2688/1/Simbolisme%20Ngayau%20dalam%20Motif
%20Seni%20Tenunan%20Iban.pdf, Retrieved on: 14th April 2015.
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The concept in kerong among the Iban is the ‘more the better’ social status the
individual has, and these would be located around the arm, the torso, the legs,
the neck and sometimes the face said Nene Angah. Individuals with neck kerongs
are considered as most respected because such location is most painful – which
equates to them being strong or braveness to sustain such pain.

Nene Angah also mentioned that kerong in the Iban society can be a form of
signifier that can inform the society of the achievements that the kerong-ed
person has which can increase the eligibility in marriage, gain economic
importance also confirmed by Dr Dato Othman Yatim (2015) due to the reference
that kerongs have. Apart from social purposes, mythologically, the Ibans are also
required to obtain kerong, as this is the only way for their god – Betara39 to
differentiate the Ibans, said Nene Angah.

As from my understanding, kerong become a social unwritten law and a prerequisite for the Ibans kerong, whereas only 1 out of 100 women indulge in
having kerong, and only women who are around the age of 50 or more would
have kerong, according to Nene Angah.

D; Do you think kerong is still carried out?
Nene Angah; No, mostly because it does not bring much benefit and kerong is
against the religion not to mention barbaric and brutal.

39 Sarawakiana (2014), Maksud Disebalik Tatu ‘Bunga Terung Kaum Iban’,
Source : http://www.sarawakiana.net/2014/05/maksud-disebalik-tatu-bungaterung-kaum.html, Date Published: 9th May 2014.
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Nene Angah, being a new convert seems to take his conversion seriously, and this
phenomenon is explained by Riis and Woodhead (2010) 40 that conversion
involves stripping of existing loyalties, hopes, commitments in order to adapt the
new joys of the new spiritual adaptations. So, with that, Nene Angah have
stripped he ancestral beliefs and culture and has a stronger hold on to Islam’s
teachings. However, his accounts cannot be taken in to explain most rejection to
kerong – firstly because he has spent 47 years assimilating with other Malays
who are Muslim and is away from his longhouse tribe.

2.1.2 Ah Joup Anak Rading

After emailing Anna anak Durin from UNIMAS Malaysia 41, I got some pointers to
head to Belait in search of more kerong practitioners. At first, locals told me to go
to Kampong Jabang and were surprised to find out this squatter based village 42,
mostly inhibited by Chinese manual workers – with no signs of individuals
bearing kerongs.

40 Riis & Woodhead (2010), A Sociology of Religion Emotion, Oxford University
Press.
41 Anna anak Durin, Senior Lecturer PHD, UNIMAS. Contact :
danna@faca.unimas.my.
42 Chua (2011), Belait Step Up Efforts to Clear Illegal Housing, Brunei Times, Date
Published: 22nd June 2011.
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Figure 11: Kampong Jabang43

So I began to go around asking locals if there are any more leads regarding
kerongs - until I ended up in Kampong Labi. Which is 50 minutes away from the
main road that connects the Tutong-Belait Highway.

Figure 12: Sign “Rumah Panjang Kampong Melayan”44
43 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Labi, Personal Collection.
44 Ibid
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Figure 13: Entrance to Kampong Melayan45

My initial move was to search for the Ketua Kampung (head of the village) or in
Iban terms Tuai46, to ask for his permission on interviewing his village. Ah Joup
anak Rading is a 71 year-old Iban who used to work for Shell, a Bruneian Oil
45 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Labi, Personal Collection.
46 Tuai – Village Head. Fox (2006), Origins, Ancestry and Alliance: Exploration in
Austronesian Ethnography, ANU E Press: Australia. P. 84.
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Company and now resides in his cozy Rumah Panjang (Long House) with a farm
and orchard – was very open to the interview where he had so much artifacts
from his ancestry.

Figure 14: Terabai - Sheild47

Figure 15: Ilang48

47 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Labi, Personal Collection.
48 Ilang – Traditional Dagger. Ibid.
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Figure 16: Traditional costumes now only used for Hari Gawai.49

Figure 17 : Pua Kumbu50 - A colorful weaving technique used in Borneo
used for everydat and ceremonial items decorated with different types
types of patterns which is usually made by Iban women.51

49 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Labi, Personal Collection.
50 Ibid.
51 Richmond & Harper (2006), Malaysia, Singapore & Brunei, Lonely Planet. P.58.
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Figure 18:

a) Ah Joup in his full gear.
b) Ah Joup’s father during the Japanese Occupation
c) Video showing welcoming ceremonies to the long house.

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Figure 19 : Ruai - Corridor of the Rumah Panjang.

I began to introduce my aim and Ah Joup smiled explaining that he knows very
little of the kerong culture. He then takes out a picture of his father, taken in 1944
during the last British Residence Era in Brunei. And he began explaining what he
knows, which is almost similar like Nene Angah. Then called out one of his
nephews as he did have kerong, also clarifying that the kerong was just for fun
and as a remembrance of their heritage, in fears that I might think that they
might practice ngayau.

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Figure 20: Ah Joup’s father at 22 in 194452

Figure 21: Ah Joup’s nephew with a a) dragon on his calves,
b) Chinese scripts on his arms and the c) infamous Bunga Terung. 53
52 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Labi, Personal Collection.
53 Ibid.
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Even with Ah Joup’s claim that he does not know much of the kerong culture, he
still gives a clear picture of how the process of kerong is carried out. Similar like
Nene Angah’s description – he further adds to the explanation that there are
more variation of color apart from green, to blue to black– which depends on
how deep the needle goes and the skin tone and type of the bearer. The colors
however, does not signify any social importance – however only is the
effectiveness of the kerong maker. Ah Joup then explains of the different types of
tattoos on the top of his head which is the;
a) telingai (which will be situated around the legs and neck)
b) ketam kukong (kukong crab)
c) bunga rambing
d) bunga terung
e) Kalong
He also explained that, it was better to make kerong in the morning, as it would
cause less irritation towards the bearer, or sometimes, the rain helps too.

So when I got into probing things about gender practices, Ah Joup had the same
reply again like Nene Angah. But then he explained that women would have like a
line around her arms to signify from what tribe she is. But then he explained that
men who did not have kerong were considered ‘pundan’ (sissy) explaining that;

‘Eh kalau laki enda betato laki lain cakap bah… PUNDAN! Ku rugul kau karang’
If a man does not have tattoos, other men will say… SISSY! I WILL RAPE YOU.

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Then Ah Joup explains that, men with tattoos are called ‘Bujang Berani’ (Brave
Bachelors), which is also mentioned by Fox (2006).

So I asked Ah Joup, the same question I asked Nene Angah: is kerong still carried
out? Ah Joup answered; No, it died out during the Japanese occupation. And it does
not bring any assistance for the current times, we all need money and kerong
cannot provide us that. I used to remember that my uncles and grandfather
spending almost hours and days to fill parts of their body, and I think it is just a
waste of time when you can do so much more.

As I was about to leave, Ah Joup gave me a tour around his farm, introduced me
to his grandchildren and asked me to write in a ‘guest book’. I also saw a plaque
with signatures explaining that this Kampong and infrastructure was a ‘kurnia’54
from Pehin Haji Dani. From this visit, I have analyzed that Ah Joup is at a thirst to
explain his heritage to the mass, making Kampong Melayan like a museum
equipped with traditional artifacts and signage. All was well explained and
versed but for the part when I asked about kerongs, where most of his
explanation were just basic.

54 Gift.
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2.1.2 Awang Hujan Anak Muit

Figure 22 : Similar Lanterns from Labi55.

My next trip was to Temburong, where I interviewed Awang Hujan Anak Muit, 51
years old, who was the tuai of Kampong Amo. Before the interview, Awang Hujan
was wearing just a simple white singlet; then he then came out wearing a green
shirt with a picture of the Bruneian crest (Figure 23[c]). I began asking the same
questions I asked Nene Angah and Ah Joup however it resulted to the same
answers, especially on the methods and the gender practices. In many cases,
Awang Hujan explained that he does not know.

55 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Temburong, Personal Collection.
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Figure 23: Kampong Amo56

56 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Temburong, Personal Collection.
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Due to his lack of information, I strayed from my script and asked;
D; So why do you think you do not know much about this?
Awang Hujan; I have seen kerong happen before, but back then, there is no school
to have all this written down – and if we were to write all this down, we still cannot
decide whether to have it in Iban, Malay or English as it would change the concept.
It’s a culture where parents to do not speak of, but only do. And for of the ideas that
I know are the ones I have asked before… I wouldn’t think questions like yours
would exist.

Awang Hujan then explains a different approach to the cosmology in practicing
kerong.
AH; a lot of people believe that we do not have a religion, sorry for offending you
ah… but believing in spirits is a religion too. And some kerong, as mentions by my
older family, have the potential to protect you from harms in the forest and these
orang halus (spirits), because we share this world with orang halus.

D; is kerong still carried out? Why?
AH; I am afraid not. Mostly because there is in no understanding, when we go to the
pasar (market), onlookers will not understand why, but they would call you ‘orang
utan’ or ‘orang ulu’ and will give you stares as if you are not educated – but I bet,
when they know that these are for head hunting – I think they will think twice
*laughs*. But mostly its because of education – our society does not revolve around
kerong anymore – money does not need tattoos.

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Figure 24: UBD poster57.

Figure 25: Awang Hujan and his grandchildren58

From the uniform that he put on (Figure 23 and 25) when interviewing and the
poster available (Figure 24), it is apparent that the ideologies of kerong has been
affected by the hegemonic idea that having tattoo is unnecessary, as having a
merit based system of recognition is not more relevant in the Iban society than to
compare what kind of tattoo would signify one’s position in the society, which
coincides with Ah Joup’s opinion. However, the impression of the hegemonic does
57 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Shots from Temburong, Personal Collection.
58 Ibid.
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not fully cover the Ibans of Kampong Amo – Awang Hujan explained that only
10% converts to Islam in the long house he is head of but this is not the reason
why they do not practice kerong. Globalization plays a role in effecting the culture
creating a form of independence to the hegemonic group of the society – this
occurs once individuals leave their subsistence form of living to a globalized way
of living. Some cultural deterioration inevitably happens when cultural
integration occurs – in this case is the culture of kerong. Cultural integration is an
ongoing effect since man started to travel and prominently occurring when the
Silk Roads where cultures from the East fuses with the West – and with
technology, it creates a new phenomenon creating a faster transferal of data
causing some data to be considered irrelevant – in this case it’s the culture of
kerong.

2.1.4. Analysis

In this section I will analyze the data collected for tattooing or rather kerong
activities done in the past, by cross checking data from the three respondents as
well as using scholar guidance from lecturers of UBD who are in the know of
Brunei Darussalam’s past in kerong from the Historical Studies faculty in UBD by
Dr Asbol and also using information from Akedemi Pengajian Brunei by
explanations from Dr Dato Othman bin Yatim.

Firstly is the evident washout of the kerong from the tribes of Brunei. Though I
did not get any input from the Dusun or Murut due to the lack of information of

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their location and availability – I have used the Iban tribe to explain the
perception, history and cultural beliefs. In my interviews, that my entire three
respondent believe that the kerong culture is not practiced in its full context
anymore apart from it being a form of remembrance. Dr Asbol explains that the
kerong practice has died out due to religion and education, changing the whole
perception of tattooing. However, the process of tattooing is not to a severe point
as explained by Dr Asbol, but rather it has taken a different turn in concept,
ideology, methods and design than the generic form of tattooing. Never the less,
kerong has taken a new shape and new connotations from what it used to be,
with some remnant of many Iban concepts and way of life, minimally preserved,
as seen Ibans still live in long houses, just as they did before, and still practice the
welcoming lanterns. This explains that education (Ah Joup and Awang Hujan) and
religion (Nene Angah), plays a role in contributing to the progress of sociogenesis
of tattoos in Brunei.

Then, from much deliberation, government intervention plays a role in changing
the opinions of kerong. For example, concessions and ‘kurnia’ is made towards
the ‘orang ulu’ especially tribes practicing kerong in hopes of elevating social
welfare – where ideals of the hegemony has caught on to the tribes – by using
soft power59. Ah Joup and Awang Hujang have been given houses by the
government and to keep the grants, the tuais would have to adapt to the norms.
As for Nene Angah, he was granted a free trip to Mekkah for pilgrimage, a what is
now BND$10,000 trip with a controlled quota from the Saudi Arabia Ministry –

59 Nye (2004), Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics, PublicAffairs.
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accepting only 200 pilgrims from Brunei each year 60. So, the more adaption
toward the ideals of hegemony – more concessions are granted towards them.
And in adapting, activities that are deemed as ‘haram’61 would be some of the
things that are shaved off first from the tribal cultures. Baker (2012) further
explains that consumption of alcohol and eating of pork, and eating non halal
meat and adultery is considered haram where the general population would
choose to avoid these labels as going into haram ways would generate negative
connotations towards the general mass. Kerong or tattooing on that sense is
considered haram under the fatwa of Imam-Shafiie62. But having said that – there
are some branches of Islam that practices tattooing for example, Larsson (2014)
explains that women in Upper Egypt tattoo their lip in signs of religious
affiliation63. But even so, the concept of kerong cannot be practiced at a 100%
way like before (however, as mentioned before, only as remembrance), as some
of the motives were ‘ngayau’ or headhunting – which will be disruptive to Brunei.
Rather, let kerong be a practice in Brunei that commemorates other things like in
aged days such as for education achievements or intelligence, to sustain the
cultural heritage for future generations. And if not, let the stories be told as
stories in a cultural preservation center just as they practice in Sarawak (Awang
Hujan, 2015)64 – to explain the sociogenesis to the mass of Brunei and the world,
that kerong happened before the current contemporary tattoos did.

60 Hidayah (2015), Internship Experience during Ministry of Foreign Affairs in
Brunei.
61 Baker (2012), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology: Global
Perspectives, Oxford University Press. P. 51.
62 Larsson (2014), Islam and Tattooing, University of Gothenburg Sweden.
63 Ibid. P. 245.
64 Awang Hujan (2015), Personal Interview.
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CHAPTER 2
Now

Over the past 20 years, with the rise of high-speed data sharing and popularity
accredited through the entertainment section becoming increasingly evident in
the mainstream society – the role, situation and perception of tattoo changed
vastly and constantly switching polarities from positive to negative faster as
compared to before65. Shows like Miami Ink, or celebrities like Angelina Jolie have
broken the stereotypical perception of tattoos being deviant by putting a positive
connotation towards individuals with tattoos. However, there are also negative
opinions that exists in contemporary times over different cultural locations as
tattoos are connoted as prisoners Nazi Holocaust – where concentration camps
these markings were used to identify a prisoner, the markings would give the
impression to on lookers as if these are war criminals or being affiliated to ‘Hells
Angels’. As seen in the section before, tattoos were seen as social determinants
and will only be sanctioned and bestowed upon their achieving or receiving a
status. In this section, the sociogenesis will take a shift from the traditional
perception explained from the previous half of the chapter.

65 Raymond (2011), A Comparison of College Students’ Perceptions of Older
Tattooed Women and Younger Tattooed Women, Thesis: University of Central
Florida. P. 11.
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Figure 26: Angelena Jolie66

Figure 27: Miami Ink67

So in current times, Forbes (2001), Grief et al (1999) and Armstrong (2004)
explained that most tattooing is motivated by the need for expression of identity,
and its usage now can be considered as a form of conspicuous consumption –
which is also the case in Brunei.

66 Mail Online, 'How do I say no?' Tattooed Angelina Jolie reveals her children want their
own inkings but husband Brad Pitt is horrified, Retrieved From:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-2867344/Tattooed-Angelina-Jolie-revealschildren-want-inkings-husband-Brad-Pitt-horrified.html#ixzz3Wux4Em6E, Retrieved On: 10th
March 2015, Published on: 10th December 2014.

67 Image Source:
http://cdn3.volusion.com/2dahj.3qwj9/v/vspfiles/photos/A6299-2.jpg, Retrieved
on: 10th April 2015.
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In this section I have interviewed 5 different individuals regarding their
perception, methods and culture of tattooing in Brunei, however I have skimmed
the records to three to avoid repetition.

2.2.1 Arian

I came across a Middle Eastern looking boy who had initials on his hands, so I
came up to him and asked for permission to interview him. My first participant,
Arian is a 21-year-old permanent resident of Brunei, doing an Engineering
Degree with two tattoos. First I start off with asking what types of tattoos he has
– which was the name and initials of his parents decorated in Polynesian
inspirations.

So I carried on to ask him – what was the meaning of his tattoos?
Arian; I am the only child of my parents, and we have been living in Brunei for 16
years. They are basically the only family I have and this tattoo which I made last
year is just to honor them… though at first they were very angry – but they got over
it… haha… Plus it is attractive, like body art and it is how I would like to express
myself.
D; why the Polynesian inspiration?
Arian; because tattoos were originated there. Right? And I just find it ultimately
cool.

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Figure 28: Arian’s Tattoos68.

When asked of some of the things that he considers before getting a tattoo, Arian
mentioned that




Quality
Price
The type of art and meaning the tattoo will portray

Arian mentioned that he made his tattoo in a home of a foreign artist who is on a
solace trip to search for inspiration, in which he then explains of how tattoos are
made is to first choosing a design, then stenciling it onto the body to position to
liking, after that tracing the stencil using the tattoo machine while wiping the
extra ink off until the tattoo is complete. “Whoever said that tattooing is not
painful, it is straight up lies”, he said.

68 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Contemporary, Personal Collection.
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Figure 29: Modern Tattoo Device in which I took a picture
of last June at Musee Quai Branly69.

Arian did not know and traditional Bruneian tattooing or could he explain it, but
he did mention about Iban Kerong as a form of traditional tattoo in Brunei in
Brunei. But has made a vast explanation about the contemporary forms of tattoos
that are available now:



Memorial; This is the traditional portraiture, picture of an object, or a




connotation of usually someone special that has passed away.
Portraits: This is generally a face tattooed on the skin.
Oriental: Usually Asian themed tattoos which usually works around koi,




samurais, cherry blossoms, dragons, lotuses and such.
Religious: Religious symbols or quotes.
Tribal: These styles of tattoos are the groupings of tattoos from Native



Americas, Polynesia, Micronesia or Hawaiian.
Realistic: Realistic tattoos refer to the section of tattoos that is true to the



picture, as opposed to animations or cartoons.
Cartoon: Inspirations that is usually taken from their childhood or



favorite cartoons as whimsical.
Lettering and Ambigrams: This is one of the most popular forms of
tattoo where it could mean anything or say anything and it is simplistic,
with variable options of fonts and styles.

69 Hidayah Ariffin (2014), Musee Quai Branly, Personal Collection.
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

Black Gray: Shadings of black and gray used to bring three-dimensional



pictures to life instead of using colors.
Gray Wash: This may seem similar to the gray wash however, it is more



on the play of shades.
Color: This method of tattooing uses different colors as opposed to the



gray wash and black and gray.
American Traditional: The American Traditional however is the two
dimensional and low intricacies, which was made popular due the sailors
of 1800s. These consist on bold colors; blue-black outlines and filled with



red, green and occasionally blue yellow brown purple and no shading.
Neo traditional: The neo traditional is the revised concept of the
American traditional tattoos with a better and extensive color palate,
which is fused with a combination of hip-hop, graffiti, jagged edges and



bubbly lettering.
Fillers: These are used to fill in the gaps in cases where the tattooed
wants to complete a sleeve or leg.

There is no capping price to what is considered the cheapest and most expensive,
said Arian, it all depends on the design and the artists charge; but his was $90
and $200. The more colors used, or intricacy of the design will affect the price of
the tattoo. A lot of things can affect the price of tattoo, and it was a point, which
could elevate the status of the bearer.

When asked of what are the perceptions when a bearer has tattoos towards the
self and those around you? Arian answered that; “… as for me, I think as having
this, it explains what I love what I like and I am decorating my body with those who

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matter the most to me, and I will put my wife’s name on my chest one day. And so
far I have not really thought about what others think about me, and it doesn’t
really affect me”.

2.2. Bryant

Bryant is a 24-year-old Chinese businessman born and raised in Brunei. So I took
the liberty to interview him at his busy shop. Bryant has several tattoos all over
his body - first tattoo however is a biblical quote on his chest when he was 19
years old (Figure 30[e]).

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Figure 30: Some of Bryant’s Tattoos70

There were roughly 10 tattoos on his body and he got most of them locally and
internationally and then I asked him why did he get them - explained that most of
the tattoos he got was to commemorate the people he loves in his life (i.e. father,
mother and grandmother, seen in Figure 30 [a] and [b]), a ‘postcard’ souvenir
which signifies the places he has visited and just some satirical ones such as the
envelope and shark note.

Bryant then also mentioned of the things that one has to consider when making
tattoos – which falls in line with what Arian had mentioned (Quality, Price, The
type of art and meaning the tattoo will portray) with an addition to hygiene. Then
I asked him if he knew the types of tattoos that I have asked Arian earlier and he
only managed to answer three, because that was the concept that was more likely
to be attracted to. And he mentioned that, ‘tattoos is like wearing clothes, I don’t
think you can just mix and match it, moreover you have to look at this for an
amount of time, so its wise to get an experienced tattooist if you ever plan to mix
and match something or else you are going to regret’.

70 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Contemporary, Personal Collection.
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Unlike Arian, Bryant knew some traditional tattoos that are carried out in Brunei,
mentioning that Brunei did have a phase where group members and gang
members usually the Chinese, would have the same tattoo to signify that they are
from the same club, group or gang. He then showed a picture of his grandmother,
which he explains is inspired by the Sabahan culture with traditional Iban
motives.

And lastly, I asked him, so what is the perception that the tattoos imply to him
and to the people around him, he said; “it never stopped me from getting to places,
achieving what I want in life, if anything I want my son to have it too. Of course
with his own money… hahah tattoos are not cheap.”

2.3. Ilham

Then my next participant, in whom I think it is hard for me to get a hold on to
Ilham, 24-year-old Malay. I eventually got a chance to talk to him after getting
close to his neighbor. Ilham is a father of two beautiful kids in which he had them
tattooed to his back, which I could not take a picture of – because it would be
inappropriate to ask him to open his shirt in front of people.

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Figure 31: Ilham71
He entered the café with a huge sweater on, which covered all his tattoos. Ilham
then started explaining that he had his first tattoo when he was 20 and has been
adding to the canvas ever since, where he has 15 tattoos on him right now. His
first was the Hanya Mask (Figure 31b), where he explained that it is from a
Japanese folklore where the mask represents an intense evil of a woman turning
into a devil through jealousy and hatred 72. I asked him why, and he said, I don’t
know.

D; why did you start getting tattoos?
Ilham; no reason.
D; what are the meanings of each tattoo?
Ilham; I only got them for no reason and just because they are beautiful. But apart
from that – I have two actual portraits of my two kids. I love them.
71 Hidayah Ariffin (2015), Contemporary, Personal Collection.
72 O’Neil (2014), P. G. O’ Neil – Collected Writings, Routledge. P.141.
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Then Ilham started telling that he got these tattoos all over places that he has
visited just like Bryant mentioning that one of his most expensive tattoo costs
him SGD $3000 – and then he explains that calculatedly all his tattoos have
amounted up to BND $10,000 more or less. ‘I think I have an addiction’, Ilham
said.

When asked about any traditional tattoos – Ilham explained that he does not
really know any traditional tattoos but he mentioned the word ‘kerong’ and
knows that it is practiced among the Iban community.

I then ask Ilham of so what is the perception that the tattoos imply to him and to
the people around him, and he simply said ‘I have never really given a thought
about it, I see people with tattoos and without tattoos but I don’t have any opinions
about it – I love my tattoos and that is all I know’.

Analysis

I have interviewed 6 people in this section and have chosen three of the most
unique responses to avoid being redundant – as most of the responses I got from
my respondents were the same. I will then try to analyze their response
individually.

Firstly, most of my respondents explain that their main drive to get a tattoo is
because they are attractive, fashion and it promotes their individualism. DeMello
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explains that this response is that tattooed people feel that the images portray
their self-redefinition73. In many situations, before getting a tattoo, individuals
would have to consider over a period of time of what they choose to inscribe on –
and the aftermath is what defines them. However, as seen, Byrant and Ilham,
would get tattoos after they travel, as a form of souvenir, where, it would not be a
situation that has more initial thinking that most regular people. Having said
that, it could be their form of expression of conspicuous consumption 74 portraying their travelling diary in scripted on to their body. In relation to this,
each country has a generic form off tattoo style for example75,

Figure 32: Yantra Tattooing from Thailand76

73 DeMello (2003), Tattooed: The Sociogenesis of a Body Art, University of
Toronto Press: United States. P. 203.
74 Veblen (2011), Theory of Leisure Class, Books on Demand.
75 Ann & Julien (2014), Tatoueurs Tatoués, Musee Quai Branly.
76 Tattoostime.com (Unknown), Thai God Tattoo on Full Back, Date Retrieved:
28th March 2015.
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Figure 33: Kalinga Tattooing from Phillipines77
Tattoo enthusiasts get a form of satisfaction and again, decorate their
individualism after getting these country-specific tattoo styles.

During the interviews, I have notice that most of my respondents have at least
one piercing, which triggers me to ask why. The types of piercings these people
practice are usually the ‘plug’ type, but in many cases it would only be one stud.
The usual motivations for these piercings are ‘to complete the look’ or ‘an
addiction to the needle’, ‘it is cheap’ or for attractiveness. Salvation Tattooings,
explains that piercing and tattooing works hand-in-hand in one establishment 78.

77 Lars Krutak(2009), The Last Kalinga Tattoo Artist of the Philippines, Source:
http://larskrutak.com/the-last-kalinga-tattoo-artist-of-the-philippines/
78 Salvation Tattoos (Unknown), The Fine Art of Body Piercings, Source:
http://salvationtattoolounge.com/piercing.php.
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Both come hand in hand in current times as a norm 79. And in tribal societies too,
practitioners have both tattoo and piercings.

Not all respondents know the different types of contemporary tattoos, however,
through explanation and observation, the American traditional tattooings are the
main types of tattoos that Bruneians carry out. Mainly due to the fact that these
are the tattoos carried out by TV shows explained earlier and these are the only
expertise tattoos that the tattoo artists in Brunei are good at 80.

Most of the tattoos that my recipients have are made in homes of tattoo
enthusiasts or abroad – especially in Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. In which
cases they p