PHASAL REALIZATIONS IN CLASSROOM DISCOURSE : A SYSTEMIC-FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS.

PHASAL REALIZATIONS IN CLASSROOM DISCOURSE

A Systemic-Functional Analysis

A Thesis

Submitted to the English Applied Linguistics Study Program In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora

By

LASYULI SIMBOLON Registration Number 8126112018

ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY PROGRAM

POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN

2014

PHASAL REALIZATIONS IN CLASSROOM DISCOURSE

A Systemic-Functional Analysis

A Thesis

Submitted to the English Applied Linguistics Study Program In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora

By

LASYULI SIMBOLON Registration Number 8126112018

ENGLISH APPLIED LINGUISTICS STUDY PROGRAM

POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDAN

2014

ii ABSTRACT

LASYULI SIMBOLON. Phasal Realizations in Classroom Discourse. A Systemic - Functional Analysis. Postgraduate School of the State University of Medan. 2014.

The problems investigated in this study are ((1) the phasal realizations characteristic of the classroom discourse, (2) the phasal realizations used by the teachers in classroom discourse, (3) phasal lexicogrammatical realizations in classroom discourse. This study is data-based in which materials were selected as corpora for investigation. This approach is qualitative-descriptive in nature, and the method is observational. The spatial setting is SMK Negeri 1 Karang Baru, Aceh Tamiang, whereas the temporal setting is April until June 2014. The subjects of the study are 4 English teachers in SMK Negeri 1 Karang Baru, Aceh Tamiang. 4 CD-in-text (classroom discourse-in-texts) are selected as data by applying the researcher’s judgment sampling technique. The data are collected by means of audio-visual recordings and transcriptions, and they are analyzed by

employing a complementary method of analysis of Young’s model. The primary

instrument of this study is the researcher herself, whereas the secondary instruments are (1) classification schemes of the semiotic aspect in focus, (2) data sheets that contain 4 classroom discourse-in-texts, and (3) notes on each classroom discourse-in-text. The findings reveal that the CD-in-text as a whole is typically realized and characterized by the following: (1) Substantiation (SU) as the most prominent macro-function and the Conclusion (CO) as the least prominent, (2) the Interchange (IC) as the most prominent micro-function and the Apology (AP) as the least prominent. Based on the main findings, there is strong evidence to suggest that the ‘semiotic behavior’ of the CD-in-text as a whole is motivated by the goal-oriented need, and the goal to achieve has tended to be more academic-oriented than social-oriented. In this, the teachers as the primary speakers of the classroom interactions have tended to focus on the transformation of intellectual values (academic knowledge/skills) with the least social values involved therein. The most prominently occurring SU macro-function and IC micro-function are clear indicators of this endeavor. The scope and the objectives of this study have been delimited to investigate CD phenomena at the levels of phase and sub-phase. To provide a comprehensive account of CD phenomena at SMK Negeri 1 Karang Baru in particular, it is suggested that further research of this kind with a wider scope needs to be carried out, as such that it includes all relevant aspects and dimensions of all the semiotic levels in the overall semiotic space of language-in-context complex.

iii ABSTRAK

LASYULI SIMBOLON. Phasal Realizations in Classroom Discourse. A Systemic - Functional Analysis. Program Studi Linguistik Terapan Bahasa Inggris, Program Pascasarjana, Universitas Negeri Medan 2014.

Masalah yang ditelitii dalam kajian ini ialah (1) realisasi fasa (phasal realizaliations) dalam wacana kelas dihubungkait dengan jenis pola fasa dan sub-fasa, (2) cara guru merealisasikan fasa dan sub-fasa dalam wacana kelas, dan (3) realisasi leksika-gramatika dalam wacana kelas dihubungkaitkan dengan fasa dan sub-fasa. Kajian ini berasaskan data dimana bahan-bahn dipilih sebagai data kajian. Pendekatan kajian ini bersifat kualitatif-deskriptif dengan pemerhatian sebagai kaedah kajian. Kajian ini dilaksanakan di SMK Negeri 1 Karang Baru, Aceh Tamiang pada bulan April sampai Juni 2014. Subjek penelitian adalah 4 orang guru Bahasa Inggris. 4 wacana kelas-dalam-teks (Classroom discourse-in-text) dipilih sebagai data. Pengumpulan data dibuat melalui rekaman audio-visual dan transkripsi. Data dianalisis menggunakan kaedah analisis model Young. Instrument utama utama kajian adalah peneliti sendiri. Instrumen sekunder adalah (1) skema klasifikasi aspek-aspek semiotic yang menjadi tumpuan kajian, (2) lembaran-lembaran data mengandung 4 wacana kelas-dalam-teks, dan (3) catatan-catatan pada setiap proses pembelajaran-dalam-teks. Penemuan kajian ini menunjukkan bahwa pada keseluruhannya, wacana kelas-dalam-teks (Classroom Discourse-in-texts) lazimnya dicirikan oleh: (1) fungsi makro yang paling utama adalah Pembuktian (SU) manakala Kesimpulan (CO) yang paling kurang menonjol, (2) fungsi mikro paling utama adalah Pertukaran (IC) dan Permintaan maaf (AP) yang palng kurang ketara. Corak fungsi-mikro memamerkan kepelbagaian (perubahan) yang dinamik, sementara corak fungsi-mikro menunjukkan kepelbagaian yang amat dinamik. Berdasarkan penemuan-penemuan utama kajian, terdapat bukti kukuh bahwa secara keseluruhan, motivasi

utama bagi ‘perlakuan semiotic’ (semiotic behavior) CD-dalam-teks adalah keperluan yang berorientasikan pada orientasi akademik daripada orientasi sosial. Dalam hal ini, para guru sebagai pembicara utama dalam interaksi kelas mempunyai focus yang lebih cenderung kepada transformasi nilai-nilai intelektual (pengetahuan/kemahiran akademik) dengan penerapan nilai sosial yang lebih sedikit. Petunjuk-petunjuk yang nyata pada usaha tersebut adalah fungsi –makro SU dan fungsi-mikro IC dan EP yang berlaku dengan amat ketara. Ruang lingkup dan objektif-objektif kajian ini terbatas kepada menyelidik fenomena wacana kelas (CD) pada tahap-tahap fasa dan cabang fasa. Untuk menghasilkan laporan lengkap tentang fenomena CD terutamanya di SMK Negeri 1 Karang Baru, Aceh Tamiang, disarankan pada kajian ini perlu dilanjutkan dengan ruang lingkup yang lebih luas. Dengan demikian, kajian tersebut perlu merangkum semua aspek dan dimensi yang relevan bagi semua tahap semiotik dalam ruang semiotic kompleks bahasa-dalam-teks.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To Lord Jesus be the glory and honor for His wonderful love and blessing that have enabled me to finish writing this thesis. It is a great blessing to meet so many wonderful people who have supported me during my study in English Applied Linguistic Postgraduate School State University of Medan. This thesis would not be completed without the guidance and inspiration of many lecturers and staffs of English Applied Linguistic Postgraduate School Postgraduate School State University of Medan. First and foremost, my deepest gratitude goes to my advisers, Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M.Pd and Dr. Zainuddin, M.Hum, for the continuous support, patience, understanding, encouragement, and suggestions in completing this thesis.

I would like to extend my thanks to Prof. Dr. Busmin Gurning, M.Pd as the Head of English Applied Linguistics Study Program and his secretary, Dr. Sri Minda Murni, M.S, and all the lecturers that have given me encouragement and a lot of experience and knowledge during my study especially to Prof. Amrin Saragih, M.A, Ph.D, Dr. Syahron Lubis, MA, and Dr. Sri Minda Murni, M.S as the examiners for the valuable suggestions that have shaped up this thesis.

I owe a deep appreciation to Drs. Yunaldi as the head master of SMK Negeri 1 Karang Baru, Aceh Tamiang that had given me the opportunity to do further study that resulted in this thesis.

I am also grateful to Prof. Tengku Silvana Sinar, Ph.D., for her contribution by giving me some books and constructive comments on this thesis. To my best friends, Dewi Wulandari, Hijri Rizki and Rudi Purwana, I am indeed thankful for their unreserved support, I can pay them all nothing in return. To my dear uncle Ir. W. Simbolon, Diat and aunty H. Purba, B.Sc, I owe a special debt of gratitude and deep appreciation for your kindness to consider me as your daughter. You are always be my inspiration that influence my life.

Finally, I owe special thanks to my husband, Querni Simanullang, whose endless care, patience, love, tolerance, understanding and support to me, my lovely wonderful children Arga and my coming baby girl Daoni, my beloved parents Sabar Simbolon and Sontiara Sagala, my brother Cherish, my sisters Priesty, Mayes and Hovonly, thank for taking care Arga while I was away. This thesis I dedicate to them.May Lord Jesus bless them for those countless contributions, kindness and love.Amin.

Medan, August 2014

The writer,

iii

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………... i

ABSTRACT ………... ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………... iv

LIST OF TABLES ………. v

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background of the Study……….. 1

1.2. The Problems of the Study ……….. 3

1.3. The Objectives of the Study ……… 3

1.4. The Scope of the Study ………... 3

1.5. The Significance of the Study ……….... 3

CHAPTER II : REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 7 2.1 Classroom Discourse ……… 7

2.2 Systemic Functional Grammar …..……….... 11

2.3 Genre and Phasal Dimension ………. 13

2.4 Phase and Phasal Analysis ……..……… 14

2.4.1 Phase ……….. 14

2.4.2Phasal Analysis ……….. 17

2.5 The Previous Studies ………. 22

2.6 Conceptual Framework……….. 24

2.7Defenitions of Technical Terms Used……… 25

CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHOD 27

3.1 Research Design ……… 27

3.2 Subjects of the Study ……….. 27

iii

3.4. Data of the Study …….………. 28

3.5. The Procedure of Data Collection ……….. 28 3.6 Technique of Data Analysis ……….. 29

3.7. The Trustworthiness of the Study ……….. 30 CHAPTER IV : DATA ANALYSIS, RESEARCH FINDING AND DISCUSSION 33 4.1 Data Analysis ……….. 33

4.1.1 Macro and Micro-level Description: the Phases, Sub-phases and Linguistic Expressions ……….. 33

4.1.1.1 The Phase Types ……… 34

4.1.1.2 The Sub-phase Types ……… 34

4.1.1.3 The Sub-phases and Ling. Expression of the CT Phase… 40 4.1.1.4 The Sub-phases and Ling. Expression of the DS Phase… 46 4.1.1.5 The Sub-phases and Ling. Expression of the SU Phase… 53

4.1.1.6 The Sub-phases and Ling. Expressions of the EV Phase… 64 4.1.1.7 The Sub-phases and Ling. Expressions of the CO Phase.. . 67

4.1.2 The Phase Pattern ……… 71

4.1.2.1 Phase Pattern 1………. 72

4.1.2.2 Phase Pattern 2 ……… 74

4.1.2.3 Phase Pattern 3……… 78

4.1.3 The Sub-phase Patterns……… 81

4.2 Research Findings ………. 82

4.3 Discussion ………. 83

iii

5.1 Conclusion ……… 93

5.2 Suggestion ……… 95

vi LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

2.1 A sample of Young’s Phasal Analysis 18

3.1 The Background of Teachers 27

4.1 Recurrent Phase Types of the Classroom Discourse-in-texts 34 4.2 Recurrent Sub-phase Types of the CD-in-texts 35 4.3 Recurrent Phase Pattern of the CD-in-texts 71 4.4 Sample Phase Pattern 1 and Linguistic Expressions 73 4.5 Sample Phase Pattern 2 and Linguistic Expressions 75 4.6 Phase Pattern 3 and Linguistic Expressions 78 4.7 Recurrent Sub-phase Patterns of the CD-in-text 81

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The background of Study

English is now well established as the core language for the dissemination of academic knowledge and academic communication around the globe and, as a result, English language proficiency is a key contributor to the success of overseas students. English has been taught as a compulsory subject in Indonesia. The students are forced to learn English as early as possible. They are fostering to master English based on the curriculum applied in their schools. The teachers or English instructors are also demanded to meet the challenges facing the global competition. They are urged to build their students’ competencies especially in using English. The expectation from teaching English Indonesia is the students are demanded to pass the English exams to prove that they have mastered the subject. Their mastery should cover their knowledge and it can be proven through the certificate. This requirement is made by the government because the government has schemed to build better nations through education; one of them is through teaching English.

But the expectation does not meet the reality. When we observe the classroom, the teachers and the students use source language commonly than English. The teachers forget that the purpose of teaching English is to make the

students able to communicate in English rather than to know the grammar it self (Martin, 2003). The teachers forget that discourse which enables the human society to develop through school education activities in the classroom (Sinar 2007:2). If the teacher had to choose one technique that is the most effective for getting students motivated and speaking in English this would definitely be their choice. The choice is they should have classroom discourse in English. It warms the students up, and it gives them the sense that English can be used for real communication David, M 2003). To get students able to communicate in English at school; there should be teachers who have good discourse in English. Somewhat many teachers, especially English teachers, who teach English in school, almost do not teach in English. They focus on their attention on the transformation of academic knowledge or skills in source language.

Weinstein who had done the previous study about classroom interaction found that lessons where students have multiple opportunities to communicate with the teacher are essential for the effective construction of student knowledge. By welcoming curiosity and encouraging students to raise their own questions about the content or claims being discussed, the instructor can guide students to develop habits of mind for framing and answering questions. When an instructor creates a climate of respect in the classroom and encourages students to generate their own ideas involving scientific ways of thinking, students are more likely to think deeply and persist in the face of challenges (AAAS, 1989; Weinstein et al., 2006).

It is also said that classes with an emphasis on lecture are effective for delivering large volumes of content in limited time but provide few opportunities for student-instructor interaction. While this teaching method may appeal to a few highly motivated students, it can often leave much of the class disengaged from the content. Such classes are often characterized by instructors who take the first shout-out answers to questions (often from the same few students) or answer their own questions too quickly.

From the phenomenon above, the teachers must improve the quality of teaching process in the classroom. The teachers should discover ways in which students can process the information given accurately. The success of the goal depends on the teachers’ discourse. Teachers’ discourse will enable the students develop through activities in the classroom (Sinar 2007: 2).

By that reason above, Phasal structure enables the teachers to achieve the goal. According to Young (1990: 83), Phasal Analysis provides a means of discovering the ways in which speakers and writers structure and organize discourse. Phases are strands of discourse that recur discontinuously throughout a particular language event and taken together, structure that event. These strands recur and are interspersed with others resulting in an interweaving of threads as the discourse progresses. What this suggests is that in speaking or writing one doesn’t just begin a topic, discuss it and then conclude it before going on to a new one; rather, one’s discourse is composed of different topics which are introduced, described, summarized, returned to and are interspersed with other subtopics which are themselves announced, discussed and exemplified.

As it has been indicated above, classroom discourse as a particular kind of discourse may be seen as a general concept to refer to any discourse which takes place in the classroom setting in general. An investigation into lecture discourse is an investigation of classroom discourse, which developed by members of school society. The success or failure of school development needs to be measured against the background of the success of failure of human resource development of a school institution. One critical process of human resource development of a school institution relates to the teaching-learning process that actually takes place in the classroom or, to be exact in the teaching room. Teaching activities in the classroom, which form and represent the intrinsic notion of lecture discourse, are the forefront of the teaching-learning process representing a critical part of the process of student resource development in the school life. The point is that the theory of phase can provide a more realistic nature of the academic lectures. Only an accurate representation of macro-structure will facilitate students’ processing of information. The question of how teachers’ activities in the classroom have motivated the researcher to carry out this research.

1.2 The Problems of the Study

The problems of the study are formulated in the form of research question as follows.

1. What are the phasal realizations characteristic of the classroom discourse?

2. How are the phasal realizations used by the teachers in classroom discourse?

3. What are phasal lexicogrammatical realizations in classroom discourse?

1.3 The Objectives of the Study

The objectives of study are stated:

1. To describe the phasal realizations characteristic of the classroom discourse.

2. To describe how the phasal realizations are used by the teachers in classroom discourse.

3. To describe the phasal lexicogrammatical realizations in classroom discourse.

1.4 The Scope of the Study

The scope of the study focuses in finding the phasal realizations in classroom discourse.

1.5 The significance of the Study.

The findings of the study are expected to have both theoretical and practical significance for the readers, English teachers as well as English Applied Linguistics students.

Theoretically, the findings deal with the two aspects, first, about the practices of spoken academic discourse that realized in classroom-discourse-in-text, how knowledge is packaged at the tertiary level, and how the resulting discourse is constructed may contribute to enrich the research of discourse studies in general. Second, this study is a study that investigates classroom discourse phenomena. This being the case, whatever this study has achieved may contribute to the enrichment of classroom discourse studies in general.

Practically, the findings deal with the two aspects, first, on account of the fact that the object of this study is concerned with classroom discourse phenomena, it is clear that whatever this study has achieved may contribute to the English teachers to the enrichment of the classroom discourse studies in specific situation types such as that of SMKN 1 Karang Baru. Second, the classroom discourse phenomena find their expression in teachers texts and the texts belong to and derive from the institutional linguistic domain, that of SMKN 1 Karang Baru as an institution in which English as a foreign language is taught. In this respect the findings of this study may contribute to the enrichment of textual studies of English as a foreign language used in tertiary education institution such as SMKN 1 Karang Baru.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESSTION

5.1Conclusions

The CD-in-text 1, 2, 3 and 4 under investigation have been described contextually and linguistically in the last chapter in particular with the focus on the provision of answers to these research questions: (1) what are the phasal realizations characteristic of the classroom discourse?, (2) how are the phasal realizations used by the teachers in classroom discourse?, (3) what are phasal lexicogrammatical realizations in classroom discourse? Some discussion of each description has also been provided. The discussion and conclusion in this chapter are presented in an attempt to provide an overall and yet global picture of the CD-in-texts as whole and to set and interpret them in relevant contexts. They also need to be seen as a complement to what has been presented in previous chapter.

Firstly, on the whole it can be stated conclusively that the CD-in-texts under investigations of are as representations of academically-oriented (rather than socially-oriented) teaching activities, in which the teachers to a great extend have tended to focus their attention on the transformation of intellectual values (academic knowledge and/or skills) with the least social values. To this end, realizationally there are apparently a number of indicators of this, two of which stand out and need mentioning here: (1) the frequent occurrences of the relevant macro-functions such as the Consent (CT), Substantiation (SU), Discourse Structuring (DS), and Evaluation (EV) macro-functions at the phasal semiotic

level, (2) the frequent occurrences of the relevant micro-functions such as the Definition (DE), Statement (ST), Explanation (EP), Exemplification (EX), Orientation (OR), Reminder (RE), Focus (FO), Interchange (IC), Check (CH), and Judgment (JU) micro-functions at the sub-phasal semiotic level in support of the relevant macro-functions in the phasal semiotic space.

Secondly, on the whole the CD-in-texts are so dynamic in their occurrences and semiotic positions that it would be complicated to analyze them by employing the stage-by-stage framework. In particular, the highly dynamic features of the CD-in-texts are indicated by the various micro-functions types and a vast number of diversified micro-function patterns that occur in various macro-function types and patterns in the given phasal semiotic space.

Locally, the dynamic occurrences of the micro-functions in the phasal semiotic content may not be a problem for the participants involved in the teaching activity such as those under considerations. Globally, however, they are organized particularly in respect of what directions the teachings are heading to.

Another example relates to the linking techniques in teaching, which are not something new, which have also been employed, from which certain macro-functional and micro-macro-functional. In these techniques, the teacher for example (1) introduce the lesson, linking it to the previous week and rounding it off, (2) relates the material to the syllabus and to what is taught elsewhere by other methods, (3) relates the subject to the students and the teachers themselves by pitching the

material at the right level and by using familiar material to illustrate and explain points, etc.

5.2Suggestions

Specifically, for theoretical and practical/applied areas of further research, the researcher would suggest the following:

(1) For the students, at the language level, there is a need to extend the scope of research that covers all things; knowledge - transfer and social goal in teaching. The next researchers have to figure out deeply how culture affects the dynamic of CD in-text as have been discussed in this study.

(2) For teachers, it is advised to apply Phasal and Sub-phasal realizations in achieving the academic goal to transfer knowledge and also social goal to the students.

(3) The researcher hopes this study has fulfilled the requirements to confine itself as the study of the contextual and linguistic realizations of classroom discourse-in-texts that involves four teachings as texts, with specific references to the macro-functional and micro-functional of the CD-in-text.

REFERENCES

Bernstein, B. (1973). Class, Codes and Control 2: Applied Studies towards a Sociology of Language, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

Christie, F. (1989). Curriculum Genres in Early Childhood Education: a case study in writing development, a Ph. D Thesis, Department of Linguistics, Sydney University, Sydney.

Coulthard, M. (1977). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis, Longman, England, pp. 93-115.

Gregory, M. & Carrol, S. (1978). Language and Situation: language varieties and their social contexts, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

Gregory, M. (2002) Phasal Analysis within Communication Linguistics: Two Contrastive Discourses. In Relations and Functions Within and Around Language, ed. by P. H. Fries, M. Cummings, D. Lockwood, and W. Spruiell. London: Continuuum, 316-345.

Halliday, M. A. K. ( 1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 1st edition, Edward Arnold, London.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1993). Language in A Changing World: A series of Three Papers, Occasional Paper No. 13, Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (ALAA) & National Languages and Literacy Institute of Australia, Deakin, ACT 2600.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd Edition). London: Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1985). Language, Context, and Text: aspects of

language in a social-semiotic perspective, 1st edition, Deakin University

Press, Victoria.

Harrison, C. (2000). Phasal Analysis: Putting the Memo under a Microscope, Carleton University, 2000.

Hasan, R. (1978). “Text in the Systemic-Functional Model”, in Dresseler, W.U, Current Trends in Text Linguistics, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin & New York, pp. 228-246.

King, A. J. (2003). A Conversation Analytic / Empirical Pragmatic, University of Durham Department of Linguistics and English Language, 2004.

Malinowski, B. (1965). Coral Gardens and Their Magic; a study of the methods of tilling the soil and agricultural rites in the Trobriand Island, Vol. 2, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.

Miles and Huberman. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. California: SAGE

Martin, J. R. (1992). English Text: System and Structure, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Philadelpia & Amsterdam.

Sinar, T. S. (2007). Phasal and Experiential Realizations in Lecture Discourse: A Systemic – Functional Analysis. Kopertis Wilayah I Sumut-NAD, Medan.

Wu, S. (2013). Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 3, No. 9, pp. 1705-1709, September 2013, Academy Publisher Manufactured in Finland.

Young, L. (1990). Language as Behaviour, Language as Code: a study of academic English, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam & Philadelpia.

Young, L. (1994) University lectures macro structure and micro-features. In Flowerdew, J. (Ed.) Academic Listening: Research Perspectives, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge pp 159-176.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESSTION

5.1Conclusions

The CD-in-text 1, 2, 3 and 4 under investigation have been described contextually and linguistically in the last chapter in particular with the focus on the provision of answers to these research questions: (1) what are the phasal realizations characteristic of the classroom discourse?, (2) how are the phasal realizations used by the teachers in classroom discourse?, (3) what are phasal lexicogrammatical realizations in classroom discourse? Some discussion of each description has also been provided. The discussion and conclusion in this chapter are presented in an attempt to provide an overall and yet global picture of the CD-in-texts as whole and to set and interpret them in relevant contexts. They also need to be seen as a complement to what has been presented in previous chapter.

Firstly, on the whole it can be stated conclusively that the CD-in-texts under investigations of are as representations of academically-oriented (rather than socially-oriented) teaching activities, in which the teachers to a great extend have tended to focus their attention on the transformation of intellectual values (academic knowledge and/or skills) with the least social values. To this end, realizationally there are apparently a number of indicators of this, two of which stand out and need mentioning here: (1) the frequent occurrences of the relevant macro-functions such as the Consent (CT), Substantiation (SU), Discourse Structuring (DS), and Evaluation (EV) macro-functions at the phasal semiotic

level, (2) the frequent occurrences of the relevant micro-functions such as the Definition (DE), Statement (ST), Explanation (EP), Exemplification (EX), Orientation (OR), Reminder (RE), Focus (FO), Interchange (IC), Check (CH), and Judgment (JU) micro-functions at the sub-phasal semiotic level in support of the relevant macro-functions in the phasal semiotic space.

Secondly, on the whole the CD-in-texts are so dynamic in their occurrences and semiotic positions that it would be complicated to analyze them by employing the stage-by-stage framework. In particular, the highly dynamic features of the CD-in-texts are indicated by the various micro-functions types and a vast number of diversified micro-function patterns that occur in various macro-function types and patterns in the given phasal semiotic space.

Locally, the dynamic occurrences of the micro-functions in the phasal semiotic content may not be a problem for the participants involved in the teaching activity such as those under considerations. Globally, however, they are organized particularly in respect of what directions the teachings are heading to.

Another example relates to the linking techniques in teaching, which are not something new, which have also been employed, from which certain macro-functional and micro-macro-functional. In these techniques, the teacher for example (1) introduce the lesson, linking it to the previous week and rounding it off, (2) relates the material to the syllabus and to what is taught elsewhere by other methods, (3) relates the subject to the students and the teachers themselves by pitching the

material at the right level and by using familiar material to illustrate and explain points, etc.

5.2Suggestions

Specifically, for theoretical and practical/applied areas of further research, the researcher would suggest the following:

(1) For the students, at the language level, there is a need to extend the scope of research that covers all things; knowledge - transfer and social goal in teaching. The next researchers have to figure out deeply how culture affects the dynamic of CD in-text as have been discussed in this study.

(2) For teachers, it is advised to apply Phasal and Sub-phasal realizations in achieving the academic goal to transfer knowledge and also social goal to the students.

(3) The researcher hopes this study has fulfilled the requirements to confine itself as the study of the contextual and linguistic realizations of classroom discourse-in-texts that involves four teachings as texts, with specific references to the macro-functional and micro-functional of the CD-in-text.

REFERENCES

Bernstein, B. (1973). Class, Codes and Control 2: Applied Studies towards a Sociology of Language, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

Christie, F. (1989). Curriculum Genres in Early Childhood Education: a case study in writing development, a Ph. D Thesis, Department of Linguistics, Sydney University, Sydney.

Coulthard, M. (1977). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis, Longman, England, pp. 93-115.

Gregory, M. & Carrol, S. (1978). Language and Situation: language varieties and their social contexts, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.

Gregory, M. (2002) Phasal Analysis within Communication Linguistics: Two Contrastive Discourses. In Relations and Functions Within and Around Language, ed. by P. H. Fries, M. Cummings, D. Lockwood, and W. Spruiell. London: Continuuum, 316-345.

Halliday, M. A. K. ( 1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 1st edition, Edward Arnold, London.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1993). Language in A Changing World: A series of Three Papers, Occasional Paper No. 13, Applied Linguistics Association of Australia (ALAA) & National Languages and Literacy Institute of Australia, Deakin, ACT 2600.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd Edition). London: Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1985). Language, Context, and Text: aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective, 1st edition, Deakin University Press, Victoria.

Harrison, C. (2000). Phasal Analysis: Putting the Memo under a Microscope, Carleton University, 2000.

Hasan, R. (1978). “Text in the Systemic-Functional Model”, in Dresseler, W.U, Current Trends in Text Linguistics, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin & New York, pp. 228-246.

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