THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS OF READING COMPREHENSION TO STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (A Descriptive Research at the Seventh and Eighth Grade of SMP YKAB Surakarta in 20122013Academic Year)
COMPREHENSION TO STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (A Descriptive Research at the Seventh and Eighth Grade of SMP
YKAB Surakarta in 2012/2013Academic Year) THESIS
By Dika Pranadwipa Koeswiryono X2210009 TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA 2013
COMPREHENSION TO STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT (A Descriptive Research at the Seventh and Eighth Grade of SMP
YKAB Surakarta in 2012/2013Academic Year)
By Dika Pranadwipa Koeswiryono X2210009
Thesis Submitted to Teacher Training and Education Faculty
of Sebelas Maret University to Fulfill the Requirement for Achieving the Undergraduate Degree of English Education
TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY SURAKARTA 2013
Reading Comprehension to Students with Visual Impairment (a descriptive
research at the seventh and eighth grade of SMP YKAB Surakarta). Thesis, Surakarta. Teacher Training and Education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta. December 2013.
The research was conducted at SMP YKAB Surakarta, a school that provides good education for students with visual impairment. The seventh and eighth grade was the subject of the research. As a descriptive study, this research is aimed at describing the teaching and learning process of reading comprehension to students with visual impairment. It would discuss the teaching learning process at classroom, the problems appeared and the solutions to the problems.
At the teaching preparation, the teacher had some guidance from lesson plan, yet practically, he preferred to manage the teaching and learning process with his own way. He occasionally converted the reading texts into Braille but mostly dictated them for the students. Subsequently, he asked the students to resume the text and read it in the next session. In evaluating, the teacher held daily exam for obtaining mark from the students. At final semester examination, the questions on worksheet had to be dictated, to be answered by the students in Braille.
Problems on the teaching and learning process were the lack of time to convert the text into Braille. Dictating the text might solve the problem temporarily, but this solution lead to another difficulty for the students to write the word in correct spelling. Hence, the teacher was supposed to spell the words clearly. The next problem was the difficulty in searching the meaning of a new word, as there was no dictionary printed in Braille version. Fortunately, software that accommodates needs to search the meaning of words had been provided, and could be installed in some of the students’ mobile phone. Also, students’ absences of vision lead to their lack of conceptual ability. Anticipating to that problem, from the very early year of their study at the school, the students were introduced to various objects in their environment.
In conducting semester middle or final exam, it was improbable to convert the whole text into Braille, due to the lack of time. Hence, several teachers were assigned to dictate the text for the students. The teacher who graduated from special education was not designed to teach English. On the contrary, teacher from English department was not proficient in teaching special needed students. For that reason, government provides special training for regular teacher to teach special students, as well as those from special education, who assigned to teach specific subject.
Dika Pranadwipa Koeswiryono. X2210009. Proses Belajar Mengajar Reading Comprehension pada Siswa Tunanetra (penelitian deskriptif pada kelas
tujuh dan delapan SMP YKAB Surakarta). Skripsi. Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris. Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta. 2013.
Penelitian ini dilakasanakan di SMP YKAB Surakarta, sekolah yang menyelenggarakan pendidikan untuk anak tunanetra. Subjek penelitiannya adalah kelas tujuh dan kelas delapan. Sebagai studi descriptif, penelitian ini bertujuan menggambarkan proses belajar mengajar reading comprehension pada siswa tunanetra. Akan dibahas proses belajar mengajar di kelas, masalah yang muncul dan solusi dari masalah tersebut.
Pada persiapan pengajaran, guru telah memiliki pedoman dari RPP, akan tetapi, kenyataannya, ia memilih untuk menyelenggarakan kegiatan belajar mengajar dengan caranya sendiri. Sesekali, teks reading dikonversi menjadi Braille, tapi seringkali teks-teks tersebut didiktekan kepada siswa. Siswa kemudian diminta untuk meringkas teks dan membacakannya pada sesi berikutnya. Dalam evaluasi, guru mengadakan ujian harian untuk mendapatkan nilai dari siswa. Pada ujian semester, teks soal didiktekan agar dapat dijawab oleh siswa.
Masalah dalam proses belajar mengajar adalah kurangnya waktu untuk mengkonversi teks reading menjadi Braille. Mendiktekan teks tersebut mungkin dapat menyelesaikan masalah sementara, tapi solusi ini menimbulkan masalah bagi siswa dalam menulis kata Bahasa Inggris dengan ejaan yang tepat, sehingga guru harus melafalkan ejaannya dengan jelas. Masalah berikutnya adalah kesulitan untuk mencari arti dari kosakata baru, karena ketiadaan kamus dalam versi Braille. Untungnya, Software tertentu dapat diinstal di telepon genggam siswa, sehingga mereka dapat mencari arti kata melalui software kamus. Keterbatasan pengelihatan juga mengakibatkan kurangnya kemampuan konseptual siswa. Dalam mengantisipasinya, sejak awal siswa sudah dikenalkan dengan objek-objek yang beragam di lingkungan mereka.
Dalam penyelenggaraan ujian akhir atau tengah semester, tidak mungkin mengkonversi keseluruhan teks menjadi Braille, karena kurangnya waktu. Karena itu, bebrapa guru ditugaskan untuk mendiktekan teks tersebut untuk siswa. Guru lulusan jurusan Bahasa Inggris tidak dilatih untuk mengajar siswa tunanetra. Di sisi lain, guru dari Pendidikan Luar Biasa kurang cakap dalam mengajar Bahasa Inggris. Dengan alasan itu, pemerintah menyelenggarakan pelatihan khusus untuk melatih guru umum mengajar anak-anak tunanetra, juga melatih guru-guru Pendidikan Luar Biasa untuk mengajar Bahasa Inggris.
This is to certify that I myself write this thesis entitled “The Teaching and Learning Process of Reading Comprehension to Students with Visual Impairment (A Descriptive Research at the Seventh and Eighth Grade of SMP YKAB Surakarta in the Academic Year 2012/2013”. It is not plagiarism or made by others. Anything related to others’ work is written in quotation, the source of which is listed on the bibliography.
If then this pronouncement proves wrong, I am ready to accept any academic punishment, including the withdrawal or cancellation of my academic degree.
Surakarta, January 2 nd 2013
Dika Pranadwipa Koeswiryono X2210009
Approval of Examiners
Allah mengeluarkanmu dari perut ibumu tanpa mengetahui sesuatu apapun, dan Dia memberimu pendengaran, penglihatan dan hati, agar kamu bersyukur. (Surat An-Nahl: 78)
Apabila Aku menguji hambaKu dengan membutakan kedua matanya, dan dia bersabar, maka Aku ganti kedua matanya dengan surga. (HR. Ahmad)
Dedicated to my family and friends, especially those new friends of mine, who are unlucky of being visual impaired
writers so that he can accomplish this thesis as a partial requirement for achieving the undergraduate degree of English Education at the Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University. It is obvious that the writer would not be able to complete this thesis without helps from others. Therefore, he would like to express gratitude and appreciation to the following:
1. The dean of the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education who gave permission for writing this thesis
2. The head of English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty
3. Drs. Muh. Asrori, M.Pd as the first consultant, for all his valuable guidance, advice, encouragement and patience
4. Endang Setyaningsih, S.Pd.,M.Hum for all her valuable guidance, advice, encouragement and patience
5. The headmaster of SMP YKAB Surakarta, for his permission and advice.
6. Mr. Sigit Wahyudi, S.Pd, the English teacher of SMP YKAB Surakarta, for his help for the researcher to conduct this research
7. Mr Wahyu, the new English teacher at SMP YKAB Surakarta
8. The seventh and eighth grade students of SMP YKAB Surakarta, who participated well for the research
9. Mba Linda, who shared a lot of valuable knowledge for this research
10. His beloved family, his parents, his old and young brothers for their supports, caring and prayer.
11. His classmate of teacher qualification program 2010 for their helps and support
12. Intan Emka, for her support
13. Everyone who participated in conducting this research but cannot be mentioned one by one.
A. Research Finding ..........................................................................
B. Discussion .....................................................................................
37
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION IMPLICATION SUGESTION
A. Conclusion ....................................................................................
42
B. Implication ....................................................................................
43
C. Suggestion ....................................................................................
43
BIBLOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................
44
APPENDICES ..........................................................................................................
47
List of Appendices
1. Pictures ..............................................................................................
49
2. Setting of the research .......................................................................
52
3. Interview with informants .................................................................
54
4. Interview guidance for the teacher ....................................................
64
5. Interview guidance for the students ..................................................
66
6. Teaching learning process in classroom ...........................................
67
7. Data of the SMP YKAB Surakarta ...................................................
68
8. The layout of SMP YKAB Surakarta ...............................................
69
9. The lesson plans ................................................................................
70
10. The question sheet of the mid-semester test .....................................
76
11. The students’ Braille answer sheet ....................................................
77
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
English is becoming more and more important for people as it is considered as an international language. It is the main language spoken in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, United States, Canada and some other countries. Most information in news paper, books, internet, television and letter also use this language. Conferences in international scale are conducted in English. People use English to communicate with others from different countries. This language helps people to improve their career either. Therefore, having competence in science and technology supported by mastery of English is absolutely needed by everyone to compete in this global world.
For those reasons, the Indonesian government via the Ministry of National Education decided to take English subject as the educational programs. It is taken as the first foreign language in Indonesia and is established as an obligatory subject to learn at school, from elementary school, junior and senior high school until university.
One of the aspects of the language skills of English is reading. It is basically a matter of decoding a series of written symbol into their aural equivalents (Nunan, 1991:64). More than just that, reading is the medium for people to gain information about their world. DeBoer and Dallman (1966:7) states “through reading, the child can view ever widening horizon and explore ever-new areas in the world of things, people and events”. We find something to read every time at books, newspaper, television broadcast, internet, advertising, dictionary etc. DeBoer and Dallman (1966:5) states “if all the invention of a hundred years were destroyed and only books were left, man could still be man, in the sense intended by the idealist, the poets, and great creator. Teaching reading is a humanizing process”. How very important reading skill in learning is, that One of the aspects of the language skills of English is reading. It is basically a matter of decoding a series of written symbol into their aural equivalents (Nunan, 1991:64). More than just that, reading is the medium for people to gain information about their world. DeBoer and Dallman (1966:7) states “through reading, the child can view ever widening horizon and explore ever-new areas in the world of things, people and events”. We find something to read every time at books, newspaper, television broadcast, internet, advertising, dictionary etc. DeBoer and Dallman (1966:5) states “if all the invention of a hundred years were destroyed and only books were left, man could still be man, in the sense intended by the idealist, the poets, and great creator. Teaching reading is a humanizing process”. How very important reading skill in learning is, that
Eyes are the sensory organs that contribute 80 – 85 percent information about our world (Effendi, 2006:37). Through the eyes, the image of an object is sent to brain. In general sense, reading is what happen when people look at a text and assign meaning to the written symbol in that text (Aebersold&Field, 1977:15). This process definitely requires eyes as the only sensory organ that is capable in processing written symbol as visual input for afterward being constructed in brain. This is what causes impossibility for the visual impaired children to read written text in the way that sighted children do. Finkelstein (1989, cited in Shea & Bauer, 1996:245) states “…learners with visual impairment are less capable or have less potential than those who see”
Visual impaired children have lost one of their vital sensory organs, which give them plenty visual information about their world. This condition encumbers them to get access to knowledge, especially visual information. It also limited their mobility due to their lack of orientation about their environment. Miller and Schols (1982:34) states
“Traditional educational practice relies heavily on students’ ability to perceive visual images. Color, forms, size, texture and actions are frequently utilized in instructional presentations. The interpretation of these stimuli maybe impossible or highly difficult for students with impaired vision. The visually impaired individual is less able to read and interpret social cues that are necessary to the development of social skillful behavior”
Although eye is a very vital sensory organ, the absence of vision does not mean that the children have lost opportunity for interacting with their environment. Effendi (2006:37) states (...) ia masih dapat mensubstitusi hilangnya indra pengelihatan tersebut melalui kompensasi indera lain yang masih berfungsi, walaupun hasilnya tidak secanggih dan selengkap jika dibarengi dengan penggunaan indra pengelihatan. It means, a visual impaired child still have an Although eye is a very vital sensory organ, the absence of vision does not mean that the children have lost opportunity for interacting with their environment. Effendi (2006:37) states (...) ia masih dapat mensubstitusi hilangnya indra pengelihatan tersebut melalui kompensasi indera lain yang masih berfungsi, walaupun hasilnya tidak secanggih dan selengkap jika dibarengi dengan penggunaan indra pengelihatan. It means, a visual impaired child still have an
“Dalam sistem pendidikan nasional diadakan pengaturan pendidikan khusus yang diselenggarakan untuk peserta didik yang menyandang kelainan fisik dan/atau mental. Peserta didik yang menyandang kelainan demikian juga berhak memperoleh pendidikan yang layak, sebagaimana diamanatkan dalam Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 yang dalam hal ini menyatakan dengan singkat tapi jelas bahwa "Tiap-tiap warga negara berhak mendapat pengajaran", dan yang ditegaskan dalam Undang- undang nomor 2 Tahun 1989 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional yang menyatakan bahwa "Setiap warga negara", termasuk warga negara berkelainan, "mempunyai hak yang sama untuk memperoleh pendidikan"
The special education for the exceptional children is aimed to develop the exceptional children’s ability to socialize and improve their potentiality. Effendi (2006:24) states
melalui pendekatan dan strategi khusus dalam mendidik anak berkelainan, diharapkan anak berkelainan: 1) dapat menerima kondisinya, 2) dapat melakukan sosialisasi dengan baik, 3) mampu berjuang sesuai dengan kemampuannya 4)memiliki keterampilan yang sangat dibutuhkan dan 5) menyadari sebagai warga negara dan anggota masyarakat
According to Government’s Regulation of Republic of Indonesia No. 72 in 1991 about Special Education, Chapter II Article 2,
Pendidikan luar biasa bertujuan membantu peserta didik yang menyandang kelainan fisik dan/atau mental agar mampu mengembangkan sikap, pengetahuan dan keterampilan sebagai pribadi maupun anggota masyarakat dalam mengadakan hubungan timbal-balik dengan lingkungan sosial, budaya dan alam sekitar serta dapat mengembangkan kemampuan dalam dunia kerja atau mengikuti pendidikan lanjutan .
In the process of reading, eyes are required to look at the text and interpret the written symbol that the writer attempt to encode. This condition will
be a problem for children who lost the function of their visual organ. Students be a problem for children who lost the function of their visual organ. Students
In Surakarta, there is a special school which accommodates and educates those exceptional children, especially the visually impaired. The school, which is SMP YKAB Surakarta, applies special method and provides facilities for supporting education for visual impaired children. English is one of the subjects that are taught in the school, in this case, the students of the seventh and the eighth grade.
Not many know about the teaching learning process of reading comprehension to student with visual impairment. The English teaching methods that have been acquired are mostly designed for teaching normal student. Some obstacles related with the students’ limitation will perhaps be encountered in teaching them reading comprehension. For that reason, the researcher is interested to figure out the teaching-learning process of English reading comprehension at the seventh and eighth grade of SMP YKAB Surakarta.
Based on the explanation above, the researcher would like to discuss THE
TEACHING LEARNING PROCES OF READING COMPREHENSION OF ENGLISH TO STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT, A Descriptive Study at the Seventh and Eighth Grade of SMP YKAB Surakarta, in 2012/2013 Academic Year
B. The Problem Statements
There are several problems that is identified in this research, they are:
1. How is the process of teaching and learning of reading comprehension to children with visual impairment at the seventh and the eighth grade of
SMP YKAB Surakarta? SMP YKAB Surakarta?
3. What are the solutions applied by the school and the teacher to solve those problems?
C. The Problem Limitation
The researcher limits his research on the process of teaching-learning of reading comprehension to the seventh and eighth grade student of SMP YKAB Surakarta in 2012/2013 academic year.
D. The Objective of the Study
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To describe the teaching and learning process of English reading to student with visual impairment of the seventh and eighth grade of SMP
YKAB Surakarta
2. To identify the problems faced by the teacher of English and the seventh and eighth grade students at SMP YKAB Surakarta in teaching learning process of reading comprehension.
3. To figure out what solutions are applied by teacher of the seventh and eighth grade of SMP YKAB Surakarta in solving those problems.
E. The Benefits of the Study
It is expected that the result of the research would give contribution to English teaching in general, especially for learning and teaching process of children with visual impairment. For teachers, especially who will teach at Special School, this research is expected to be useful for improving knowledge about teaching student with visual impairment. For researchers, this research are expected to be a reference in conducting more advanced research on the teaching and learning process of visual impaired students.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses the nature of teaching and learning process of reading comprehension. Exceptional children, especially those who suffer visual impairment, will also be discussed, as well as the theories of teaching and learning process of reading comprehension for visual impaired children.
A. Reading Comprehension and the Teaching Learning Process
1. The Definition of Reading
Reading is one of the four skills in language learning. There are several definitions from several experts about reading. Harris (1980:8) states “reading is the meaningful interpretation of printed or written verbal symbol”. Similarly, according to Aebersold and Field (1997:15), “In general sense, reading is what happen when people look at a text and assign meaning to the written symbol in that text”. In line with them both, Nunan, (1991:64) ads that “... reading is basically a matter of decoding a series of written symbol into their aural equivalents”. The point is that reading is getting meaningful interpretation from a series written symbol.
Further, Carrel, Devine and Eskey (1988:12) state, reading is a receptive language process. It is a psycholinguistic process in that
it starts with a linguistic surface representation encoded by a writer and ends with a meaning that a reader constructs. The writer encodes thought as language and the reader decodes language to thought.
It means that the interaction between writer and reader happens when the reader decodes the writer’s messages through linguistic representation in the form of written symbol.
Another expert, Wallace (1994:4), states that reading as interpreting means reacting to a written text as a piece of communication; in other words, she assume some communicative intent on the writer’s part which the reader has some purposes in attempting to understand.
meaningful interpretation of a series of written symbol, where the reader attempt to understand the thought that the writer encodes.
2. Reading Comprehension
a. Definition of Reading Comprehension
Some experts propose their definition about reading comprehension. According to Bormuth (1969:50, cited in Harris, 1980:479), comprehension ability is thought to be a set of generalized knowledge-acquisition skills which permit people to acquire and exhibit information gained as a consequence of reading printed language.
Other experts, Harris and Sipay (1980:8), states that reading (comprehending) is a result of the interaction between the perception of graphic symbols that represent the language and reader’s language skills and knowledge of the world. In this process the reader tries to re-create the meaning intended by the writer. This statement is supported by Heilman, Blair and Rupley (1981:242) who say “reading comprehension is a process of making sense of written ideas through meaningful interpretation and interaction with language”
Kennedy (1981: 188) states that comprehension is the ability of one to find, interpret, and use ideas. In addition, Harris and Hodges in Torgesen (2006) state that reading comprehension is the construction of meaning of a written text through a reciprocal interchange of ideas between the reader and the message in particular text.
In conclusion, it can be summarized that reading comprehension is the interaction between written ideas, reader’s language skill and his or her knowledge of the world to construct the meaning of a written text, as well as to acquire and exhibit information.
The activity of comprehending reading text has some specific purposes. The purposes depend on the intention of the reader to read the passage and what kind of information is he/she going to a trough reading.
Wallace (1996: 6-7) classifies the purposes of reading based on the personal reasons. The purposes include reading for survival, for pleasure and learning. Warning sign on electrical devices or instruction on the bottle of medicine are some examples of text for surviving. People read to learn, for example, when they are reading dictionary, attend teacher’s explanation on whiteboard or trying to summarize a text, while to gain pleasure, people read novels or short stories.
At school where the research is held, the visually impaired students read for those all purposes. They learn to read stories as well as English lesson beyond the stories.
c. Models of Reading
According to Aebersold and Field (1997: 17-18) there are three main models of how reading occurs. The first is the bottom-up reading model, where the reader constructs the text from the smallest units and gradually compiles them to comprehend the higher units of the text. Top-down reading is the second, where the process of reading begin in the mind of the reader with his or her knowledge, expectation, assumptions and question to the text and give the basic understanding of vocabulary. There is an interaction of both bottom-up and top down reading at the third model which is called interactive reading. The interaction depends on the type of text as well as on the reader’s background knowledge, language proficiency level, motivation, strategy use, and culturally shaped beliefs about the reading.
Another expert, Strange, (1980, cited in Burn, 1984:151) states that reading cannot be exclusively knowledge based, or “top down” neither can text based, or “bottom-up”. If it were only top-down reading, two people reading the Another expert, Strange, (1980, cited in Burn, 1984:151) states that reading cannot be exclusively knowledge based, or “top down” neither can text based, or “bottom-up”. If it were only top-down reading, two people reading the
It can be summarized from the explanations above that a reader should involve and combine both the information gained from the text with his or her own knowledge and experiences to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the text.
d. Skills of Reading Comprehension Intensive
Davis (1944, cited in Smith & Jhonson 1980:130) sorted out and labeled nine skills judged by the reading authorities he consulted to be basic to reading comprehension. They are the following:
1) Knowledge of word meanings
2) Ability to select the appropriate meaning for a word or phrase in the light of its contextual setting
3) Ability to follow the organization of a passage and to indentify antecedents and references in it
4) Ability to identify the main thought of a passage
5) Ability to answer question that are specifically answered in a passage
6) Ability to answer questions that are answered in a passage, but not in the words in which the question is asked
7) Ability to draw inferences from a passage about its contents
8) Ability to recognize the literary device used in a passage and to determine its tone and mood
9) Ability to determine a writer’s purpose, intent, and point of view, i.e. to draw inferences about a writer
Those nine skills are what the teacher should teach to improve students’ reading comprehension. However, special methods and strategies are required to improve the reading skill of those with visual limitation.
The indicators of reading of the seventh grade were:
1) To identify various detailed information on descriptive/procedure text
2) To identify the language feature of descriptive/procedure text
The indicators of reading of the eighth grade were:
1) To identify the information on short functional text of in the form of invitation
2) To identify the information on short functional text of in the form of announcement
3) To identify the social function of short massage text
e. Levels of Reading Comprehension
According to Heilman, Blair and Rupley (1981:246), there are three levels of comprehension. They are literal comprehension, interpretative comprehension and critical comprehension. Literal comprehension is the lowest, where at this level the reader is able to understand the ideas and information explicitly stated in the passage, such as identifying explicitly stated main ideas, grammatical clues, verb, pronoun, conjunction and so forth.
At the higher level, the interpretative comprehension, the reader is able to understand the information not explicitly stated in the passage. He or she infers factual information, main ideas, comparison, cause – effect relationships and summarize the content of the text.
Analyzing, evaluating, and personally reacting to information presented in
a passage are what a reader do when reading at critical level. He/she is capable of react personally to information in the passage indicating its meaning to the reader, as well as analyzing and evaluating the quality of written information in terms of some standards.
Another expert, Estill (1988:159), proposes more on levels of reading comprehension. He states that an individual may be said to comprehend a text fully when he can:
1) Recognize the words and sentence of the text and know what these
words and sentence mean (obtain literal meaning)
2) Associate meaning, both denotative and connotative from personal 2) Associate meaning, both denotative and connotative from personal
4) Make value judgment about, and based on, the reading experience
(read critically) From the statement of those two experts, it can be concluded that the lowest level of comprehension is the ability to obtain and understand information explicitly stated. Understanding of implicitly stated information is on the next level of comprehending. The most advanced level is the ability to judge, analyze and evaluate the information presented in the passage.
f. Factors Influencing Comprehension Ability
There are some factors that influence the development of comprehension. According to Smith (1972:243), the four factors that affect comprehension are thinking skill, background experiences, ability to use language and intelligence.
1) Thinking skill Reading does not take place without comprehension, and comprehension cannot occur without thinking. Evidently, the reading process is intimately
linked to thinking.
2) Background experiences. They are necessary component for thinking since it provides an individual with the raw material he manipulates during the thinking process. Broadly
defined background experience includes books previously read, lectures attended, discussion held, trips taken and so forth. Without getting into the nature – nurture argument over whether heredity or environment is more important in determining intelligence, it is clear that thinking cannot occur without some basis in real-life.
3) Ability to use language. It is also important for thinking to occur. Some authorities believe that thinking cannot take place without language – that an infant does not truly
think until he has a label for objects (Osgood, 1963).
Intelligence may be defined in many ways. Here he refers to intelligence as the innate mental ability of an individual, his potential for manipulating thoughts.
Another experts, Dawson and Bamman (1967: 220-223) state that there are five factors which influence that comprehension ability. They are intelligence, experience, and mechanics of reading, interest span, and skills of comprehending.
1) Intelligence Students have different intelligence, so it will be possible for them to
produce different comprehension.
2) Experience Students with limited experience may have difficulty in comprehending many of the ideas and activities with which other students are familiar before they
come to school.
3) Mechanics of Reading Comprehension will be easier for the students if they have all mastered the skills of word meaning, and if they have learned to handle material books
properly. Obviously, there must be a fine balance somewhat in each student between careful attention to word attack skills and to comprehension skills.
4) Interest and Interest Span It is truism what we are respond quickly to what we read are interested in
the topic or at least familiar with it. The interest span is related to personality factors; a disturbed student who has encountered many unfortunate experiences at home or in the school may be unable to preserve when required for comprehending reading passages.
5) Skill of Comprehending Another obvious factor, which influences the dept and amount of
comprehension, is the skill which the students have developed for that purpose. Like all reading skills, the ability to comprehend what has been read develops gradually from the simple to the complex skills.
influence the comprehension ability are thinking skill, background experiences, language ability, interest, mechanic of reading and the skill of comprehending.
The subject of this research, the visually impaired does not have problem in thinking skill, nor intelligence, since theirs are normal. However, their limited vision causes lack of background experiences, as well as the language skill which affects their comprehension ability.
g. Effective Reading Comprehension Instruction
The features of comprehension instruction according to Heilman, Blair and Rupley (1981:248) are:
1) Design reading program that allow for development of a meaningful vocabulary by using contextual situations based on
children’s experience development
2) Concentrate on improve questioning abilities that include not only the asking of the appropriate question but also the providing of appropriate feedback to the child’s response. Reward pupil’s
efforts and thinking rather than just correct answers
3) Provide direct instruction on comprehension abilities that is appropriate to the desired outcome (ranging from knowledge to inquiry) and pupils’ grade level, SES, likelihood of success, and so
forth
4) Set purpose for reading comprehension that encourage pupil’s attention to and active engagement in learning
5) Afford pupils the opportunity to apply their reading comprehension skills in meaningful recreational reading activities
According to Otto, Rude and Spiegel (1979:166), there are five guidelines for teaching reading comprehension. They are:
1) Teach, do not just provide opportunities for practice 1) Teach, do not just provide opportunities for practice
3) Provide practice in using several comprehension skills at one time
4) Set the stage and set the purpose of reading
5) Probe, pry and pick. Children must be asked to give reasons for their answer; they must be asked to expand their answer; they must
be given opportunities to defend seemingly incorrect statement. Those guidelines are applied to improve students’ comprehension. They
can be applied in many varieties of material and many varieties of ways. The teacher of English may have to modify those guidelines to meet the need of the visually impaired.
B. Exceptional Children
1. The Definition of Exceptional Children
Some experts have proposed some definition about exceptional children. According to Blackhurts & Berdine (1981:9), exceptional children are children who have physical, mental, behavioral or sensory characteristic that differ from the majority of children that they require special education and related service to develop to their maximum abilities. Similarly, Hewwet and Forness (1984:75) states that an exceptional learner is an individual who, because of uniqueness in sensory, physical, neurological, temperamental, or intellectual capacity and/or in the nature or range of previous experience, requires an adaptation of the regular school program in order to maximize his or her functioning level.
Those definitions are supported by Kirk (1970:4 in Effendi, 2006:4) who states that the exceptional children are they “… who deviates from the average or normal child in mental, physical or mental characteristic to such extent that they requires a modification of school practices, or special educational service in order to develop to his maximum capacity”.
Another expert, Sutarno et.al (1982:10), states “yang dimaksud dengan Another expert, Sutarno et.al (1982:10), states “yang dimaksud dengan
From the theories above, it can be concluded that the exceptional children are children who have physical, mental, behavioral or sensory characteristic that differs from the majority of children that they require a modification of school practices, or special educational service in order to develop their maximum capacity.
2. Classification of Exceptional Children
According to Chauhan (1978:470), the types of exceptional children are
1. Intellectually exceptional: the gifted and creative, the slow learner, educable mentally retarded and the severally mentally retarded.
2. Physically exceptional: impaired vision, impaired hearing, Impaired speech, crippled brain injured.
3. Emotionally exceptional: Delinquents.
4. Multi-handicapped: the children who have more than one defect given above.
Blackhurts and Berdine (1981:9) states that exceptional children includes children with communication disorder, hearing disorder, visual impairment, physical disabilities, mental retardation, learning disabilities, behavior disorder, multiple handicaps, high intelligence and unique talents.
It can be summarized from those two explanation that the classification of exceptional children are they with communication disorder, hearing disorder, visual impairment, physical disabilities, educable and severe mental retardation, learning disabilities or slow learner, behavior disorder, delinquents, multi- handicapped, high intelligence, the gifted and multi talents.
Visual impairment is one of the types of exceptional condition which related to visual ability. Blackhurt and Berdine (1981:216) states
Legally blind children are defined as (1) Those whose visual acuity is 20/200 or less in the better eye with the best correction, or (2) those whose field of vision is restricted to an angle subtending an area of 20 degrees or less (American Foundation for the Blind, 1961).
Pueschel (1988:63, cited in Abdurrahman and Sujadi, 1994:43) states “secara sederhana, tunanetra dapat diartikan pengelihatan yang tidak normal, biasanya disebut memiliki ketajaman pengelihatan 20/200”. It means that basically, visual impairment can be defined as abnormal vision with visual acuity of 20/200. In line with Pueschel, Abdurrahman (1994:43) also states
Orang yang memiliki bidang pengelihatnya terbatas adalah bentuk lain dari gangguan pengelihatan. Apabila kita melihat lurus ke depan secara peripheral 180 derajat, kemudian oleh karena suatu sebab, bidang pengelihatan berkurang menjadi 20 derajat atau kurang, maka ia termasuk buta.
He explains that limited vision field is another kind of visual handicap. If we look straight forward peripherally 180 degrees, then the visual aid is decreased into 20 degrees or less, our vision can be identified as blind.
Learners with visual impairment include those whose sight is limited in any way to the extent that special services are required (Shea et.al, 1996:245). According to Vaughn et.al (2000:249), when glasses or contact do not correct within normal or near normal limits, students may be considered to have a visual impairment that may require special education service.
Other experts, Hallahan and Kauffman (1994:344), a person who is legally blind has visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye even with correction (e.g. eyeglasses) or has a field vision so narrow that its widest diameter subtends an angular distance no greater than 20 degrees. Visual acuity is how clearly an individual can see a designated object at a distance of 20 feet (Vaughn, Bos and Schuum, 1997:249).
the condition of the eyes, in which the visual acuity is 20/200 or less in the better eye with the best correction and the field vision is so narrow that its widest diameter subtends an angular distance no greater than 20 degrees.
D. Visual Impairment and the Teaching Learning Process of Reading
1. Instructional Adaptation for Teaching Reading to the Visually Impaired
Because of the large amount of information most people gather through vision, it is often presumed that learner with visual impairment are less capable or have less potential (Shea & Bauer, 1996:263). However, Hallahan and Kauffman (1994: 348) state “most authorities believe that lack of vision do not alter very significantly the ability to understand and use language”. In order to maximize their potential, including language and communication ability, exceptional children, in this case the visual impaired, requires the service of special education.
According to Hallahan and Kauffman (1994: 348), there are a few subtle differences in the way in which language usually develops in children who are visually impaired compared to sighted children. Although such differences are relatively subtle and do not indicate that children with blindness will lead a linguistically deficient existence, it’s a good idea to provide children who are blind with as rich an exposure to language as possible at as young age as possible (Warren, 1984, cited in Hallahan and Kauffman, 1994: 348)
Another expert, Burns (1984: 478), states that in general, the language of visually handicapped student is not deficient, so their ability to listen and relate and remember must be developed as fully as possible. Burns suggests several instructional for teaching reading to the visually handicapped students, they are:
a. Since the child gain knowledge primarily trough touch and hearing, he or she should be given many concrete object to feel and manipulate. Accompanying these tactile experiences, verbal explanation describing shape, size, weight, hardness, texture, pliability and temperature are very
helpful.
horizons, to develop imagery and to orient him or her to a wide and varied environment.
c. Reading aloud to children is one of the most rewarding experiences that build listening skills. This is especially true with the visually impaired
child.
d. Utilize sets of cassette tape for listening skill.
e. Children with impaired vision should be seated close to the chalk board or wherever material to be studied.
f. Encourage the child to use properly fitted glasses when reading.
g. Plan several short period of close work (such as reading book) rather than one extended period of continuous work.
h. Provide active assignment of some kind after close work
i. Adjust shade so there is no glare on the chalkboard j. Minimize the use of machine that utilize a lighted screen
2. Special Reading Aids for the Visual Impairment
A number of instructional materials have been designed to meet the needs
of visual impairment (Blackhurts & Berdine, 1981: 239). In the process of reading, those with visual impairment requires some devices, they are:
a. Braille
Figure – 1. Braille Alphabet Figure – 1. Braille Alphabet
b. Print Reading
Children with partial sight can read print if it is presented to them appropriately (Blackhurts & Berdine, 1981: 234). Two general methods of aiding children with visual impairment to read print are large print books and magnifying devices (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1994: 363). According to Blackhurts & Berdine (1981: 235), the most effective print size will vary with the particular child. Studies have indicated that 18 point type may be most efficient size for most visually impaired children (Eakin, Pratt, and McFarland, 1961, cited in Blackhurt and Berdine, 1981: 235). Magnifying device range from glasses and hand held lenses to closed circuit television scanners that present a enlarged image on a TV screen. These device can be used with normal-size type or large type book (Hallahan & Kauffman 1994:363)
Children with partial vision are able to read most efficiently when the print they are reading contrast sharply with the material on which the letter are printed (Blackhurt & Berdine, 1981:237). For that reason sometimes yellow acetate is required to improve the contrast between print and its background (Shea & Bauer, 1996: 258).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
According to Best (1981:18), research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observation that may lead to the development of generalization, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.
A. The Method of The Research
Related to the objective of this research, the approach used in this research is descriptive study. Descriptive research is concerned with condition or relationship that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends that are developing (Best, 1981:93). In addition, Moleong (2005:6) states that in descriptive study, the data which is collected are in the form of words and pictures, instead of numbers.
B. Time and Place of the Research
1. Description of Research Setting
a. Description of SMP YKAB Surakarta
The research was carried out at SMP YKAB Surakarta from August to October 2012. The school in which the research was carried on was SMP YKAB Surakarta. YKAB itself is the abbreviation of Yayasan Kesejahteraan Anak Buta, or Blind Children Wealth Foundation. The school, which is located on Jalan HOS Cokroaminoto, Surakarta, obtained its operation permit in March 7 th 1989. Complete information about the school can be acquired from its website, www.slbykabsurakarta.blogspot.com , or via telephone, on 0271 655254.
b. Description of Facilities in SMP YKAB Surakarta
In order to support teaching learning activity, SMP YKAB Surakarta provided numbers of facilities. Beside classrooms, a female dormitory was also provided, located in the school environment, as well as male dormitory, which
Surakarta. Braille computer and printer are established for supporting the teaching and learning process. There was a machine of Braille printer in the room. The teachers there converted sight text into Braille and printed it with the machine. In order to prepare the students to be able to survive with the disability, the school provided massage workshop, audio music workshop and gamelan workshop. Orientation and mobility workshop was also provided in the school.
c. Description of Research Setting
The study is carried on a class of the seventh and the eighth grades. In those classes there are several chairs and tables for the students and the teacher. Located on the corner of the class was a cupboard for keeping the Braille books and other teaching learning equipments. There was no black/white board in front of the class, due to the unnecessary for it. There were enough ventilations for air circulation in this classes which were facing to the South.