Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue1.1998:
Reinventing school leadership – back to the future in
the UK?
Terry Creissen
Co lne Co mmunity Sc ho o l, Co lc he ste r, Esse x, UK
Linda Ellison
Ce ntre fo r Le ade rship in Educ atio n and Training, Le e ds Me tro po litan Unive rsity,
Le e ds, UK
There have, over the last 15
years, been many UK government initiatives aimed at
improving the leadership and
management of schools but
there has never been any
compulsion to receive training either before or after
taking up post as a headteacher (principal). Greater
responsibilities at the school
level have resulted in greater
pressure from a wide range of
sources, including government and the teaching profession, for a more coherent
approach to leadership and
management development for
both middle managers and for
headteachers. Examines the
initiatives which have been
introduced in the last 15
years. Then discusses the
need for and the development
of the National Professional
Qualifi cation for Headship
(NPQH) which is being trialled
and piloted across England
and Wales from 1996-98.
A version of this article was
fi rst presented at the UCEA
Conference, Louisville,
Kentucky, USA
Introduction
Th er e h ave, over th e la st 15 yea r s, been m a n y
UK gover n m en t in itia tives a im ed a t im pr ovin g th e lea der sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t of
sch ools bu t, u n lik e th e situ a tion in th e USA,
th er e h a s n ever been a n y com pu lsion to
r eceive tr a in in g eith er befor e or a fter ta k in g
u p post a s a h ea dtea ch er (pr in cipa l).
Th er e is n ow m u ch w ider r espon sibility
a n d a ccou n ta bility a t th e sch ool level th r ou gh
site-ba sed m a n a gem en t in th e for m of loca l
m a n a gem en t of sch ools (LMS), gr a n t-m a in ta in ed sta tu s (GMS) a n d th e city tech n ology
colle ge (CTC) in itia tive. Th is h a s led to pr essu r e fr om a w ide r a n ge of sou r ces, in clu din g
th e gover n m en t a n d th e tea ch in g pr ofession ,
for a m or e coh er en t a ppr oa ch to lea der sh ip
a n d m a n a gem en t developm en t for both m iddle m a n a ger s a n d for h ea dtea ch er s. Th er e is
a lso a r ecogn ition th a t th e position of h ea dtea ch er is n ot n ecessa r ily th e m ost a ppr opr ia te for som e in th e pr ofession . As Willia m s
w r ote:
Th e a ssu m ption th a t th ose wh o a r e good
tea ch er s w ill a u tom a tica lly becom e good
h ea ds w ill be even m or e da n ger ou s th a n it
h a s been in th e pa st. Both th e selection of
h ea dtea ch er s, a n d th e tr a in in g given to
th em a n d oth er s in sen ior m a n a gem en t
position s, w ill n eed to be fa r m or e ca r efu lly
pla n n ed a n d m or e system a tica lly str u ctu r ed
th a n h a s been th e ca se u p to n ow (Cooper
a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. xi).
Th is a r ticle exa m in es th e in itia tives wh ich
h ave been in tr odu ced in th e la st 15 yea r s a n d
th e n eed for a n d developm en t of th e N a tion a l
P r ofession a l Qu a lifica tion for Hea dsh ip
(N P QH) wh ich is bein g tr ia lled a n d piloted
a cr oss E n gla n d fr om 1996 to 1998.
power s wer e con tr olled by th e loca l edu ca tion
a u th or ities (LE As). In secon da r y sch ools th e
cu r r icu lu m w a s fl exible for pu pils a ged u p to
14 bu t, th er ea fter, w a s dom in a ted by th e
r equ ir em en ts of th e exa m in a tion boa r ds. In
th e pr im a r y sector th e cu r r icu lu m a n d
a ppr oa ch to cla ssr oom or ga n isa tion wer e
la r gely deter m in ed a t th e sch ool level
a lth ou gh som e LE As wer e m or e dir ective
th a n oth er s.
Th e 1986 E du ca tion Act a lter ed th e com position a n d oper a tion of sch ool gover n in g
bodies bu t it w a s th e 1988 E du ca tion Refor m
Act (E RA) wh ich in tr odu ced LMS, GMS a n d
CTCs, th u s sign ifica n tly a lter in g r espon sibilities a t th e sch ool level a n d, h en ce, th e r ole of
th e h ea dtea ch er. Su bsequ en t le gisla tion or
th e en a ctm en t of th e Secr eta r y of Sta te’s
r igh ts wh ich a r e en sh r in ed in E RA h ave
ser ved to str en gth en th e r efor m s. Th e
ch a n ges in clu de: a n a tion a l cu r r icu lu m ;
n a tion a l testin g; tea ch er a ppr a isa l (eva lu a tion ); site-ba sed fin a n cia l decision m a k in g
in clu din g r espon sibility for h ir in g a n d fir in g
sta ff; per -pu pil fu n din g a n d pa r en ta l ch oice
lin k ed to a ccou n ta bility a t th e sch ool level for
r esu lts a n d va lu e for m on ey.
All secon da r y sch ools a n d m ost pr im a r y
sch ools h ave n ow been in spected by tea m s of
in spector s a ccr edited by th e Office for Sta n da r ds in E du ca tion (OF STE D). Despite gover n m en t a n d m edia con cer n a bou t th e qu a lity of tea ch er s a n d of tea ch in g, m ost lesson s
in spected th r ou gh th e n a tion a l system h ave
been fou n d to be sa tisfa ctor y or better.
Tea ch in g h a s m oved du r in g th is per iod to
becom e a gr a du a te-en tr y pr ofession w ith th e
ph a sin g ou t of th e Cer tifica te in E du ca tion .
Th e r ole of th e h ea d h a s becom e gr ea ter a n d
m or e com plex, th er eby in cr ea sin g th e n eed
for a com pr eh en sive a n d con sisten t tr a in in g
a n d developm en t pr ogr a m m e.
The context of headship, 1981-96
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [ 1998] 2 8 –3 8
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 28 ]
In th e ea r ly 1980s th er e wer e in itia tives in
som e a r ea s by wh ich som e fi n a n cia l decision m a k in g power s wer e dele ga ted to sch ools bu t
th e bu lk of fin a n cia l r esou r cin g a n d sta ffin g
The route to headship
In E n gla n d a n d Wa les, th e ter m h ea dtea ch er,
a s opposed to pr in cipa l, is u sed in m ost
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
sch ools. Th is title r efl ects two sign ifica n t
fa ctor s:
1 He/ sh e h a s, in a lm ost a ll ca ses, r isen gr a du a lly fr om cla ssr oom tea ch er via m iddle
m a n a ger su ch a s h ea d of depa r tm en t or
cu r r icu lu m co-or din a tor a n d, in deed, still
tea ch es for pa r t of th e week (u su a lly a ver y
sm a ll pa r t in secon da r y/ h igh sch ools bu t
m ost of th e tim e in ver y sm a ll pr im a r y/
elem en ta r y sch ools).
2 Alth ou gh th er e h a s been a r a pid r ise in th e
m a n a ger ia l pa r t of th e r ole, th e cor e focu s
is still u su a lly seen a s th e lea der of lea r n in g – in str u ction a l lea der sh ip (Ca ldwell
a n d Spin k s, 1992).
Th e h ea dtea ch er n or m a lly h a s a fi r st de gr ee
bu t, in cr ea sin gly, especia lly in th e secon da r y
sector, h a s a m a ster s de gr ee wh ich h a s been
ga in ed, often by a pa r t-tim e r ou te, du r in g th e
tea ch in g ca r eer. Th e m a ster s de gr ee is often
a n ME d or a n MA in E du ca tion a n d h a s a
cu r r icu la r or peda gogica l sla n t. In cr ea sin gly,
a spir in g h ea ds a r e stu dyin g for lea der sh ip
a n d m a n a gem en t qu a lifica tion s su ch a s MSc
or MA or MBA in E du ca tion a l Lea der sh ip
a n d Ma n a gem en t (Adm in istr a tion ) or, in a
few ca ses, th e m or e expen sive option of a
gen er a l MBA in a bu sin ess sch ool.
In con tr a st, th e US pr in cipa l w ill n or m a lly
h ave a m a ster s de gr ee in edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tion a n d w ill h ave decided on a n a dm in istr a tive r ole a s opposed to a tea ch in g r ole
qu ite ea r ly on . He/ sh e m u st h ave a n a dm in istr a tor ’s cer tifica te in a ddition . He/ sh e w ill
u su a lly m ove fr om post to post m or e
fr equ en tly th a n in th e UK in or der to ga in
exper ien ce a n d, often , to en a ble h im / h er to
m ove on to a sen ior r ole in th e sch ool distr ict.
Qu a lifica tion s a n d licen ces a r e th e r ou te to
th e top, r a th er th a n excellen ce in th e cla ssr oom .
Development opportunities,
1981-96
Funding for courses
Th e pa tter n of on e-yea r secon dm en ts to
cou r ses in h igh er edu ca tion (la r gely in th e
a r ea of cu r r icu lu m ) wh ich h a d been com m on
in th e 1970s w a s r ejected in favou r of a n u m ber of sh or ter cou r ses. Gover n m en t-fu n ded
n a tion a l str a te gies to su ppor t h ea dtea ch er
a n d oth er sen ior m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es r esu lted in th e on e-ter m tr a in in g
oppor tu n ities (OTTO) a s well a s ba sic 20-day
cou r ses. Th ese pr ogr a m m es wer e a tten ded by
11 per cen t of h ea ds a n d depu ties between
1983 a n d 1988. Th er e w a s n o con sisten cy
a cr oss th e cou n tr y in wh a t w a s cover ed by
th e cou r ses. An eva lu a tion of on e of th e fir st
coh or ts of “OTTO” h ea ds w a s ca r r ied ou t by
Hellawell a n d con clu ded th a t su ch a n oppor tu n ity gave h ea ds th e ch a n ce to r eflect “on
th e pa r ticu la r n a tu r e of th e job of
h ea dtea ch er a n d th e in dividu a l’s pa r ticu la r
w ays of ca r r yin g ou t th a t job” (Hellawell,
1988, p. 229). He con clu ded th a t th e OTTO
exper ien ce con sider a bly a ided th e h ea ds to
m a n a ge th em selves a n d oth er s better. Of
th ose in ter viewed, Hellawell n oted th a t th ey
“felt ver y str on gly th a t on e lesson of th e ter m
for th em w a s th e n eed to dele ga te m or e, a n d
th e ter m ’s exper ien ce a ppea r ed to h ave given
th em gr ea ter self-con fiden ce, in th a t th ey felt
m or e a ble to do th is” (Hellawell, 1988, p. 234).
Maw (1984, p. 8) ou tlin ed con cer n s a bou t th e
on e-ter m cou r ses, h igh ligh tin g con cer n over
th e “cen tr a lised pr on ou n cem en ts on pr epa r a tion for h ea dsh ip” wh ich “h ave con cen tr a ted
m or e on th e pr ofession a l th a n th e m a n a ger ia l
a spects of th e r ole”.
Th e system of Gr a n t-r ela ted In -ser vice
Tr a in in g (GRIST) a n d, la ter, Loca l E du ca tion
Au th or ity Tr a in in g Gr a n ts (LE ATGS) pr ovided gover n m en t fu n din g via th e loca l edu ca tion a u th or ities (LE As) for sta ff developm en t in a n u m ber of a n n u a lly deter m in ed
pr ior ity a r ea s. Ma n a gem en t tr a in in g (n ot ju st
for h ea ds a n d depu ties) w a s a m a jor a r ea ,
fu n ded a t £4 m illion in 1987-88 r isin g to £10
m illion in 1990-91. Th is a m ou n t w a s su pplem en ted a t LE A level in or der to qu a lify for
th e gr a n ts. LE ATGS wer e r epla ced by Gr a n ts
for E du ca tion Su ppor t a n d Tr a in in g (GE ST),
a ga in w ith m a n a gem en t tr a in in g a s a pr ior ity ca te gor y a n d w ith th e r equ ir em en t on
LE As to con tr ibu te a h igh er per cen ta ge of th e
r esou r cin g th a n pr eviou sly. With both of
th ese in itia tives, th e ea r m a r k in g of fu n din g
m ea n t th a t th e tr a in in g a ctu a lly did ta k e
pla ce w ith th e m or e en ligh ten ed LE As a n d
sch ools su pplem en tin g th e fu n din g fr om
oth er sou r ces. Alter a tion s to th e GE ST fu n din g system pr ovided for a ca te gor y “sch ool
effectiven ess” wh ich a llowed for a m or e va r ied r a n ge of a ctivities; th e r esu lt w a s th a t
m on ey cou ld be u sed m or e cr ea tively th a n
sim ply on m a n a gem en t tr a in in g. Also, by th is
tim e, m u ch of th e gr a n t h a d to be dele ga ted to
th e sch ool level (a n d in GM sch ools it a ll
r ea ch ed th e sch ools via SP G(D) – th e Specia l
P u r pose Gr a n t for developm en t). Ma n y
sch ools spen t less on m a n a gem en t developm en t a n d m or e on equ ipm en t in or der to
su pplem en t th e ca pita tion bu dget.
Cooper a n d Sh u te (1988, p. 5) cr iticised th e
la ck of a coh er en t system :
As it n ow sta n ds, th e tr a in in g effor ts a r e a
h otch potch of on e-day, on e-week , sh or t-ter m ,
or yea r -lon g pr ogr a m m es wh ich h a r dly fi t
togeth er in to a coh er en t testim on y to th e
pr epa r a tion of sch ool h ea ds, officer s, a n d
oth er sen ior sch ool sta ff.
[ 29 ]
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
Alth ou gh h e w a s r efer r in g in pa r ticu la r to
GRIST pr ovision , Willia m s’ com m en t cou ld
be a pplied to a ll a ctivity in th is ca te gor y:
… tr en ds in Gr a n t-r ela ted In -ser vice Tr a in in g (GRIST) a r e lik ely to en cou r a ge a n
a ppr oa ch to h ea dtea ch er tr a in in g th a t con cen tr a tes on tech n iqu es a n d tools of th e
tr a de … Bu t r u n n in g a sch ool is su r ely m or e
th a n h avin g a lot of tech n ica l sk ills …
(Cooper a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. xii)
The School M anagement Taskforce
Th e Sch ool Ma n a gem en t Ta sk for ce (SMTF )
w a s set u p on 1 J a n u a r y 1989 in or der to
r epor t on th e pr ovision for a n d n eeds of th ose
w ith r espon sibility for m a n a gem en t in
sch ools, especia lly sin ce th e im plem en ta tion
of th e E du ca tion Refor m Act. Follow in g con su lta tion s, th e m em ber s (la r gely h ea dtea ch er s or for m er h ea dtea ch er s) pu t for w a r d a
r a n ge of pr a ctica l m ea su r es a n d su ggested
h ow th ese m igh t be pr om oted a n d su ppor ted.
Th ey r ecom m en ded in du ction a n d su ccession
pla n n in g for a ll levels of m a n a gem en t. Th ey
pr oposed th a t, for a ll levels of m a n a gem en t,
developm en t a ctivities sh ou ld m ove fr om :
• tu tor dir ected;
• off-site;
• pr edeter m in ed tim es;
• tea ch in g;
• pr ovider -deter m in ed;
• k n ow ledge a cqu isition ;
to:
• self-dir ected;
• sch ool-ba sed (or n ea r );
• flexible tim es;
• dista n ce lea r n in g a n d stu dy pa ck s;
• cu stom er -dr iven ;
• per for m a n ce en h a n cem en t.
Th ey con clu ded th a t:
• a lth ou gh specific developm en t a ctivities
wer e n eeded for h ea ds, th ey sh ou ld n ot be
seen a s a gr ou p fa r r em oved fr om ever yon e
else bu t a s pa r t of th e tea m ;
• th e h ea ds sh ou ld in te gr a te th eir per son a l
developm en t pla n s w ith th e wor k of th e
sch ool;
• th e lin k w ith gover n or s is im por ta n t;
• h ea ds n eed oppor tu n ities to visit th e w ider
pu blic a n d pr iva te sector a n d to stu dy w ith
th ose wh o wor k th er e.
Th er e w a s n o w ide su ppor t for th e con cept of
a sta ff colle ge bu t, r a th er, th e Ta sk for ce r ecom m en ded r e gion a l su ppor t for self-dir ected
stu dy:
Th er e is little su ppor t for th e esta blish m en t
of a for m a l n a tion a l co-or din a tin g body. Th e
ser vice h a s a clea r pr efer en ce for “bottom u p” loca l developm en t (DE S, 1990, p. 21).
In a ddition , th ey felt th a t th er e is little su ppor t for th e pr odu ction of a deta iled n a tion a l
[ 30 ]
sylla bu s for sch ool m a n a gem en t tr a in in g
(DE S, 1990, p. 27).
As a r esu lt of th e r epor t, a n u m ber of
r e gion a l pr ojects wer e set u p a n d fu n ded by
th e DE S a lth ou gh m a n y h ave n ot h a d a m em or a ble im pa ct. On e a spect of DE S-fu n ded
r esea r ch w a s ca r r ied ou t by Bola m et a l. in to
th e effective m a n a gem en t of sch ools. Th is
pr oject fou n d th a t “m a n y of th e h ea dtea ch er s
in th e sa m ple h a d lea der sh ip qu a lities wh ich
wen t beyon d tech n ica l m a n a ger ia l com peten ce”, th a t “a clea r vision for th e sch ool’s
fu tu r e w a s im por ta n t”, a lth ou gh tea ch er s
h a d h a d little in volvem en t in th is for m u la tion , a n d th a t “tea m m a n a gem en t w a s a ch a r a cter istic fea tu r e in th e sa m ple” (DF E , 1993,
p. 46). Th e r esea r ch er s felt th a t “a ll th r ee
br oa d con clu sion s h ave con sider a ble im plica tion s for th e selection a n d tr a in in g of h ea dtea ch er s”.
Am on g oth er con clu sion s th a t a r e r eleva n t
to th is pa per a r e:
• com m en ts a bou t th e la ck of effectiven ess of
gover n or s;
• th e im por ta n ce of vision ;
• th e im por ta n ce of a n open a n d positive
sch ool clim a te or cu ltu r e;
• th e desir a bility of fi r m lea der sh ip a lon gside con su lta tion on policy;
• th e n eed for con sisten cy between th e
r h etor ic on va lu es a n d th e r ea lity;
• per son a l a n d pr ofession a l va lu es lie a t th e
h ea r t of edu ca tion a l lea der sh ip in th e selfm a n a gin g sch ool.
The headteacher mentoring scheme
Th e Sch ool Ma n a gem en t Ta sk for ce r ecogn ised th a t a sch ool-ba sed a ppr oa ch to developm en t wou ld be m or e difficu lt for th e per son
“a t th e top” of th e sch ool a s th ey h ave n o on e
to a ct a s a gu ide. Th e Hea dtea ch er Men tor in g
Sch em e w a s in tr odu ced in or der to over com e
th is pr oblem . Th is in volves th e lin k in g of a n
exper ien ced a n d a n in exper ien ced h ea d in a n
a r ea so th a t th e for m er ca n gu ide th e la tter.
Th e con cept of m en tor in g is n ow r ecogn ised
to be va lu a ble a n d con tin u es in m a n y sch ools
a t va r iou s ca r eer levels.
Appraisal
Th e a ppr a isa l of tea ch er s w a s on e of th e ou tcom es of th e 1986 E du ca tion Act a lth ou gh th is
a spect w a s n ot im plem en ted u n til th e ea r ly
1990s. Th e system in volves a two-yea r cycle
a n d, a lth ou gh it is n ot n ecessa r ily a
lin e-m a n a gem en t m odel, it is lik ely th a t
depu ty h ea ds wou ld be a ppr a ised by th e h ea dtea ch er. In th e ca se of h ea ds, th er e is on e peer
h ea d a n d on e oth er, n or m a lly a n LE A in spector or som eon e of sim ila r exper ien ce. In m ost
sch ools th e focu s is still a s or igin a lly a gr eed
w ith th e tea ch er u n ion s, i.e. on pr ofession a l
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
developm en t r a th er th a n on per for m a n ce
m a n a gem en t.
The National Educational Assessment
Centre
Th e N a tion a l E du ca tion a l Assessm en t Cen tr e
(N E AC) w a s set u p u sin g a n a da pta tion of th e
N a tion a l Associa tion of Secon da r y Sch ool
P r in cipa ls m odel for com peten ce a ssessm en t.
It w a s u sed by LE As a s a w ay of a ssessin g
th eir good depu ties so th a t th ey cou ld th en be
m en tor ed tow a r ds h ea dsh ip. Th e system h a s
n ow been exten ded to cover m iddle m a n a ger s
a n d, n ow th a t fu n din g h a s m oved aw ay fr om
LE As to sch ools, ch ea per w ays of ca r r yin g
ou t th e pr ocess h ave been developed. Th e
pr ocess is bein g u sed for th e a ssessm en t com pon en t in on e of th e N P QH r e gion a l pilot
sch em es.
The M anagement Charter Initiative (M CI)
Th e MCI h a s been in oper a tion sin ce 1988 a n d
it a im s to set ou t sta n da r ds of com peten ce for
occu pa tion s a n d m a n a gem en t levels. Th e
m odel pr ovides ver y deta iled specifica tion s of
wh a t h a s to be don e in a job a n d in clu des
sta tem en ts for ea ch elem en t of th e sta n da r d
a n d a r a n ge of cir cu m sta n ces in wh ich th e
com peten t per for m er m u st be a ble to ca r r y
ou t th ese elem en t su b-ta sk s. MCI Sen ior Ma n a gem en t Sta n da r ds (Ma n a gem en t Ch a r ter
In itia tive, 1995, p. 6) a r e str u ctu r ed a s follow s:
Key pu rpose sta tem en t: To develop a n d
im plem en t str a te gies to fu r th er th e or ga n isa tion ’s m ission .
Th e per for m a n ce sta n da r ds a r e gr ou ped
in to fou r m a in a r ea s of a ction :
1 Un der sta n din g a n d in flu en cin g th e en vir on m en t.
2 Settin g th e str a te gy a n d ga in in g com m itm en t.
3 P la n n in g, im plem en tin g a n d m on itor in g.
4 E va lu a tin g a n d im pr ovin g per for m a n ce.
With in ea ch of th e a r ea s th er e a r e a n u m ber
of u n its, ea ch bein g m a de u p of m or e deta iled
elem en ts.
Th e m odel is both logica l a n d system a tic,
a n d pr ovides a com pr eh en sive gu ide for
developm en t a n d a ssessm en t, bu t th e n u m ber
of elem en ts for a job com peten ce is so deta iled
th a t it m ay seem to a lea r n er too fr a gm en ted
a n d to ta k e a lot of tim e for a ssessm en t. For
exa m ple th e MCI specifi ca tion for sen ior
m a n a ger s com pr ises 33 elem en ts. Th e
a ppr oa ch h a s been cr iticised beca u se it
a ssu m es sta tic jobs a n d a im s a t m in im a l
sta n da r ds. It is seen a s in flexible a n d pr escr iptive, fa ilin g to r ecogn ise th e diver sity of
m a n a ger s’ ta sk s a n d r oles, a n d m a n y believe
th a t is seem s better su ited to m ea su r in g com peten ce a t lower m a n a ger ia l levels. Th e
sta n da r ds a r e pitch ed a t th r esh old per for m a n ce a n d a r e less a ppr opr ia te for job situ a tion s wh er e k n ow ledge, a ttitu des, a n d a u ton om y to m a k e discr etion a r y decision s a r e pa r t
of th e job (see Tr otter a n d E llison , p. 1997).
Ar gu a bly, it is im possible to m ea su r e m a n a gem en t com peten ce objectively a n d r elia bly
in th is fr a gm en ted fa sh ion . Th e MCI gu idelin es h ave n ot been exten sively u sed in th eir
“pu r e” for m a lth ou gh m a n y or ga n isa tion s
h ave a da pted th em .
Other provision
Th er e h a s a lso been (a n d con tin u es to be) a
w ide r a n ge of sh or t cou r ses fr om a r a n ge of
pr ovider s, both fr om a tr a dition a l edu ca tion
ba ck gr ou n d a n d fr om th e n on -edu ca tion a l
sector s.
In a ddition , du r in g th is per iod, m a n y h ea ds
a n d depu ties h ave been en r olled on aw a r dbea r in g cou r ses (m ostly pa r t-tim e) th r ou gh
tr a dition a l h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s
(HE Is) a n d th e Open Un iver sity.
The important role of the head
E viden ce over th e la st 20 yea r s h a s con sisten tly poin ted to th e fa ct th a t “th e m ost
im por ta n t sin gle fa ctor in th e su ccess of th ese
sch ools is th e qu a lity of lea der sh ip of th e
h ea d” (DE S, 1975, p. 36). Sa m m on s et a l. (1995)
h ave r ecen tly colla ted th e r esea r ch on effective sch ools a n d listed 11 in dica tor s wh ich
ca n be su m m a r ised a s follow s:
1 fir m a n d pu r posefu l pr ofession a l lea der sh ip;
2 sh a r ed vision a n d goa ls;
3 or der ly lea r n in g en vir on m en t;
4 focu s on tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g;
5 well-or ga n ised tea ch in g;
6 h igh expecta tion s;
7 positive r ein for cem en t;
8 m on itor in g pr ogr ess;
9 stu den ts’ r igh ts a n d r espon sibilities;
10 h om e-sch ool pa r tn er sh ips;
11 sch ools a s lea r n in g or ga n isa tion s.
Th is list ca n pr ovide pa r t of th e a gen da for
a n y pr ogr a m m e of h ea dsh ip pr epa r a tion or
h ea dtea ch er developm en t.
The way forward
P r ior to LMS sch ools wer e “h igh ly
a u ton om ou s a n d h ea dtea ch er s a ppea r ed to
ca r r y ou t th eir r ole in isola tion , a loof fr om
th e exter n a l en vir on m en t” (McHu gh a n d
McMu lla n , 1995, p. 23). With th e ch a n ges
u n der th e E du ca tion Refor m Act, “th e h ea dtea ch er ’s job is n ow w idely r e ga r ded a s bein g
pr im a r ily a m a n a ger ia l post” (McHu gh a n d
[ 31 ]
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McMu lla n , 1995, p. 24). McHu gh a n d McMu lla n a sser t th a t su ch a ch a n ge r equ ir es “th e
a cqu isition a n d developm en t of a r a n ge of
sk ills h ith er to ign or ed by th ose con cer n ed
w ith tea ch er tr a in in g” (McHu gh a n d McMu lla n , 1995, p. 24).
In a ddition to th e issu e of in -ser vice tr a in in g, r esea r ch in ter viewees com m en ted, w ith
th e ben efit of h in dsigh t, on th e per ceived
a dva n ta ges of pr e-a ppoin tm en t tr a in in g. It
wou ld a ppea r th a t a t pr esen t, few, if a n y,
poten tia l h ea dtea ch er s r eceive tr a in in g
wh ich a dequ a tely pr epa r es th em for th e n ew
r espon sibilities wh ich th ey a ssu m e on th eir
pr om otion to position s of h ea dsh ip. Th u s, it
is su ggested th a t a system a tic a ppr oa ch be
a dopted to th e developm en t of in dividu a ls
wh o a spir e to position s of h ea dsh ip. Su ch a n
a ppr oa ch r equ ir es th e com m itm en t a n d
su ppor t of th ose in volved in th e for m u la tion
a n d im plem en ta tion of edu ca tion a l policy
(McHu gh a n d McMu lla n , 1995, p. 33).
A sim ila r plea for pr e-a ppoin tm en t tr a in in g
is m a de by th e N a tion a l Com m ission on E du ca tion wh ich n otes “a r a th er a d h oc system of
h ea dtea ch er pr epa r a tion ” a n d “h a ph a za r d
pr a ctices in th e selection of h ea dtea ch er s in
th is cou n tr y” (N a tion a l Com m ission on E du ca tion , 1993, p. 230).
Wa r n in gs a bou t th e focu s of su ch tr a in in g
h ave been given by Willia m s (Cooper a n d
Sh u te, 1988, p. xii) wh o w r ote th a t “th ose wh o
r u n sch ools effectively n eed to u n der sta n d
wh a t th ey a r e doin g a s well a s k n ow h ow to do
it!”, a n d by Gla tter :
Th e da n ger of con cen tr a tin g on sk ills a n d
tech n iqu es is th a t th is w ill r ein for ce th e
view of th e a dm in istr a tor a s pr im a r ily a
tech n icia n … su ch deeper u n der sta n din g,
n o less th a n sk ills a n d tech n iqu es, m u st be
tr a n sm itted th r ou gh th e m ediu m of con cr ete
a dm in istr a tive settin gs r a th er th a n pr edom in a n tly “cla ssr oom ” settin gs (Gla tter, 1992,
p. 9-10).
F u r th er su ppor t for sch ool-ba sed developm en t ca m e fr om th e Ta sk for ce wh ich con clu ded th a t:
Lea r n in g fr om exper ien ce m ea n s lea r n in g
on th e job a s well a s lea r n in g a bou t th e job
… positive exper ien ces of su ccessfu l m a n a gem en t a r e th e ba ck bon e of per son a l developm en t (DE S, 1990, p. 25).
Willia m s (Cooper a n d Sh u te, 1988 p. xii) pr oposed on -th e-job tr a in in g a n d a w ide r a n ge of
cou r ses so th a t pr ospective h ea ds cou ld lea r n
a bou t th e u n der lyin g pr in ciples of sch ool
lea der sh ip a n d m eet oth er s:
…th e sin gle “sta ff colle ge” a ppr oa ch m ay
r esu lt in on e r ecogn ised a ppr oa ch to lea der sh ip wh ich r isk s layin g th e dea d h a n d of a
sin gle or th odoxy on a ll ou r sch ools (Cooper
a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. xii).
[ 32 ]
Bola m et a l. com m en ted on th e con ten t of a n y
h ea dsh ip developm en t pr ogr a m m e:
… th e vita lly im por ta n t con tr ibu tion of su ch
fa ctor s a s lea der sh ip, vision , cu ltu r e, colla bor a tive decision -m a k in g a n d th e lik e sh ou ld
su r ely figu r e pr om in en tly in tr a in in g a n d
developm en t a ctivities … th ey sh ou ld a lso
in for m th e on -th e-job developm en t
pr ogr a m m es a n d a ppr a isa l sch em es w ith in
ea ch sch ool a n d LE A … th e fin din gs sh ou ld
be ta k en in to a ccou n t in th e for m u la tion of
com peten ces for h ea dtea ch er s a n d oth er
sch ool m a n a ger s (DF E , 1993, p. 129).
Cooper a n d Sh u te (1988, p. 7) go beyon d m ost
a u th or s in pr oposin g tr a in in g for th ose in
post a n d th ose a spir in g to h ea dsh ip w ith
va r iou s or ga n isa tion s co-oper a tin g to offer
tr a in in g tow a r ds a cer tifica te. Th is pr ocess
wou ld be over seen by a body to set sta n da r ds,
r eview ca n dida tes, issu e th e cer tifica tes a n d
a ccr edit pr ovider s:
Wh a t we pr opose is th e cer tifica tion by a n
officia l body of th e pr epa r a tion a n d cr eden tia ls of sen ior sch ool sta ff, testifyin g to th e
qu a lifica tion s of th ose wh o lea d th e sch ools of
Gr ea t Br ita in (Cooper a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. 4).
Alth ou gh th er e a r e som e con flictin g per spectives, th e k ey poin ts r ela tin g to a pr ogr a m m e
of pr epa r a tion for h ea dsh ip seem to be:
• a sign ifica n t sch ool-ba sed elem en t;
• u n der sta n din g a s well a s doin g;
• th e im por ta n ce of vision ;
• a system a tic a ppr oa ch ;
• a focu s on lea der sh ip.
Wh ile th er e is a con sen su s th a t som e for m a l
pr epa r a tion is r equ ir ed, th er e is little gen er a l
su ppor t for :
• a sta ff colle ge;
• a n a tion a l cu r r icu lu m ;
• r igid n a tion a l sta n da r ds;
• a pu r ely th eor etica l cou r se.
An y system of h ea dsh ip pr epa r a tion m u st be
seen in th e con text of a con tin u u m of sta ff
developm en t:
Th e u ltim a te a im of sta ff developm en t is to
im pr ove th e qu a lity of tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. Th e im m edia te a im is to im pr ove th e
per for m a n ce of th ose w ith tea ch in g a n d
m a n a gem en t r espon sibilities (Bola m , 1987,
p. 2).
Teacher Training Agency (TTA)
Th is w a s esta blish ed in Septem ber 1994 w ith
th e follow in g k ey fu n ction s:
• th e fu n din g of tea ch er tr a in in g;
• th e a ccr edita tion of pr ovider s of in itia l
tr a in in g for sch ool tea ch er s;
• pr ovidin g in for m a tion a n d a dvice a bou t
tea ch er tr a in in g a n d tea ch in g a s a pr ofession ;
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
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• ca r r yin g ou t or com m ission in g r esea r ch
w ith a view to im pr ovin g th e sta n da r ds of
tea ch in g a n d tea ch er tr a in in g (Tea ch er
Tr a in in g Agen cy, u n da ted, p. 7).
It seem ed a n a tu r a l exten sion of th e wor k of
th e TTA th a t th er e sh ou ld be a n a tion a l
fr a m ewor k for a con tin u ou s str ea m of tr a in in g a n d developm en t for tea ch er s th r ou gh
in itia l tea ch er tr a in in g, exper t su bject
tea ch er, exper t su bject lea der to exper t sch ool
lea der. Wh ile wor k in g w ith in its or igin a l
fr a m ewor k , th e TTA n ow con tr ols th e fu n din g
of in -ser vice tea ch er tr a in in g (in clu din g th a t
in u n iver sities).
As fa r a s h ea dsh ip tr a in in g a n d developm en t is con cer n ed, th e TTA h a s a lr ea dy
la u n ch ed (in Septem ber 1995) HE ADLAMP
(Hea dtea ch er s’ Lea der sh ip a n d Ma n a gem en t
P r ogr a m m e). Th is is a n a tion a l in itia tive to
pr ovide tr a in in g in th eir n ew r ole for n ew ly
a ppoin ted h ea dtea ch er s in th eir fir st two
yea r s. For th is, th e TTA h a s licen sed a ll th ose
pr ovider s wh o a pplied a n d OF STE D in spects
th e r esu ltin g pr ovision . To da te m a n y
licen sed pr ovider s h ave n ot ca r r ied ou t a n y
a ctivity wh ile LE As a n d on e or two n a tion a l
con sor tia h ave ca r r ied ou t th e bu lk of th e
wor k .
As pa r t of th e con tin u u m of pr ofession a l
developm en t, th e TTA w a s a sk ed to develop a
qu a lifica tion for a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s. Th e
th en Secr eta r y of Sta te for E du ca tion a n d
E m ploym en t expr essed th e gover n m en t’s
w ish es th u s:
I h ave in m in d som eth in g qu ite n ew – a
r ecogn ised pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion for
h ea dsh ip wh ich w ill be r u n a n d a ssessed
u n der r igor ou s n a tion a l sta n da r ds (Sh eph a r d, 1995, p. 2).
The National Professional
Qualification for Headship (NPQH)
Th e qu a lifica tion is a im ed a t pr ovidin g a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s w ith th e sk ills a n d a bilities
to ta k e u p th e lea der sh ip of a sch ool. It is a lso
in ten ded to be a h igh qu a lity m ea su r e for
sch ool gover n or s a s a n a ssu r a n ce th a t th ose
w ith th e qu a lifi ca tion h ave th e levels of com peten ce n eeded for th e good lea der sh ip of
today’s sch ools:
We in ten d to esta blish a h igh qu a lity
n a tion a l qu a lifica tion wh ich … pr ovides a n
a ssu r a n ce to gover n or s a n d oth er s th a t
n ew ly a ppoin ted h ea dtea ch er s h ave th e
n ecessa r y fou n da tion of sch ool lea der sh ip
a n d m a n a gem en t k n ow ledge, u n der sta n din g
a n d sk ills to per for m su ccessfu lly a ga in st a
n a tion a l sta n da r d (Tea ch er Tr a in in g
Agen cy, 1995, p. 1).
Th e qu a lifica tion is bein g in tr odu ced to tr y to
give som e m ea su r e a s to th e poten tia l per for m a n ce of th e a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er wh en
ta k in g u p a post in a n ew sch ool. Su ch per for m a n ce is m or e th a n m er e efficien t m a n a gem en t; it is “th e con sisten t a bility to pr odu ce
r esu lts over pr olon ged per iods of tim e a n d in
a va r iety of a ssign m en ts” (Dr u ck er, 1989, p.
156). Wh ile th e N P QH ca n n ot r epla ce th e
in ter view or gu a r a n tee th a t th e h older w ill be
su ccessfu l in h ea dsh ip, th e qu a lifica tion ca n
give som e a ssu r a n ce to gover n in g bodies th a t
th e ca n dida tes h ave m et a level of com peten ce
wh ich dem on str a tes th a t th ey h ave th e poten tia l for h ea dsh ip. N ot on ly w ill th e a ssu r a n ce
be on a job-specific or loca l level, bu t it w ill be
a m ea su r e th a t gover n or s ca n a pply u sin g
n a tion a l com pa r ison s beca u se th ose w ith th e
qu a lifi ca tion s w ill h ave pr oven eviden ce th a t
th ey m eet th e cr iter ia for a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er s. Gover n or s ca n th en be a ssu r ed th a t ca n dida tes n ot fit for th e sin gle m ost im por ta n t
job in th e sch ool ca n n ot a tta in th e qu a lifica tion of th e N P QH.
Th e TTA believes th a t it h a s iden tified clea r
objectives for th e qu a lifica tion wh ich sh ou ld:
• be ta r geted on sch ool im pr ovem en t;
• en su r e th a t on ly th ose r ea dy for h ea dsh ip
ga in th e qu a lifica tion ;
• be ba sed on a gr eed n a tion a l sta n da r ds;
• sign a l r ea din ess for h ea dsh ip bu t n ot
r epla ce th e selection pr ocess;
• pr ovide a focu s for a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s’
con tin u in g pr ofession a l developm en t;
• pr ovide a ba selin e fr om wh ich n ew ly
a ppoin ted h ea dtea ch er s ca n con tin u e to
develop th eir lea der sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t
a bilities (Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996a ,
p. 2).
For th e fir st tim e, th ose look in g to h ea dsh ip
a s a ca r eer pr ogr ession h ave a clea r set of
gu idelin es dem on str a tin g th e com peten ces
th ey w ill be expected to dem on str a te pr ior to
ta k in g u p h ea dsh ip. Th e qu a lifica tion is n ot
com pu lsor y (a lth ou gh th e n ew La bou r Gover n m en t h a s pr oposed th a t it sh ou ld be) bu t it
is h oped th a t m ost people seek in g th eir fi r st
h ea dsh ip w ill look to th e qu a lifi ca tion a s a
sen sible pr epa r a tion for th e dem a n ds of th e
job. Th e qu a lifica tion is n ot in ten ded to
r epla ce th e n eed for m en tor tr a in in g a fter
a ppoin tm en t, n or does it r epla ce th e n eed for
fu r th er tr a in in g in th e ea r ly yea r s of ta k in g
u p a fir st h ea dsh ip (wh ich h a s r ecen tly been
su ppor ted by th e HE ADLAMP sch em e).
Ma n y r esea r ch pr ojects h ave sh ow n th a t
th e m ost sign ifica n t in flu en ces on th e sch ool
com e fr om th e lea der sh ip of th e h ea dtea ch er.
Th e N P QH pla ces gr ea t em ph a sis on th e com peten ce of th e h ea d a s lea der a n d th e tr a in in g
a n d developm en t a ssocia ted w ith th e
[ 33 ]
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
qu a lifica tion w ill h ave to a ddr ess th e issu e of
lea der sh ip tr a in in g. Th e N P QH a lso pla ces
gr ea t em ph a sis on th e a ssessm en t of sk ills
a n d a bilities w ith in th e con text of sch ool
im pr ovem en t. Th is m odel wou ld be
su ppor ted by Covey (1992) wh o sees th e a pplica tion of com peten ces th r ou gh pr in ciples
a cr oss differ en t situ a tion s a s a fu n da m en ta l
fea tu r e of sen ior m a n a gem en t:
With ou t u n der sta n din g th e pr in ciple of a
given ta sk , people becom e in ca pa cita ted
wh en th e situ a tion ch a n ges a n d differ en t
pr a ctices a r e r equ ir ed to be su ccessfu l
(Covey, 1992, p. 25).
Th e NP QH is differ en t fr om com peten ce-ba sed
m odels in two distin ct w ays. F ir stly, it a im s to
m ea su r e poten tia l a n d, a s su ch , ca n n ot r esor t
to a tick -box style of exper ien ces r ecor ded by
th e in dividu a l. Secon dly, in look in g a t a ccr editin g pa st per for m a n ce, it pla ces em ph a sis
n ot ju st on exper ien ce bu t a ch ievem en t r eleva n t to im pr ovin g pu pil per for m a n ce.
Th er e a r e lim ita tion s to th e u se of a com peten ce-ba sed m odel for th e pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion bu t m ea su r in g a n in dividu a l’s per for m a n ce a ga in st th e gen er a lly a ccepted
dem a n ds of th e job th r ou gh a ca r efu l a n a lysis
of th e h ea dtea ch er ’s r ole m u st lea d u s to a
better sta te of a ffa ir s th a n a decla r a tion th a t
th e ta sk is n ot possible. Wh ile th e u se of com peten ces ca n n ot be fl aw less, it ca n for m a
ver y u sefu l a n d im por ta n t gu ide tow a r ds th e
r equ ir ed levels of sk ills, k n ow ledge a n d a bilities for th e im pr oved lea der sh ip of sch ools. It
is in th is con text th a t th e qu a lifica tion is
fr a m ed.
It is a lso im por ta n t to r ecogn ise th a t th e
com peten ces r equ ir ed of h ea dtea ch er s w ill
a lter over tim e. Th e r ole of h ea dtea ch er s h a s
ch a n ged sign ifica n tly over th e pa st deca de in
ter m s of th e va r yin g in flu en ces a n d in cr ea sed
a ccou n ta bility pla ced in th eir h a n ds:
Sch ool a dm in istr a tion n ow ta k es pla ce in a n
in cr ea sin gly tu r bu len t, politica lly ch a r ged
en vir on m en t; blu n tly, r u n n in g sch ools h a s
becom e a tou gh job wh ich in volves m or e
k n ow ledge a n d sk ill th a n it did even a
deca de a go (Bea r e et a l., 1989, p. xi).
Th e N P QH m u st en su r e th a t ca n dida tes ca n n ot sim ply pr esen t a “pu blic per for m a n ce of
com peten ce” bu t m u st tr u ly be a ble to dem on str a te th eir a bility to a ch ieve th e sk ills level
r equ ir ed of th e qu a lifi ca tion eith er th r ou gh
pa st per for m a n ce or th r ou gh sim u la tion s
design ed to test poten tia l.
Th is is com plica ted by a n u m ber of fa ctor s.
Th e m ost sign ifi ca n t is th e cu ltu r a l con text of
th e h ea dtea ch er ’s job w ith in th e sch ool en vir on m en t. It for m s a n im por ta n t dim en sion to
th e u n der sta n din g of th e a pplica tion of th e
sta n da r ds set ou t in th e qu a lifi ca tion . As
su ch , ca r efu l r ecogn ition of th e im pa ct of th e
[ 34 ]
cu ltu r a l con text in th e wor k in g en vir on m en t
m u st be a sign ifica n t fea tu r e of th e a ssessm en t of th e a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er in th e developm en t of h is/ h er level of com peten ce w ith in
th e system .
Th e n ew qu a lifica tion sets ou t to k eep a
clea r focu s on th e cor e pu r pose of h ea dsh ip
wh ich in volves esta blish in g th e str a te gic
dir ection a n d lea der sh ip of th e or ga n isa tion .
In th is r espect, it tr ies to a ssess th e poten tia l
of th e ca n dida te in br in gin g a bou t th is a spect
of a h ea dtea ch er ’s r ole th r ou gh th e dem on str a tion of th e a pplica tion of th eor etica l con cepts to th e pr a ctica l situ a tion . It h a s been
in dica ted a bove th a t th e com plexity of th e
ta sk is n ot m a de ea sier by cu ltu r a l a n d con textu a l issu es. Th is ta k es it beyon d th e lim its
of m a ster s de gr ee type pr ogr a m m es a n d
beyon d th e com peten ce-ba sed a ssessm en ts of
N VQ to a qu a lifica tion wh ich tr ies to pu ll ou t
th e best of both in th a t it focu ses on th e a pplica tion a n d th e poten tia l a pplica tion of th e
n ecessa r y sk ills a n d a bilities r equ ir ed for
h ea dsh ip in th e sch ool settin g.
F u lla n (1985) a r gu es th a t h ea ds m u st
a ddr ess fou r issu es of pr ocess to give m ea n in g to effective sch ool n eeds. Th ese, h e
cla im s, a r e design ed to en h a n ce th e eth os a n d
im a ge of th e sch ool a n d a r e fu n da m en ta l in
br in gin g a bou t pu r posefu l a n d effective
ch a n ge. He lists th em a s:
• a feel for th e pr ocess on th e pa r t of lea der sh ip;
• a gu idin g va lu e system ;
• in ten se in ter a ction a n d com m u n ica tion ;
and
• colla bor a tive pla n n in g a n d im plem en ta tion … (F u lla n , 1985, p. 499).
His ter m in ology of h avin g a “feel” for th e
pr ocess of lea der sh ip em ph a sises th e in ta n gible m ea su r em en t of effective lea der sh ip in a
con ven tion a l a n d for m a l pr ocess. J u st a s
J en k in s (1991, p. 3) r em in ds u s of th e fa ct th a t
“tr a dition a l m odels of lea der sh ip a r e in ca pa ble of m eetin g th e ch a llen ges sch ools a r e
fa cin g”, so too we fi n d th a t con ven tion a l m odels of a ssessm en t a r e in a ppr opr ia te to m ea su r e th e cu r r en t a bility or poten tia l of th e
N P QH ca n dida te to dem on str a te effective
lea der sh ip. Yet, lea der sh ip of th e sch ool for
con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t is a t th e h ea r t of
th is qu a lifi ca tion . It h a s to be m ea su r ed by its
im pa ct a n d effect on oth er s, a s does th e over a ll effectiven ess of th e ca n dida te in br in gin g
a bou t th e r igh t cu ltu r e to pr om ote im pr ovem en t.
Th er e a r e, th er efor e, fou r issu es to be
a ddr essed by th e n ew qu a lifica tion :
1 Hea dsh ip r equ ir es str on g lea der sh ip a n d
sou n d m a n a gem en t qu a lities wh ich n eed
to be developed th r ou gh tr a in in g.
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
2 Th e tr a in in g a spect m u st focu s on th e
n eeds of th e in dividu a l w ith ea ch ca n dida te viewed in th e con text w ith in wh ich
th ey a r e oper a tin g if th e qu a lifi ca tion is to
pr edict poten tia l in a n equ ita ble a n d
m ea n in gfu l m a n n er.
3 It is im por ta n t to r ecogn ise th a t th er e a r e
often con texts wh ich a r e in a ppr opr ia te for
th e good pr epa r a tion of poten tia l h ea dtea ch er s – n a m ely, poor sch ools or th ose
w ith u n su ppor tive h ea ds; m ea n s to over com e su ch h u r dles w ill be r equ ir ed
th r ou gh th e fl exible a pplica tion of th e
qu a lifica tion if th ose ca n dida tes a r e n ot to
be den ied a ccess to th e N P QH.
4 Assessin g th e com peten ces m u st be u n der ta k en in a cost-effective m a n n er so th a t
th er e is n o bia s in favou r of th e fu n din g of
th e a ssessm en t pr ocess to th e detr im en t of
th e tr a in in g a n d developm en t n eeds of
a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s.
The consultations
An exten sive con su lta tive exer cise w a s ca r r ied ou t by th e Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy.
Th is in volved a two-ph a se w r itten con su lta tion pr ocess a s well a s a ser ies of r e gion a l
con fer en ces. Th e TTA Boa r d, th e CP D Com m ittee a n d th e N P QH Advisor y Gr ou p spen t a
con sider a ble tim e on th e pr oposa ls.
In or der to be gin th e pr ocess of esta blish in g
a n ew pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion , it w a s
decided th a t r epr esen ta tives of th e edu ca tion
system sh ou ld be a sk ed th eir in itia l view s on
th e sta n da r ds th a t th e TTA sh ou ld be look in g
for in a ca n dida te seek in g h ea dsh ip. Th is
pr oved to be a ver y in for m a tive pr ocess. A
ser ies of issu es w a s r a ised a n d som e gu ida n ce
a bou t essen tia l a spects of th e qu a lifi ca tion
wer e su ggested. Th ose r espon ses wer e con sider ed in deta il by th e N a tion a l Advisor y Gr ou p
for th e N a tion a l P r ofession a l Qu a lifica tion
for Hea dsh ip (NAGN P QH).
At th is sta ge, th e level of su ppor t for th e
N P QH w a s w idespr ea d, yet th er e w a s a str on g
view th a t th e qu a lifica tion sh ou ld be of a h igh
qu a lity. In a ddition to th is, sever a l r espon ses
h igh ligh ted th e lin k between th e pr ofession a l
a n d th e per son a l qu a lities r equ ir ed in su ccessfu l h ea dsh ip:
Th e qu a lifica tion sh ou ld r ein for ce th e
im por ta n ce of edu ca tion a l lea der sh ip, h ave
r igou r a n d be ba sed on n a tion a l sta n da r ds.
Ma n y r espon den ts em ph a sise th e n eed for
cogn itive a n d per son a l ca pa bilities a s well
a s per for m a n ce com peten ces (Tea ch er
Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 1).
Issu es r e ga r din g th e per son a l a n d th e con textu a l a spects of th e a spir a n t h ea d wer e ech oed
in th e discu ssion s of NAGN P QH wh ich
expr essed con cer n th a t th ose a spir a n t h ea ds
wer e h a r d to iden tify wh en wor k in g in poor
sch ools.
Th e m a in com pon en ts wer e for m u la ted a n d
a ten ta tive list developed in clu din g n ew r efer en ces to th e r ela tion sh ip between th e h ea d
a n d th e gover n in g body. Apa r t fr om th e con ten t of th e qu a lifica tion in ter m s of th e com peten ces to be a ssessed, fu r th er con cer n s
focu sed on th e fu n din g a r r a n gem en ts, a ccess
for ca n dida tes a n d th e con text of th is qu a lifica tion in th e r a n ge of pr ofession a l developm en t a ctivities for th e tea ch in g pr ofession .
E a ch of th ese issu es w a s discu ssed fu r th er in
th e NAGN P QH.
Th e ba la n ce between tr a in in g a n d a ssessm en t is a fi n e on e in th a t th e pu r pose of th e
qu a lifi ca tion is to pr epa r e a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er s better for th e n ext step in pr om otion
a s well a s a ssessin g th eir poten tia l for su ccess. Th er e w a s som e a n xiety a bou t th e goa ls
bein g u n a tta in a ble or th a t som eth in g wou ld
be m issed. It w a s decided th a t th er e wou ld be
a fu ll n a tion a l con su lta tion a n d th a t a m a n a ged pilot pr ogr a m m e wou ld be esta blish ed
to avoid a n y gla r in g er r or s.
Th e dr a ft sta n da r ds wer e w r itten a n d m odified for th e la u n ch of th e pr ocess of n a tion a l
con su lta tion . All sch ools wer e in vited to a sk
for a fu ll copy of th e con su lta tion pa per. At
th e sa m e tim e, a fu r th er letter w a s sen t to a
sa m ple of sch ools, pr ofession a l a ssocia tion s,
h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s, LE As, a n d
gover n or r epr esen ta tive gr ou ps, a m on g oth er s. Th is letter in vited com m en ts, clea r ly
esta blish in g a tim esca le a n d th e for m a t for
r espon ses. Th is w a s a m a jor exer cise a n d w a s
en h a n ced by a ser ies of r e gion a l con fer en ces
seek in g deba te a n d in ter a ctive discu ssion on
th e n a tu r e a n d for m a t of th e n ew qu a lifica tion .
Th er e wer e n in e r e gion a l con su lta tion
m eetin gs in volvin g a tota l of 620 dele ga tes. In
a ddition , w r itten r espon ses wer e su bm itted
(see Ta ble I).
Th e con su lta tion pa per a ck n ow ledged th e
ch a n gin g dem a n ds of h ea dsh ip a n d th e fl u idity of th e N P QH:
Table I
Writte n re spo nse s to re gio nal c o nsultatio n
me e tings
Primary Schools
Secondary Schools
Special Schools
Local Education Authorities (LEAs)
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)
Representative Bodies
Professional Associations
Government Bodies
Others (mostly individuals)
152
129
12
66
77
37
6
8
44
Source: Teac her Training Agenc y, 1996c , paragraph 4
[ 35 ]
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
… th e specific k n ow ledge a n d u n der sta n din g
r equ ir ed w ill ch a n ge over tim e, a n d th er efor e n eed to be r eviewed on a r e gu la r ba sis…
(Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 11).
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
View s a r e pa r ticu la r ly in vited on … wh eth er
it is n ecessa r y to differ en tia te th e sta n da r ds
by ph a se or size or type of sch ool, or
wh eth er th e em ph a sis on per for m in g ta sk s
in con text a llow for a gen er ic set of sta n da r ds a s pr esen ted (Tea ch er Tr a in in g
Agen cy, 1996b, p. 4).
E m ph a sis w a s pla ced on th e lea der sh ip r ole
a n d th e im por ta n ce of th e h ea d to m a k e su r e
th a t “th e sch ool developm en t pla n iden tifies
a ppr opr ia te pr ior ities a n d ta r gets for
im pr ovem en t a n d r ela tes to over a ll fin a n cia l
pla n n in g” (Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996b,
p. 6). It r ecogn ised th e n eed for tea m wor k a n d
wor k in g w ith th e gover n in g body. In th e section on sk ills a n d a bilities, th e listin g ech oed
th e set of com peten ces fr om N E AC bu t fa iled
to in clu de “tea ch in g” a m on g th e r equ ir em en ts for ca n dida tes to h ave to pr ove. Th is
om ission w a s r a ised a s a con cer n by m a n y
r espon den ts a n d dem on str a ted th e desir e for
ba la n ce between th e m a n a ger ia l a n d th e
pr ofession a l, peda gogic a spects of th e h ea dtea ch er ’s r ole:
At th e h ea r t of th e or ga n isa tion ... a r e th e
dyn a m ic in ter a ction s between tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g … r esea r ch su ggests th a t h ea ds of
sch ools th a t a ch ieve excellen t r esu lts ... a r e
a lm ost obsessed by issu es of tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g (High er E du ca tion r espon den t to
N a tion a l Con su lta tion , 1996).
Th er e w a s over wh elm in g su ppor t for th e k ey
pr in ciples wh ich “wer e welcom ed a n d ju dged
to be com pr eh en sive a n d h elpfu l” (Tea ch er
Tr a in in
the UK?
Terry Creissen
Co lne Co mmunity Sc ho o l, Co lc he ste r, Esse x, UK
Linda Ellison
Ce ntre fo r Le ade rship in Educ atio n and Training, Le e ds Me tro po litan Unive rsity,
Le e ds, UK
There have, over the last 15
years, been many UK government initiatives aimed at
improving the leadership and
management of schools but
there has never been any
compulsion to receive training either before or after
taking up post as a headteacher (principal). Greater
responsibilities at the school
level have resulted in greater
pressure from a wide range of
sources, including government and the teaching profession, for a more coherent
approach to leadership and
management development for
both middle managers and for
headteachers. Examines the
initiatives which have been
introduced in the last 15
years. Then discusses the
need for and the development
of the National Professional
Qualifi cation for Headship
(NPQH) which is being trialled
and piloted across England
and Wales from 1996-98.
A version of this article was
fi rst presented at the UCEA
Conference, Louisville,
Kentucky, USA
Introduction
Th er e h ave, over th e la st 15 yea r s, been m a n y
UK gover n m en t in itia tives a im ed a t im pr ovin g th e lea der sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t of
sch ools bu t, u n lik e th e situ a tion in th e USA,
th er e h a s n ever been a n y com pu lsion to
r eceive tr a in in g eith er befor e or a fter ta k in g
u p post a s a h ea dtea ch er (pr in cipa l).
Th er e is n ow m u ch w ider r espon sibility
a n d a ccou n ta bility a t th e sch ool level th r ou gh
site-ba sed m a n a gem en t in th e for m of loca l
m a n a gem en t of sch ools (LMS), gr a n t-m a in ta in ed sta tu s (GMS) a n d th e city tech n ology
colle ge (CTC) in itia tive. Th is h a s led to pr essu r e fr om a w ide r a n ge of sou r ces, in clu din g
th e gover n m en t a n d th e tea ch in g pr ofession ,
for a m or e coh er en t a ppr oa ch to lea der sh ip
a n d m a n a gem en t developm en t for both m iddle m a n a ger s a n d for h ea dtea ch er s. Th er e is
a lso a r ecogn ition th a t th e position of h ea dtea ch er is n ot n ecessa r ily th e m ost a ppr opr ia te for som e in th e pr ofession . As Willia m s
w r ote:
Th e a ssu m ption th a t th ose wh o a r e good
tea ch er s w ill a u tom a tica lly becom e good
h ea ds w ill be even m or e da n ger ou s th a n it
h a s been in th e pa st. Both th e selection of
h ea dtea ch er s, a n d th e tr a in in g given to
th em a n d oth er s in sen ior m a n a gem en t
position s, w ill n eed to be fa r m or e ca r efu lly
pla n n ed a n d m or e system a tica lly str u ctu r ed
th a n h a s been th e ca se u p to n ow (Cooper
a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. xi).
Th is a r ticle exa m in es th e in itia tives wh ich
h ave been in tr odu ced in th e la st 15 yea r s a n d
th e n eed for a n d developm en t of th e N a tion a l
P r ofession a l Qu a lifica tion for Hea dsh ip
(N P QH) wh ich is bein g tr ia lled a n d piloted
a cr oss E n gla n d fr om 1996 to 1998.
power s wer e con tr olled by th e loca l edu ca tion
a u th or ities (LE As). In secon da r y sch ools th e
cu r r icu lu m w a s fl exible for pu pils a ged u p to
14 bu t, th er ea fter, w a s dom in a ted by th e
r equ ir em en ts of th e exa m in a tion boa r ds. In
th e pr im a r y sector th e cu r r icu lu m a n d
a ppr oa ch to cla ssr oom or ga n isa tion wer e
la r gely deter m in ed a t th e sch ool level
a lth ou gh som e LE As wer e m or e dir ective
th a n oth er s.
Th e 1986 E du ca tion Act a lter ed th e com position a n d oper a tion of sch ool gover n in g
bodies bu t it w a s th e 1988 E du ca tion Refor m
Act (E RA) wh ich in tr odu ced LMS, GMS a n d
CTCs, th u s sign ifica n tly a lter in g r espon sibilities a t th e sch ool level a n d, h en ce, th e r ole of
th e h ea dtea ch er. Su bsequ en t le gisla tion or
th e en a ctm en t of th e Secr eta r y of Sta te’s
r igh ts wh ich a r e en sh r in ed in E RA h ave
ser ved to str en gth en th e r efor m s. Th e
ch a n ges in clu de: a n a tion a l cu r r icu lu m ;
n a tion a l testin g; tea ch er a ppr a isa l (eva lu a tion ); site-ba sed fin a n cia l decision m a k in g
in clu din g r espon sibility for h ir in g a n d fir in g
sta ff; per -pu pil fu n din g a n d pa r en ta l ch oice
lin k ed to a ccou n ta bility a t th e sch ool level for
r esu lts a n d va lu e for m on ey.
All secon da r y sch ools a n d m ost pr im a r y
sch ools h ave n ow been in spected by tea m s of
in spector s a ccr edited by th e Office for Sta n da r ds in E du ca tion (OF STE D). Despite gover n m en t a n d m edia con cer n a bou t th e qu a lity of tea ch er s a n d of tea ch in g, m ost lesson s
in spected th r ou gh th e n a tion a l system h ave
been fou n d to be sa tisfa ctor y or better.
Tea ch in g h a s m oved du r in g th is per iod to
becom e a gr a du a te-en tr y pr ofession w ith th e
ph a sin g ou t of th e Cer tifica te in E du ca tion .
Th e r ole of th e h ea d h a s becom e gr ea ter a n d
m or e com plex, th er eby in cr ea sin g th e n eed
for a com pr eh en sive a n d con sisten t tr a in in g
a n d developm en t pr ogr a m m e.
The context of headship, 1981-96
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [ 1998] 2 8 –3 8
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 28 ]
In th e ea r ly 1980s th er e wer e in itia tives in
som e a r ea s by wh ich som e fi n a n cia l decision m a k in g power s wer e dele ga ted to sch ools bu t
th e bu lk of fin a n cia l r esou r cin g a n d sta ffin g
The route to headship
In E n gla n d a n d Wa les, th e ter m h ea dtea ch er,
a s opposed to pr in cipa l, is u sed in m ost
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
sch ools. Th is title r efl ects two sign ifica n t
fa ctor s:
1 He/ sh e h a s, in a lm ost a ll ca ses, r isen gr a du a lly fr om cla ssr oom tea ch er via m iddle
m a n a ger su ch a s h ea d of depa r tm en t or
cu r r icu lu m co-or din a tor a n d, in deed, still
tea ch es for pa r t of th e week (u su a lly a ver y
sm a ll pa r t in secon da r y/ h igh sch ools bu t
m ost of th e tim e in ver y sm a ll pr im a r y/
elem en ta r y sch ools).
2 Alth ou gh th er e h a s been a r a pid r ise in th e
m a n a ger ia l pa r t of th e r ole, th e cor e focu s
is still u su a lly seen a s th e lea der of lea r n in g – in str u ction a l lea der sh ip (Ca ldwell
a n d Spin k s, 1992).
Th e h ea dtea ch er n or m a lly h a s a fi r st de gr ee
bu t, in cr ea sin gly, especia lly in th e secon da r y
sector, h a s a m a ster s de gr ee wh ich h a s been
ga in ed, often by a pa r t-tim e r ou te, du r in g th e
tea ch in g ca r eer. Th e m a ster s de gr ee is often
a n ME d or a n MA in E du ca tion a n d h a s a
cu r r icu la r or peda gogica l sla n t. In cr ea sin gly,
a spir in g h ea ds a r e stu dyin g for lea der sh ip
a n d m a n a gem en t qu a lifica tion s su ch a s MSc
or MA or MBA in E du ca tion a l Lea der sh ip
a n d Ma n a gem en t (Adm in istr a tion ) or, in a
few ca ses, th e m or e expen sive option of a
gen er a l MBA in a bu sin ess sch ool.
In con tr a st, th e US pr in cipa l w ill n or m a lly
h ave a m a ster s de gr ee in edu ca tion a l a dm in istr a tion a n d w ill h ave decided on a n a dm in istr a tive r ole a s opposed to a tea ch in g r ole
qu ite ea r ly on . He/ sh e m u st h ave a n a dm in istr a tor ’s cer tifica te in a ddition . He/ sh e w ill
u su a lly m ove fr om post to post m or e
fr equ en tly th a n in th e UK in or der to ga in
exper ien ce a n d, often , to en a ble h im / h er to
m ove on to a sen ior r ole in th e sch ool distr ict.
Qu a lifica tion s a n d licen ces a r e th e r ou te to
th e top, r a th er th a n excellen ce in th e cla ssr oom .
Development opportunities,
1981-96
Funding for courses
Th e pa tter n of on e-yea r secon dm en ts to
cou r ses in h igh er edu ca tion (la r gely in th e
a r ea of cu r r icu lu m ) wh ich h a d been com m on
in th e 1970s w a s r ejected in favou r of a n u m ber of sh or ter cou r ses. Gover n m en t-fu n ded
n a tion a l str a te gies to su ppor t h ea dtea ch er
a n d oth er sen ior m a n a gem en t tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es r esu lted in th e on e-ter m tr a in in g
oppor tu n ities (OTTO) a s well a s ba sic 20-day
cou r ses. Th ese pr ogr a m m es wer e a tten ded by
11 per cen t of h ea ds a n d depu ties between
1983 a n d 1988. Th er e w a s n o con sisten cy
a cr oss th e cou n tr y in wh a t w a s cover ed by
th e cou r ses. An eva lu a tion of on e of th e fir st
coh or ts of “OTTO” h ea ds w a s ca r r ied ou t by
Hellawell a n d con clu ded th a t su ch a n oppor tu n ity gave h ea ds th e ch a n ce to r eflect “on
th e pa r ticu la r n a tu r e of th e job of
h ea dtea ch er a n d th e in dividu a l’s pa r ticu la r
w ays of ca r r yin g ou t th a t job” (Hellawell,
1988, p. 229). He con clu ded th a t th e OTTO
exper ien ce con sider a bly a ided th e h ea ds to
m a n a ge th em selves a n d oth er s better. Of
th ose in ter viewed, Hellawell n oted th a t th ey
“felt ver y str on gly th a t on e lesson of th e ter m
for th em w a s th e n eed to dele ga te m or e, a n d
th e ter m ’s exper ien ce a ppea r ed to h ave given
th em gr ea ter self-con fiden ce, in th a t th ey felt
m or e a ble to do th is” (Hellawell, 1988, p. 234).
Maw (1984, p. 8) ou tlin ed con cer n s a bou t th e
on e-ter m cou r ses, h igh ligh tin g con cer n over
th e “cen tr a lised pr on ou n cem en ts on pr epa r a tion for h ea dsh ip” wh ich “h ave con cen tr a ted
m or e on th e pr ofession a l th a n th e m a n a ger ia l
a spects of th e r ole”.
Th e system of Gr a n t-r ela ted In -ser vice
Tr a in in g (GRIST) a n d, la ter, Loca l E du ca tion
Au th or ity Tr a in in g Gr a n ts (LE ATGS) pr ovided gover n m en t fu n din g via th e loca l edu ca tion a u th or ities (LE As) for sta ff developm en t in a n u m ber of a n n u a lly deter m in ed
pr ior ity a r ea s. Ma n a gem en t tr a in in g (n ot ju st
for h ea ds a n d depu ties) w a s a m a jor a r ea ,
fu n ded a t £4 m illion in 1987-88 r isin g to £10
m illion in 1990-91. Th is a m ou n t w a s su pplem en ted a t LE A level in or der to qu a lify for
th e gr a n ts. LE ATGS wer e r epla ced by Gr a n ts
for E du ca tion Su ppor t a n d Tr a in in g (GE ST),
a ga in w ith m a n a gem en t tr a in in g a s a pr ior ity ca te gor y a n d w ith th e r equ ir em en t on
LE As to con tr ibu te a h igh er per cen ta ge of th e
r esou r cin g th a n pr eviou sly. With both of
th ese in itia tives, th e ea r m a r k in g of fu n din g
m ea n t th a t th e tr a in in g a ctu a lly did ta k e
pla ce w ith th e m or e en ligh ten ed LE As a n d
sch ools su pplem en tin g th e fu n din g fr om
oth er sou r ces. Alter a tion s to th e GE ST fu n din g system pr ovided for a ca te gor y “sch ool
effectiven ess” wh ich a llowed for a m or e va r ied r a n ge of a ctivities; th e r esu lt w a s th a t
m on ey cou ld be u sed m or e cr ea tively th a n
sim ply on m a n a gem en t tr a in in g. Also, by th is
tim e, m u ch of th e gr a n t h a d to be dele ga ted to
th e sch ool level (a n d in GM sch ools it a ll
r ea ch ed th e sch ools via SP G(D) – th e Specia l
P u r pose Gr a n t for developm en t). Ma n y
sch ools spen t less on m a n a gem en t developm en t a n d m or e on equ ipm en t in or der to
su pplem en t th e ca pita tion bu dget.
Cooper a n d Sh u te (1988, p. 5) cr iticised th e
la ck of a coh er en t system :
As it n ow sta n ds, th e tr a in in g effor ts a r e a
h otch potch of on e-day, on e-week , sh or t-ter m ,
or yea r -lon g pr ogr a m m es wh ich h a r dly fi t
togeth er in to a coh er en t testim on y to th e
pr epa r a tion of sch ool h ea ds, officer s, a n d
oth er sen ior sch ool sta ff.
[ 29 ]
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
Alth ou gh h e w a s r efer r in g in pa r ticu la r to
GRIST pr ovision , Willia m s’ com m en t cou ld
be a pplied to a ll a ctivity in th is ca te gor y:
… tr en ds in Gr a n t-r ela ted In -ser vice Tr a in in g (GRIST) a r e lik ely to en cou r a ge a n
a ppr oa ch to h ea dtea ch er tr a in in g th a t con cen tr a tes on tech n iqu es a n d tools of th e
tr a de … Bu t r u n n in g a sch ool is su r ely m or e
th a n h avin g a lot of tech n ica l sk ills …
(Cooper a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. xii)
The School M anagement Taskforce
Th e Sch ool Ma n a gem en t Ta sk for ce (SMTF )
w a s set u p on 1 J a n u a r y 1989 in or der to
r epor t on th e pr ovision for a n d n eeds of th ose
w ith r espon sibility for m a n a gem en t in
sch ools, especia lly sin ce th e im plem en ta tion
of th e E du ca tion Refor m Act. Follow in g con su lta tion s, th e m em ber s (la r gely h ea dtea ch er s or for m er h ea dtea ch er s) pu t for w a r d a
r a n ge of pr a ctica l m ea su r es a n d su ggested
h ow th ese m igh t be pr om oted a n d su ppor ted.
Th ey r ecom m en ded in du ction a n d su ccession
pla n n in g for a ll levels of m a n a gem en t. Th ey
pr oposed th a t, for a ll levels of m a n a gem en t,
developm en t a ctivities sh ou ld m ove fr om :
• tu tor dir ected;
• off-site;
• pr edeter m in ed tim es;
• tea ch in g;
• pr ovider -deter m in ed;
• k n ow ledge a cqu isition ;
to:
• self-dir ected;
• sch ool-ba sed (or n ea r );
• flexible tim es;
• dista n ce lea r n in g a n d stu dy pa ck s;
• cu stom er -dr iven ;
• per for m a n ce en h a n cem en t.
Th ey con clu ded th a t:
• a lth ou gh specific developm en t a ctivities
wer e n eeded for h ea ds, th ey sh ou ld n ot be
seen a s a gr ou p fa r r em oved fr om ever yon e
else bu t a s pa r t of th e tea m ;
• th e h ea ds sh ou ld in te gr a te th eir per son a l
developm en t pla n s w ith th e wor k of th e
sch ool;
• th e lin k w ith gover n or s is im por ta n t;
• h ea ds n eed oppor tu n ities to visit th e w ider
pu blic a n d pr iva te sector a n d to stu dy w ith
th ose wh o wor k th er e.
Th er e w a s n o w ide su ppor t for th e con cept of
a sta ff colle ge bu t, r a th er, th e Ta sk for ce r ecom m en ded r e gion a l su ppor t for self-dir ected
stu dy:
Th er e is little su ppor t for th e esta blish m en t
of a for m a l n a tion a l co-or din a tin g body. Th e
ser vice h a s a clea r pr efer en ce for “bottom u p” loca l developm en t (DE S, 1990, p. 21).
In a ddition , th ey felt th a t th er e is little su ppor t for th e pr odu ction of a deta iled n a tion a l
[ 30 ]
sylla bu s for sch ool m a n a gem en t tr a in in g
(DE S, 1990, p. 27).
As a r esu lt of th e r epor t, a n u m ber of
r e gion a l pr ojects wer e set u p a n d fu n ded by
th e DE S a lth ou gh m a n y h ave n ot h a d a m em or a ble im pa ct. On e a spect of DE S-fu n ded
r esea r ch w a s ca r r ied ou t by Bola m et a l. in to
th e effective m a n a gem en t of sch ools. Th is
pr oject fou n d th a t “m a n y of th e h ea dtea ch er s
in th e sa m ple h a d lea der sh ip qu a lities wh ich
wen t beyon d tech n ica l m a n a ger ia l com peten ce”, th a t “a clea r vision for th e sch ool’s
fu tu r e w a s im por ta n t”, a lth ou gh tea ch er s
h a d h a d little in volvem en t in th is for m u la tion , a n d th a t “tea m m a n a gem en t w a s a ch a r a cter istic fea tu r e in th e sa m ple” (DF E , 1993,
p. 46). Th e r esea r ch er s felt th a t “a ll th r ee
br oa d con clu sion s h ave con sider a ble im plica tion s for th e selection a n d tr a in in g of h ea dtea ch er s”.
Am on g oth er con clu sion s th a t a r e r eleva n t
to th is pa per a r e:
• com m en ts a bou t th e la ck of effectiven ess of
gover n or s;
• th e im por ta n ce of vision ;
• th e im por ta n ce of a n open a n d positive
sch ool clim a te or cu ltu r e;
• th e desir a bility of fi r m lea der sh ip a lon gside con su lta tion on policy;
• th e n eed for con sisten cy between th e
r h etor ic on va lu es a n d th e r ea lity;
• per son a l a n d pr ofession a l va lu es lie a t th e
h ea r t of edu ca tion a l lea der sh ip in th e selfm a n a gin g sch ool.
The headteacher mentoring scheme
Th e Sch ool Ma n a gem en t Ta sk for ce r ecogn ised th a t a sch ool-ba sed a ppr oa ch to developm en t wou ld be m or e difficu lt for th e per son
“a t th e top” of th e sch ool a s th ey h ave n o on e
to a ct a s a gu ide. Th e Hea dtea ch er Men tor in g
Sch em e w a s in tr odu ced in or der to over com e
th is pr oblem . Th is in volves th e lin k in g of a n
exper ien ced a n d a n in exper ien ced h ea d in a n
a r ea so th a t th e for m er ca n gu ide th e la tter.
Th e con cept of m en tor in g is n ow r ecogn ised
to be va lu a ble a n d con tin u es in m a n y sch ools
a t va r iou s ca r eer levels.
Appraisal
Th e a ppr a isa l of tea ch er s w a s on e of th e ou tcom es of th e 1986 E du ca tion Act a lth ou gh th is
a spect w a s n ot im plem en ted u n til th e ea r ly
1990s. Th e system in volves a two-yea r cycle
a n d, a lth ou gh it is n ot n ecessa r ily a
lin e-m a n a gem en t m odel, it is lik ely th a t
depu ty h ea ds wou ld be a ppr a ised by th e h ea dtea ch er. In th e ca se of h ea ds, th er e is on e peer
h ea d a n d on e oth er, n or m a lly a n LE A in spector or som eon e of sim ila r exper ien ce. In m ost
sch ools th e focu s is still a s or igin a lly a gr eed
w ith th e tea ch er u n ion s, i.e. on pr ofession a l
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
developm en t r a th er th a n on per for m a n ce
m a n a gem en t.
The National Educational Assessment
Centre
Th e N a tion a l E du ca tion a l Assessm en t Cen tr e
(N E AC) w a s set u p u sin g a n a da pta tion of th e
N a tion a l Associa tion of Secon da r y Sch ool
P r in cipa ls m odel for com peten ce a ssessm en t.
It w a s u sed by LE As a s a w ay of a ssessin g
th eir good depu ties so th a t th ey cou ld th en be
m en tor ed tow a r ds h ea dsh ip. Th e system h a s
n ow been exten ded to cover m iddle m a n a ger s
a n d, n ow th a t fu n din g h a s m oved aw ay fr om
LE As to sch ools, ch ea per w ays of ca r r yin g
ou t th e pr ocess h ave been developed. Th e
pr ocess is bein g u sed for th e a ssessm en t com pon en t in on e of th e N P QH r e gion a l pilot
sch em es.
The M anagement Charter Initiative (M CI)
Th e MCI h a s been in oper a tion sin ce 1988 a n d
it a im s to set ou t sta n da r ds of com peten ce for
occu pa tion s a n d m a n a gem en t levels. Th e
m odel pr ovides ver y deta iled specifica tion s of
wh a t h a s to be don e in a job a n d in clu des
sta tem en ts for ea ch elem en t of th e sta n da r d
a n d a r a n ge of cir cu m sta n ces in wh ich th e
com peten t per for m er m u st be a ble to ca r r y
ou t th ese elem en t su b-ta sk s. MCI Sen ior Ma n a gem en t Sta n da r ds (Ma n a gem en t Ch a r ter
In itia tive, 1995, p. 6) a r e str u ctu r ed a s follow s:
Key pu rpose sta tem en t: To develop a n d
im plem en t str a te gies to fu r th er th e or ga n isa tion ’s m ission .
Th e per for m a n ce sta n da r ds a r e gr ou ped
in to fou r m a in a r ea s of a ction :
1 Un der sta n din g a n d in flu en cin g th e en vir on m en t.
2 Settin g th e str a te gy a n d ga in in g com m itm en t.
3 P la n n in g, im plem en tin g a n d m on itor in g.
4 E va lu a tin g a n d im pr ovin g per for m a n ce.
With in ea ch of th e a r ea s th er e a r e a n u m ber
of u n its, ea ch bein g m a de u p of m or e deta iled
elem en ts.
Th e m odel is both logica l a n d system a tic,
a n d pr ovides a com pr eh en sive gu ide for
developm en t a n d a ssessm en t, bu t th e n u m ber
of elem en ts for a job com peten ce is so deta iled
th a t it m ay seem to a lea r n er too fr a gm en ted
a n d to ta k e a lot of tim e for a ssessm en t. For
exa m ple th e MCI specifi ca tion for sen ior
m a n a ger s com pr ises 33 elem en ts. Th e
a ppr oa ch h a s been cr iticised beca u se it
a ssu m es sta tic jobs a n d a im s a t m in im a l
sta n da r ds. It is seen a s in flexible a n d pr escr iptive, fa ilin g to r ecogn ise th e diver sity of
m a n a ger s’ ta sk s a n d r oles, a n d m a n y believe
th a t is seem s better su ited to m ea su r in g com peten ce a t lower m a n a ger ia l levels. Th e
sta n da r ds a r e pitch ed a t th r esh old per for m a n ce a n d a r e less a ppr opr ia te for job situ a tion s wh er e k n ow ledge, a ttitu des, a n d a u ton om y to m a k e discr etion a r y decision s a r e pa r t
of th e job (see Tr otter a n d E llison , p. 1997).
Ar gu a bly, it is im possible to m ea su r e m a n a gem en t com peten ce objectively a n d r elia bly
in th is fr a gm en ted fa sh ion . Th e MCI gu idelin es h ave n ot been exten sively u sed in th eir
“pu r e” for m a lth ou gh m a n y or ga n isa tion s
h ave a da pted th em .
Other provision
Th er e h a s a lso been (a n d con tin u es to be) a
w ide r a n ge of sh or t cou r ses fr om a r a n ge of
pr ovider s, both fr om a tr a dition a l edu ca tion
ba ck gr ou n d a n d fr om th e n on -edu ca tion a l
sector s.
In a ddition , du r in g th is per iod, m a n y h ea ds
a n d depu ties h ave been en r olled on aw a r dbea r in g cou r ses (m ostly pa r t-tim e) th r ou gh
tr a dition a l h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s
(HE Is) a n d th e Open Un iver sity.
The important role of the head
E viden ce over th e la st 20 yea r s h a s con sisten tly poin ted to th e fa ct th a t “th e m ost
im por ta n t sin gle fa ctor in th e su ccess of th ese
sch ools is th e qu a lity of lea der sh ip of th e
h ea d” (DE S, 1975, p. 36). Sa m m on s et a l. (1995)
h ave r ecen tly colla ted th e r esea r ch on effective sch ools a n d listed 11 in dica tor s wh ich
ca n be su m m a r ised a s follow s:
1 fir m a n d pu r posefu l pr ofession a l lea der sh ip;
2 sh a r ed vision a n d goa ls;
3 or der ly lea r n in g en vir on m en t;
4 focu s on tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g;
5 well-or ga n ised tea ch in g;
6 h igh expecta tion s;
7 positive r ein for cem en t;
8 m on itor in g pr ogr ess;
9 stu den ts’ r igh ts a n d r espon sibilities;
10 h om e-sch ool pa r tn er sh ips;
11 sch ools a s lea r n in g or ga n isa tion s.
Th is list ca n pr ovide pa r t of th e a gen da for
a n y pr ogr a m m e of h ea dsh ip pr epa r a tion or
h ea dtea ch er developm en t.
The way forward
P r ior to LMS sch ools wer e “h igh ly
a u ton om ou s a n d h ea dtea ch er s a ppea r ed to
ca r r y ou t th eir r ole in isola tion , a loof fr om
th e exter n a l en vir on m en t” (McHu gh a n d
McMu lla n , 1995, p. 23). With th e ch a n ges
u n der th e E du ca tion Refor m Act, “th e h ea dtea ch er ’s job is n ow w idely r e ga r ded a s bein g
pr im a r ily a m a n a ger ia l post” (McHu gh a n d
[ 31 ]
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
McMu lla n , 1995, p. 24). McHu gh a n d McMu lla n a sser t th a t su ch a ch a n ge r equ ir es “th e
a cqu isition a n d developm en t of a r a n ge of
sk ills h ith er to ign or ed by th ose con cer n ed
w ith tea ch er tr a in in g” (McHu gh a n d McMu lla n , 1995, p. 24).
In a ddition to th e issu e of in -ser vice tr a in in g, r esea r ch in ter viewees com m en ted, w ith
th e ben efit of h in dsigh t, on th e per ceived
a dva n ta ges of pr e-a ppoin tm en t tr a in in g. It
wou ld a ppea r th a t a t pr esen t, few, if a n y,
poten tia l h ea dtea ch er s r eceive tr a in in g
wh ich a dequ a tely pr epa r es th em for th e n ew
r espon sibilities wh ich th ey a ssu m e on th eir
pr om otion to position s of h ea dsh ip. Th u s, it
is su ggested th a t a system a tic a ppr oa ch be
a dopted to th e developm en t of in dividu a ls
wh o a spir e to position s of h ea dsh ip. Su ch a n
a ppr oa ch r equ ir es th e com m itm en t a n d
su ppor t of th ose in volved in th e for m u la tion
a n d im plem en ta tion of edu ca tion a l policy
(McHu gh a n d McMu lla n , 1995, p. 33).
A sim ila r plea for pr e-a ppoin tm en t tr a in in g
is m a de by th e N a tion a l Com m ission on E du ca tion wh ich n otes “a r a th er a d h oc system of
h ea dtea ch er pr epa r a tion ” a n d “h a ph a za r d
pr a ctices in th e selection of h ea dtea ch er s in
th is cou n tr y” (N a tion a l Com m ission on E du ca tion , 1993, p. 230).
Wa r n in gs a bou t th e focu s of su ch tr a in in g
h ave been given by Willia m s (Cooper a n d
Sh u te, 1988, p. xii) wh o w r ote th a t “th ose wh o
r u n sch ools effectively n eed to u n der sta n d
wh a t th ey a r e doin g a s well a s k n ow h ow to do
it!”, a n d by Gla tter :
Th e da n ger of con cen tr a tin g on sk ills a n d
tech n iqu es is th a t th is w ill r ein for ce th e
view of th e a dm in istr a tor a s pr im a r ily a
tech n icia n … su ch deeper u n der sta n din g,
n o less th a n sk ills a n d tech n iqu es, m u st be
tr a n sm itted th r ou gh th e m ediu m of con cr ete
a dm in istr a tive settin gs r a th er th a n pr edom in a n tly “cla ssr oom ” settin gs (Gla tter, 1992,
p. 9-10).
F u r th er su ppor t for sch ool-ba sed developm en t ca m e fr om th e Ta sk for ce wh ich con clu ded th a t:
Lea r n in g fr om exper ien ce m ea n s lea r n in g
on th e job a s well a s lea r n in g a bou t th e job
… positive exper ien ces of su ccessfu l m a n a gem en t a r e th e ba ck bon e of per son a l developm en t (DE S, 1990, p. 25).
Willia m s (Cooper a n d Sh u te, 1988 p. xii) pr oposed on -th e-job tr a in in g a n d a w ide r a n ge of
cou r ses so th a t pr ospective h ea ds cou ld lea r n
a bou t th e u n der lyin g pr in ciples of sch ool
lea der sh ip a n d m eet oth er s:
…th e sin gle “sta ff colle ge” a ppr oa ch m ay
r esu lt in on e r ecogn ised a ppr oa ch to lea der sh ip wh ich r isk s layin g th e dea d h a n d of a
sin gle or th odoxy on a ll ou r sch ools (Cooper
a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. xii).
[ 32 ]
Bola m et a l. com m en ted on th e con ten t of a n y
h ea dsh ip developm en t pr ogr a m m e:
… th e vita lly im por ta n t con tr ibu tion of su ch
fa ctor s a s lea der sh ip, vision , cu ltu r e, colla bor a tive decision -m a k in g a n d th e lik e sh ou ld
su r ely figu r e pr om in en tly in tr a in in g a n d
developm en t a ctivities … th ey sh ou ld a lso
in for m th e on -th e-job developm en t
pr ogr a m m es a n d a ppr a isa l sch em es w ith in
ea ch sch ool a n d LE A … th e fin din gs sh ou ld
be ta k en in to a ccou n t in th e for m u la tion of
com peten ces for h ea dtea ch er s a n d oth er
sch ool m a n a ger s (DF E , 1993, p. 129).
Cooper a n d Sh u te (1988, p. 7) go beyon d m ost
a u th or s in pr oposin g tr a in in g for th ose in
post a n d th ose a spir in g to h ea dsh ip w ith
va r iou s or ga n isa tion s co-oper a tin g to offer
tr a in in g tow a r ds a cer tifica te. Th is pr ocess
wou ld be over seen by a body to set sta n da r ds,
r eview ca n dida tes, issu e th e cer tifica tes a n d
a ccr edit pr ovider s:
Wh a t we pr opose is th e cer tifica tion by a n
officia l body of th e pr epa r a tion a n d cr eden tia ls of sen ior sch ool sta ff, testifyin g to th e
qu a lifica tion s of th ose wh o lea d th e sch ools of
Gr ea t Br ita in (Cooper a n d Sh u te, 1988, p. 4).
Alth ou gh th er e a r e som e con flictin g per spectives, th e k ey poin ts r ela tin g to a pr ogr a m m e
of pr epa r a tion for h ea dsh ip seem to be:
• a sign ifica n t sch ool-ba sed elem en t;
• u n der sta n din g a s well a s doin g;
• th e im por ta n ce of vision ;
• a system a tic a ppr oa ch ;
• a focu s on lea der sh ip.
Wh ile th er e is a con sen su s th a t som e for m a l
pr epa r a tion is r equ ir ed, th er e is little gen er a l
su ppor t for :
• a sta ff colle ge;
• a n a tion a l cu r r icu lu m ;
• r igid n a tion a l sta n da r ds;
• a pu r ely th eor etica l cou r se.
An y system of h ea dsh ip pr epa r a tion m u st be
seen in th e con text of a con tin u u m of sta ff
developm en t:
Th e u ltim a te a im of sta ff developm en t is to
im pr ove th e qu a lity of tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. Th e im m edia te a im is to im pr ove th e
per for m a n ce of th ose w ith tea ch in g a n d
m a n a gem en t r espon sibilities (Bola m , 1987,
p. 2).
Teacher Training Agency (TTA)
Th is w a s esta blish ed in Septem ber 1994 w ith
th e follow in g k ey fu n ction s:
• th e fu n din g of tea ch er tr a in in g;
• th e a ccr edita tion of pr ovider s of in itia l
tr a in in g for sch ool tea ch er s;
• pr ovidin g in for m a tion a n d a dvice a bou t
tea ch er tr a in in g a n d tea ch in g a s a pr ofession ;
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
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• ca r r yin g ou t or com m ission in g r esea r ch
w ith a view to im pr ovin g th e sta n da r ds of
tea ch in g a n d tea ch er tr a in in g (Tea ch er
Tr a in in g Agen cy, u n da ted, p. 7).
It seem ed a n a tu r a l exten sion of th e wor k of
th e TTA th a t th er e sh ou ld be a n a tion a l
fr a m ewor k for a con tin u ou s str ea m of tr a in in g a n d developm en t for tea ch er s th r ou gh
in itia l tea ch er tr a in in g, exper t su bject
tea ch er, exper t su bject lea der to exper t sch ool
lea der. Wh ile wor k in g w ith in its or igin a l
fr a m ewor k , th e TTA n ow con tr ols th e fu n din g
of in -ser vice tea ch er tr a in in g (in clu din g th a t
in u n iver sities).
As fa r a s h ea dsh ip tr a in in g a n d developm en t is con cer n ed, th e TTA h a s a lr ea dy
la u n ch ed (in Septem ber 1995) HE ADLAMP
(Hea dtea ch er s’ Lea der sh ip a n d Ma n a gem en t
P r ogr a m m e). Th is is a n a tion a l in itia tive to
pr ovide tr a in in g in th eir n ew r ole for n ew ly
a ppoin ted h ea dtea ch er s in th eir fir st two
yea r s. For th is, th e TTA h a s licen sed a ll th ose
pr ovider s wh o a pplied a n d OF STE D in spects
th e r esu ltin g pr ovision . To da te m a n y
licen sed pr ovider s h ave n ot ca r r ied ou t a n y
a ctivity wh ile LE As a n d on e or two n a tion a l
con sor tia h ave ca r r ied ou t th e bu lk of th e
wor k .
As pa r t of th e con tin u u m of pr ofession a l
developm en t, th e TTA w a s a sk ed to develop a
qu a lifica tion for a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s. Th e
th en Secr eta r y of Sta te for E du ca tion a n d
E m ploym en t expr essed th e gover n m en t’s
w ish es th u s:
I h ave in m in d som eth in g qu ite n ew – a
r ecogn ised pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion for
h ea dsh ip wh ich w ill be r u n a n d a ssessed
u n der r igor ou s n a tion a l sta n da r ds (Sh eph a r d, 1995, p. 2).
The National Professional
Qualification for Headship (NPQH)
Th e qu a lifica tion is a im ed a t pr ovidin g a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s w ith th e sk ills a n d a bilities
to ta k e u p th e lea der sh ip of a sch ool. It is a lso
in ten ded to be a h igh qu a lity m ea su r e for
sch ool gover n or s a s a n a ssu r a n ce th a t th ose
w ith th e qu a lifi ca tion h ave th e levels of com peten ce n eeded for th e good lea der sh ip of
today’s sch ools:
We in ten d to esta blish a h igh qu a lity
n a tion a l qu a lifica tion wh ich … pr ovides a n
a ssu r a n ce to gover n or s a n d oth er s th a t
n ew ly a ppoin ted h ea dtea ch er s h ave th e
n ecessa r y fou n da tion of sch ool lea der sh ip
a n d m a n a gem en t k n ow ledge, u n der sta n din g
a n d sk ills to per for m su ccessfu lly a ga in st a
n a tion a l sta n da r d (Tea ch er Tr a in in g
Agen cy, 1995, p. 1).
Th e qu a lifica tion is bein g in tr odu ced to tr y to
give som e m ea su r e a s to th e poten tia l per for m a n ce of th e a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er wh en
ta k in g u p a post in a n ew sch ool. Su ch per for m a n ce is m or e th a n m er e efficien t m a n a gem en t; it is “th e con sisten t a bility to pr odu ce
r esu lts over pr olon ged per iods of tim e a n d in
a va r iety of a ssign m en ts” (Dr u ck er, 1989, p.
156). Wh ile th e N P QH ca n n ot r epla ce th e
in ter view or gu a r a n tee th a t th e h older w ill be
su ccessfu l in h ea dsh ip, th e qu a lifica tion ca n
give som e a ssu r a n ce to gover n in g bodies th a t
th e ca n dida tes h ave m et a level of com peten ce
wh ich dem on str a tes th a t th ey h ave th e poten tia l for h ea dsh ip. N ot on ly w ill th e a ssu r a n ce
be on a job-specific or loca l level, bu t it w ill be
a m ea su r e th a t gover n or s ca n a pply u sin g
n a tion a l com pa r ison s beca u se th ose w ith th e
qu a lifi ca tion s w ill h ave pr oven eviden ce th a t
th ey m eet th e cr iter ia for a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er s. Gover n or s ca n th en be a ssu r ed th a t ca n dida tes n ot fit for th e sin gle m ost im por ta n t
job in th e sch ool ca n n ot a tta in th e qu a lifica tion of th e N P QH.
Th e TTA believes th a t it h a s iden tified clea r
objectives for th e qu a lifica tion wh ich sh ou ld:
• be ta r geted on sch ool im pr ovem en t;
• en su r e th a t on ly th ose r ea dy for h ea dsh ip
ga in th e qu a lifica tion ;
• be ba sed on a gr eed n a tion a l sta n da r ds;
• sign a l r ea din ess for h ea dsh ip bu t n ot
r epla ce th e selection pr ocess;
• pr ovide a focu s for a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s’
con tin u in g pr ofession a l developm en t;
• pr ovide a ba selin e fr om wh ich n ew ly
a ppoin ted h ea dtea ch er s ca n con tin u e to
develop th eir lea der sh ip a n d m a n a gem en t
a bilities (Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996a ,
p. 2).
For th e fir st tim e, th ose look in g to h ea dsh ip
a s a ca r eer pr ogr ession h ave a clea r set of
gu idelin es dem on str a tin g th e com peten ces
th ey w ill be expected to dem on str a te pr ior to
ta k in g u p h ea dsh ip. Th e qu a lifica tion is n ot
com pu lsor y (a lth ou gh th e n ew La bou r Gover n m en t h a s pr oposed th a t it sh ou ld be) bu t it
is h oped th a t m ost people seek in g th eir fi r st
h ea dsh ip w ill look to th e qu a lifi ca tion a s a
sen sible pr epa r a tion for th e dem a n ds of th e
job. Th e qu a lifica tion is n ot in ten ded to
r epla ce th e n eed for m en tor tr a in in g a fter
a ppoin tm en t, n or does it r epla ce th e n eed for
fu r th er tr a in in g in th e ea r ly yea r s of ta k in g
u p a fir st h ea dsh ip (wh ich h a s r ecen tly been
su ppor ted by th e HE ADLAMP sch em e).
Ma n y r esea r ch pr ojects h ave sh ow n th a t
th e m ost sign ifica n t in flu en ces on th e sch ool
com e fr om th e lea der sh ip of th e h ea dtea ch er.
Th e N P QH pla ces gr ea t em ph a sis on th e com peten ce of th e h ea d a s lea der a n d th e tr a in in g
a n d developm en t a ssocia ted w ith th e
[ 33 ]
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
qu a lifica tion w ill h ave to a ddr ess th e issu e of
lea der sh ip tr a in in g. Th e N P QH a lso pla ces
gr ea t em ph a sis on th e a ssessm en t of sk ills
a n d a bilities w ith in th e con text of sch ool
im pr ovem en t. Th is m odel wou ld be
su ppor ted by Covey (1992) wh o sees th e a pplica tion of com peten ces th r ou gh pr in ciples
a cr oss differ en t situ a tion s a s a fu n da m en ta l
fea tu r e of sen ior m a n a gem en t:
With ou t u n der sta n din g th e pr in ciple of a
given ta sk , people becom e in ca pa cita ted
wh en th e situ a tion ch a n ges a n d differ en t
pr a ctices a r e r equ ir ed to be su ccessfu l
(Covey, 1992, p. 25).
Th e NP QH is differ en t fr om com peten ce-ba sed
m odels in two distin ct w ays. F ir stly, it a im s to
m ea su r e poten tia l a n d, a s su ch , ca n n ot r esor t
to a tick -box style of exper ien ces r ecor ded by
th e in dividu a l. Secon dly, in look in g a t a ccr editin g pa st per for m a n ce, it pla ces em ph a sis
n ot ju st on exper ien ce bu t a ch ievem en t r eleva n t to im pr ovin g pu pil per for m a n ce.
Th er e a r e lim ita tion s to th e u se of a com peten ce-ba sed m odel for th e pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion bu t m ea su r in g a n in dividu a l’s per for m a n ce a ga in st th e gen er a lly a ccepted
dem a n ds of th e job th r ou gh a ca r efu l a n a lysis
of th e h ea dtea ch er ’s r ole m u st lea d u s to a
better sta te of a ffa ir s th a n a decla r a tion th a t
th e ta sk is n ot possible. Wh ile th e u se of com peten ces ca n n ot be fl aw less, it ca n for m a
ver y u sefu l a n d im por ta n t gu ide tow a r ds th e
r equ ir ed levels of sk ills, k n ow ledge a n d a bilities for th e im pr oved lea der sh ip of sch ools. It
is in th is con text th a t th e qu a lifica tion is
fr a m ed.
It is a lso im por ta n t to r ecogn ise th a t th e
com peten ces r equ ir ed of h ea dtea ch er s w ill
a lter over tim e. Th e r ole of h ea dtea ch er s h a s
ch a n ged sign ifica n tly over th e pa st deca de in
ter m s of th e va r yin g in flu en ces a n d in cr ea sed
a ccou n ta bility pla ced in th eir h a n ds:
Sch ool a dm in istr a tion n ow ta k es pla ce in a n
in cr ea sin gly tu r bu len t, politica lly ch a r ged
en vir on m en t; blu n tly, r u n n in g sch ools h a s
becom e a tou gh job wh ich in volves m or e
k n ow ledge a n d sk ill th a n it did even a
deca de a go (Bea r e et a l., 1989, p. xi).
Th e N P QH m u st en su r e th a t ca n dida tes ca n n ot sim ply pr esen t a “pu blic per for m a n ce of
com peten ce” bu t m u st tr u ly be a ble to dem on str a te th eir a bility to a ch ieve th e sk ills level
r equ ir ed of th e qu a lifi ca tion eith er th r ou gh
pa st per for m a n ce or th r ou gh sim u la tion s
design ed to test poten tia l.
Th is is com plica ted by a n u m ber of fa ctor s.
Th e m ost sign ifi ca n t is th e cu ltu r a l con text of
th e h ea dtea ch er ’s job w ith in th e sch ool en vir on m en t. It for m s a n im por ta n t dim en sion to
th e u n der sta n din g of th e a pplica tion of th e
sta n da r ds set ou t in th e qu a lifi ca tion . As
su ch , ca r efu l r ecogn ition of th e im pa ct of th e
[ 34 ]
cu ltu r a l con text in th e wor k in g en vir on m en t
m u st be a sign ifica n t fea tu r e of th e a ssessm en t of th e a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er in th e developm en t of h is/ h er level of com peten ce w ith in
th e system .
Th e n ew qu a lifica tion sets ou t to k eep a
clea r focu s on th e cor e pu r pose of h ea dsh ip
wh ich in volves esta blish in g th e str a te gic
dir ection a n d lea der sh ip of th e or ga n isa tion .
In th is r espect, it tr ies to a ssess th e poten tia l
of th e ca n dida te in br in gin g a bou t th is a spect
of a h ea dtea ch er ’s r ole th r ou gh th e dem on str a tion of th e a pplica tion of th eor etica l con cepts to th e pr a ctica l situ a tion . It h a s been
in dica ted a bove th a t th e com plexity of th e
ta sk is n ot m a de ea sier by cu ltu r a l a n d con textu a l issu es. Th is ta k es it beyon d th e lim its
of m a ster s de gr ee type pr ogr a m m es a n d
beyon d th e com peten ce-ba sed a ssessm en ts of
N VQ to a qu a lifica tion wh ich tr ies to pu ll ou t
th e best of both in th a t it focu ses on th e a pplica tion a n d th e poten tia l a pplica tion of th e
n ecessa r y sk ills a n d a bilities r equ ir ed for
h ea dsh ip in th e sch ool settin g.
F u lla n (1985) a r gu es th a t h ea ds m u st
a ddr ess fou r issu es of pr ocess to give m ea n in g to effective sch ool n eeds. Th ese, h e
cla im s, a r e design ed to en h a n ce th e eth os a n d
im a ge of th e sch ool a n d a r e fu n da m en ta l in
br in gin g a bou t pu r posefu l a n d effective
ch a n ge. He lists th em a s:
• a feel for th e pr ocess on th e pa r t of lea der sh ip;
• a gu idin g va lu e system ;
• in ten se in ter a ction a n d com m u n ica tion ;
and
• colla bor a tive pla n n in g a n d im plem en ta tion … (F u lla n , 1985, p. 499).
His ter m in ology of h avin g a “feel” for th e
pr ocess of lea der sh ip em ph a sises th e in ta n gible m ea su r em en t of effective lea der sh ip in a
con ven tion a l a n d for m a l pr ocess. J u st a s
J en k in s (1991, p. 3) r em in ds u s of th e fa ct th a t
“tr a dition a l m odels of lea der sh ip a r e in ca pa ble of m eetin g th e ch a llen ges sch ools a r e
fa cin g”, so too we fi n d th a t con ven tion a l m odels of a ssessm en t a r e in a ppr opr ia te to m ea su r e th e cu r r en t a bility or poten tia l of th e
N P QH ca n dida te to dem on str a te effective
lea der sh ip. Yet, lea der sh ip of th e sch ool for
con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t is a t th e h ea r t of
th is qu a lifi ca tion . It h a s to be m ea su r ed by its
im pa ct a n d effect on oth er s, a s does th e over a ll effectiven ess of th e ca n dida te in br in gin g
a bou t th e r igh t cu ltu r e to pr om ote im pr ovem en t.
Th er e a r e, th er efor e, fou r issu es to be
a ddr essed by th e n ew qu a lifica tion :
1 Hea dsh ip r equ ir es str on g lea der sh ip a n d
sou n d m a n a gem en t qu a lities wh ich n eed
to be developed th r ou gh tr a in in g.
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
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2 Th e tr a in in g a spect m u st focu s on th e
n eeds of th e in dividu a l w ith ea ch ca n dida te viewed in th e con text w ith in wh ich
th ey a r e oper a tin g if th e qu a lifi ca tion is to
pr edict poten tia l in a n equ ita ble a n d
m ea n in gfu l m a n n er.
3 It is im por ta n t to r ecogn ise th a t th er e a r e
often con texts wh ich a r e in a ppr opr ia te for
th e good pr epa r a tion of poten tia l h ea dtea ch er s – n a m ely, poor sch ools or th ose
w ith u n su ppor tive h ea ds; m ea n s to over com e su ch h u r dles w ill be r equ ir ed
th r ou gh th e fl exible a pplica tion of th e
qu a lifica tion if th ose ca n dida tes a r e n ot to
be den ied a ccess to th e N P QH.
4 Assessin g th e com peten ces m u st be u n der ta k en in a cost-effective m a n n er so th a t
th er e is n o bia s in favou r of th e fu n din g of
th e a ssessm en t pr ocess to th e detr im en t of
th e tr a in in g a n d developm en t n eeds of
a spir in g h ea dtea ch er s.
The consultations
An exten sive con su lta tive exer cise w a s ca r r ied ou t by th e Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy.
Th is in volved a two-ph a se w r itten con su lta tion pr ocess a s well a s a ser ies of r e gion a l
con fer en ces. Th e TTA Boa r d, th e CP D Com m ittee a n d th e N P QH Advisor y Gr ou p spen t a
con sider a ble tim e on th e pr oposa ls.
In or der to be gin th e pr ocess of esta blish in g
a n ew pr ofession a l qu a lifica tion , it w a s
decided th a t r epr esen ta tives of th e edu ca tion
system sh ou ld be a sk ed th eir in itia l view s on
th e sta n da r ds th a t th e TTA sh ou ld be look in g
for in a ca n dida te seek in g h ea dsh ip. Th is
pr oved to be a ver y in for m a tive pr ocess. A
ser ies of issu es w a s r a ised a n d som e gu ida n ce
a bou t essen tia l a spects of th e qu a lifi ca tion
wer e su ggested. Th ose r espon ses wer e con sider ed in deta il by th e N a tion a l Advisor y Gr ou p
for th e N a tion a l P r ofession a l Qu a lifica tion
for Hea dsh ip (NAGN P QH).
At th is sta ge, th e level of su ppor t for th e
N P QH w a s w idespr ea d, yet th er e w a s a str on g
view th a t th e qu a lifica tion sh ou ld be of a h igh
qu a lity. In a ddition to th is, sever a l r espon ses
h igh ligh ted th e lin k between th e pr ofession a l
a n d th e per son a l qu a lities r equ ir ed in su ccessfu l h ea dsh ip:
Th e qu a lifica tion sh ou ld r ein for ce th e
im por ta n ce of edu ca tion a l lea der sh ip, h ave
r igou r a n d be ba sed on n a tion a l sta n da r ds.
Ma n y r espon den ts em ph a sise th e n eed for
cogn itive a n d per son a l ca pa bilities a s well
a s per for m a n ce com peten ces (Tea ch er
Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 1).
Issu es r e ga r din g th e per son a l a n d th e con textu a l a spects of th e a spir a n t h ea d wer e ech oed
in th e discu ssion s of NAGN P QH wh ich
expr essed con cer n th a t th ose a spir a n t h ea ds
wer e h a r d to iden tify wh en wor k in g in poor
sch ools.
Th e m a in com pon en ts wer e for m u la ted a n d
a ten ta tive list developed in clu din g n ew r efer en ces to th e r ela tion sh ip between th e h ea d
a n d th e gover n in g body. Apa r t fr om th e con ten t of th e qu a lifica tion in ter m s of th e com peten ces to be a ssessed, fu r th er con cer n s
focu sed on th e fu n din g a r r a n gem en ts, a ccess
for ca n dida tes a n d th e con text of th is qu a lifica tion in th e r a n ge of pr ofession a l developm en t a ctivities for th e tea ch in g pr ofession .
E a ch of th ese issu es w a s discu ssed fu r th er in
th e NAGN P QH.
Th e ba la n ce between tr a in in g a n d a ssessm en t is a fi n e on e in th a t th e pu r pose of th e
qu a lifi ca tion is to pr epa r e a spir a n t h ea dtea ch er s better for th e n ext step in pr om otion
a s well a s a ssessin g th eir poten tia l for su ccess. Th er e w a s som e a n xiety a bou t th e goa ls
bein g u n a tta in a ble or th a t som eth in g wou ld
be m issed. It w a s decided th a t th er e wou ld be
a fu ll n a tion a l con su lta tion a n d th a t a m a n a ged pilot pr ogr a m m e wou ld be esta blish ed
to avoid a n y gla r in g er r or s.
Th e dr a ft sta n da r ds wer e w r itten a n d m odified for th e la u n ch of th e pr ocess of n a tion a l
con su lta tion . All sch ools wer e in vited to a sk
for a fu ll copy of th e con su lta tion pa per. At
th e sa m e tim e, a fu r th er letter w a s sen t to a
sa m ple of sch ools, pr ofession a l a ssocia tion s,
h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s, LE As, a n d
gover n or r epr esen ta tive gr ou ps, a m on g oth er s. Th is letter in vited com m en ts, clea r ly
esta blish in g a tim esca le a n d th e for m a t for
r espon ses. Th is w a s a m a jor exer cise a n d w a s
en h a n ced by a ser ies of r e gion a l con fer en ces
seek in g deba te a n d in ter a ctive discu ssion on
th e n a tu r e a n d for m a t of th e n ew qu a lifica tion .
Th er e wer e n in e r e gion a l con su lta tion
m eetin gs in volvin g a tota l of 620 dele ga tes. In
a ddition , w r itten r espon ses wer e su bm itted
(see Ta ble I).
Th e con su lta tion pa per a ck n ow ledged th e
ch a n gin g dem a n ds of h ea dsh ip a n d th e fl u idity of th e N P QH:
Table I
Writte n re spo nse s to re gio nal c o nsultatio n
me e tings
Primary Schools
Secondary Schools
Special Schools
Local Education Authorities (LEAs)
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)
Representative Bodies
Professional Associations
Government Bodies
Others (mostly individuals)
152
129
12
66
77
37
6
8
44
Source: Teac her Training Agenc y, 1996c , paragraph 4
[ 35 ]
Te rry Cre isse n and
Linda Elliso n
Re inve nting sc ho o l le ade rship
– bac k to the future in the UK?
… th e specific k n ow ledge a n d u n der sta n din g
r equ ir ed w ill ch a n ge over tim e, a n d th er efor e n eed to be r eviewed on a r e gu la r ba sis…
(Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996b, p. 11).
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 8 –3 8
View s a r e pa r ticu la r ly in vited on … wh eth er
it is n ecessa r y to differ en tia te th e sta n da r ds
by ph a se or size or type of sch ool, or
wh eth er th e em ph a sis on per for m in g ta sk s
in con text a llow for a gen er ic set of sta n da r ds a s pr esen ted (Tea ch er Tr a in in g
Agen cy, 1996b, p. 4).
E m ph a sis w a s pla ced on th e lea der sh ip r ole
a n d th e im por ta n ce of th e h ea d to m a k e su r e
th a t “th e sch ool developm en t pla n iden tifies
a ppr opr ia te pr ior ities a n d ta r gets for
im pr ovem en t a n d r ela tes to over a ll fin a n cia l
pla n n in g” (Tea ch er Tr a in in g Agen cy, 1996b,
p. 6). It r ecogn ised th e n eed for tea m wor k a n d
wor k in g w ith th e gover n in g body. In th e section on sk ills a n d a bilities, th e listin g ech oed
th e set of com peten ces fr om N E AC bu t fa iled
to in clu de “tea ch in g” a m on g th e r equ ir em en ts for ca n dida tes to h ave to pr ove. Th is
om ission w a s r a ised a s a con cer n by m a n y
r espon den ts a n d dem on str a ted th e desir e for
ba la n ce between th e m a n a ger ia l a n d th e
pr ofession a l, peda gogic a spects of th e h ea dtea ch er ’s r ole:
At th e h ea r t of th e or ga n isa tion ... a r e th e
dyn a m ic in ter a ction s between tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g … r esea r ch su ggests th a t h ea ds of
sch ools th a t a ch ieve excellen t r esu lts ... a r e
a lm ost obsessed by issu es of tea ch in g a n d
lea r n in g (High er E du ca tion r espon den t to
N a tion a l Con su lta tion , 1996).
Th er e w a s over wh elm in g su ppor t for th e k ey
pr in ciples wh ich “wer e welcom ed a n d ju dged
to be com pr eh en sive a n d h elpfu l” (Tea ch er
Tr a in in