Analysis of the Specifics of Water Resources Management in Regions with Rapidly Growing Population under Different Climate Conditions Case Study of Bali Island and the Moscow Region.
ISSN 0097-8078, Water Resources, 2015, Vol. 42, No. 5, pp. 735–746. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2015.
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT:
ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ASPECTS
Analysis of the Specifics of Water Resources Management in Regions
with Rapidly Growing Population under Different Climate
Conditions: Case Study of Bali Island and the Moscow Region1
I. Nyoman Raia, S. Shobab, N. Shchegolkovac, R. Dzhamalovc, E. Venitsianovc,
I. Gusti Ngurah Santosaa, Gede Menaka Adnyanaa, I. Nyoman Sunartaa, and I. Ketut Suadaa
a
Udayana University, Bukit Jimbaran, Bali, 80361 Indonesia
b
Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia
c
Water Problems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Gubkina 3, Moscow, 119333 Russia
E-mail: info@unud.ac.id, nshegolkova@mail.ru
Received March 3, 2015
Abstract—The paper analyzes long-term consumption dynamics of surface water and groundwater in two
different regions of the world, namely the current structure of water consumption and its change over the past
decade, as well as forecasts of water consumption in the future. Changes in water resources of Bali and the
Moscow Region, depending on water consumption, are illustrated based on long-term datasets. The specifics
of water consumption in each of the two regions were characterized, and the effectiveness of the measures regulating the amount of water in the regions was estimated. The paper provides the general principles and specific recommendations for solving the problem of water deficiency in both regions.
Keywords: water consumption, water deficiency, rapid population growth
DOI: 10.1134/S0097807815050127
1
INTRODUCTION
Regions with water deficiency (in various fields of
life support) become widespread in the world. This
deficiency may be due to either natural causes (low
precipitation, river runoff, or groundwater reserves) or
social factors (rapid population growth, economic
development in a particular territory). In the latter
case, the shortage of water resources in different territories demonstrates some common features [2, 11]:
a high population density in the urban agglomeration;
the active use of both surface and subsurface water;
pollution of both surface water and groundwater;
regulation of river flow and water transfers.
The main principles of water management under
its deficiency are well known: (1) water saving, that is,
its most efficient use for any purpose; (2) taking measures to reduce water pollution; (3) the use of water
recycling technologies. As a rule, management units
are water basins. Most water laws are based on the socalled “basin principle” [31, 32]. In the case of water
resources management of large rivers subjected to a
high anthropogenic impact, the basin principle is the
only possible control mechanism. Here, the water
management comprises evaluating water and pollutant
1 The article is published in the original.
balances for major water users. The result of these calculations is the choice of measures to optimize water
use. These measures are aimed to ensure that water
resources are used within the balance considered as
optimal.
The space distribution of the load on water bodies
is extremely heterogeneous. There are zones of maximum load (intensive water consumption, water pollution by effluents) and areas with nearly no load. We
can distinguish two types of impacts on river basins by
the ratio of the size of the object (the source of high
anthropogenic impact) and the size of the basin:
(1) the size of the river basin is much larger than the
object of high anthropogenic influence (urban settlements, agricultural irrigated land, industrial facilities);
(2) the objects of high anthropogenic influence
include several river basins or their size is comparable
with basin area, and/or river cannot ensure water consumption of some settlements within the basin
(Fig. 1).
Island Bali (Indonesia) and the Moscow Region
(including Moscow and Moscow oblast) are referred
to the second type. In both cases, there are a large
urban agglomeration (Denpasar City and Moscow,
respectively) and large water consumers, in addition to
residents: agriculture in Bali and industry in the Moscow Region. Both regions use rivers as water sources
(the Moskva River and rivers in Bali). In their natural
735
736
NYOMAN RAI et al.
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
(b)
(a)
2
2
Fig. 1. Possible combinations of river basins (RB-2) and zones of high anthropogenic load (ZHAL-1): an RB contains several
ZHALs (a); a ZHAL contains several RBs (b).
state, these rivers cannot meet the historically formed
water demand. There is a rapid population growth in
both regions (including immigrants). For a long time
(more than 100 years), both regions have been suffering periodic water deficits: these were water shortages
for the agriculture and population during the dry season in Bali, and for the growing population and industry in the Moscow Region (before water transfer from
the Volga River).
In Bali, this problem was solved as early as the first
millennium A.D., by creating a unique system of river
water redistribution. Rivers that direct from the center
of the island to the ocean were combined in a canal
system enabling effective reallocation of water
between individual agricultural consumers, including
water transfer from one river basin to another. The
water system, which was reliably working for two millennia, is spontaneously degrading now. Researchers
from different countries have been studying this system, called Subak [18, 19, 21, 24, 29, 30, 34]. The
Subaks of Bali is one of the best examples of userbased allocation. The discovery of the sophistication
of these systems provided the basis for some early challenges to assumptions that the governmental management of irrigation was necessary [6, 35]. These irrigation associations have developed and constructed their
own irrigation systems with very little external assistance. The systems have been sustained over time by
elaborate management rules and practices that specify
obligations of each member in terms of labor and cash
contributions for operation and maintenance, including periodic rehabilitation. A key feature of the Subaks
is the “tektek” principle of proportional water allocation to each individual member. The tektek shares are
based on a proportion of flow through diversions
structures. There is a strong emphasis on equity, so that
allocation takes into account the farmers' role in the
association, the distance from the intake, the initial
investment, soil conditions, and transfers of water
rights among members. The systems also exhibit a high
degree of flexibility and responsiveness to negotiations
among members. Balinese Subaks have several advantages, which contribute to their effectiveness, and the
sustainability of the institutions for user-based allocation over time [3].
As for the Moscow Region, water scarcity for the
industry and households has been occurred since the
1920–1930s due to the rapid growth in the urban population and industrial development. In the same
period and earlier (since the early 20th century) the
Moskva River showed unsatisfactory ecological conditions due to large amounts of untreated sewage it
received. The cause of water deficiency was the location of an intensive growing metropolis on a river with
a moderate runoff. It is worth noting that the Moscow
Region traditionally used groundwater for domestic
needs, while Moscow preferred surface water. Since
the 1930s, Moscow has been using water reservoirs,
which accumulate water of two rivers—the Volga and
the Moskva. The transfer of river water from the basin
of another river (the Volga) solved not only the problem of water supply to the population and industry, but
also the problem of increasing the Moskva River runoff to improve its ecological conditions. Before the
construction of the Moscow water supply system, the
drainage basin of the Moskva River was as little as
8000 km2. The construction of the system increased
the basin area sixfold. Nowadays the drainage area of
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
the Moscow water supply system, located on the territory of Moscow, Smolensk, and Tver regions is about
50000 km2 [8]. Thus, the scarce water resources were
replenished by the resources of the neighboring Volga
basin. The natural–technogenic water system in the
Moscow Region has been operating for over 50 years.
At present, the structure of water use in both
regions is expected to change: the number of tourists
increases in Bali, and Moscow borders are expanded
(the area of the capital increased by 2.5 times). The
choice of the optimal scheme of water use requires a
comprehensive study of the long-term dynamics of
water consumption.
We have analyzed the structure of long-term
dynamics of water use in both regions. For Bali, we
used data obtained from the Statistical Office of Bali,
reports of Environment Management Agencies,
reports of the Department of Agriculture and other
agencies [1, 4, 5, 12, 33]. For the Moscow Region, we
used statistical data of Rosstat [9], data of MPUE
“Kanal imeni Moskvy”, and a database of JSC Mosvodokanal [21].
Data on rainfall and evaporation for Bali were
obtained from materials of BPS Provinsi Bali (1995,
1995–1999, 2014) [1], and for Moscow, from Davydov
et al. [8], papers [16, 17] and the Internet resource of
Geocenter Moskva [10]. The available surface water
resources were evaluated based on the total river flow
(in Bali) and the runoff of the Moskva River at its
mouth (for the Moscow Region).
Irrigation water consumption in the Moscow
Region was evaluated proceeding from 550700 ha of
sown areas, 5% of which are irrigated [9]; the irrigation rate was assumed 1000 m3/ha. Water use by industry in the Moscow Region is calculated for the most
water-intensive industrial sectors (the production of
cement and reinforced concrete structures and power
generation at TPP), according to Rosstat data. Specific water consumption rates per production unit
were used [13, 20].
GEOECOLOGICAL FORMATION
CONDITIONS OF THE VOLUME
AND QUALITY OF WATER RESOURCES
Bali
The main factors that govern the formation of water
resources of the island are (1) tropical marine climate
with pronounced seasonal rainfall: a wet period from
October to March and a dry period from April to September; (2) hydrogeological characteristics: a very
high permeability of fractured rock and the absence of
aquicludes, i.e., groundwater is genetically uniform
over depth; (3) the heterogeneity of rainfall over the
territory; the rainfall in different parts of the island
varies from 1700 to 3300 mm/year, the amount of precipitation tends to be higher in the central part of the
island and lower on the coast.
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
737
Water resources of the island are composed of surface waters (rivers, canals, and lakes) and groundwater.
About 162 rivers and streams flow from the center of
the island to the ocean, some of them originating in
the three largest lakes of volcanic origin, located in the
central highlands of the island. The total volume of
these lakes (Buyan Lake, Beratan Lake, and Tamblingan Lake) is about 0.2 billion m3, and the water yield
of lakes is more than 0.3 billion m3/year.
Groundwater supplies are 0.54 km3/year, and the
runoff of rivers and canals are 4.43 km3/year.
The major aquifers in the Southern Bali include a
Pliocene lower calcareous sequence and a Quaternary
upper volcanic sequence. Both exhibit rapid lateral
and vertical facies changes, and hence their hydrogeologic parameters are highly variable. Yields of up to
90 L/s are known from the calcareous system and up
to 60 L/s from the volcanic formations. A model for
recharge was prepared [23], using all relevant available
soil, land use, hydrogeological, and meteorological
data for calibration. The annual recharge for different
soils was 308–605 mm in a medium-rainfall year and
267–481 mm in a dry year.
According to Nielsen et al. [23], the piezometric
surface of the Southern Bali (where groundwater is
most intensively consumed) is very heterogeneous.
The depth of groundwater table in wells is less than
10 m in the coastal area near the ocean, 30–75 m near
the city of Denpasar, and up to 300 m and more in the
central part of the island.
The irregularity of rainfall during the year determines the temporal heterogeneity in the amount of
water (Fig. 2), consisting of surface water and groundwater. The fractured rocks determine a direct relationship between the groundwater level and the amount of
precipitation: the levels and consumption of groundwater significantly decrease in a dry season. The difference in water resources between seasons reach ten
times (Fig. 2).
The main sources of water pollution are domestic
wastewater, sewage of agricultural enterprises, livestock waste, tourist and shopping complexes, diffuse
runoff from agricultural fields, as well as from illegal
dumps. In 2006 I. Ketut Sundra [33] found a high content of organic matter (BOD and COD), nitrogen
compounds, suspended solids, and bacteria in
groundwater in the Southern Bali. The water extracted
from wells in the areas near the ocean in most cases is
salty or brackish because of seawater intrusion.
Throughout the year, surface water quality depends
on the following main factors: (1) surface water dilution by clean rainwater; (2) seasonally dependent
amounts of mineral fertilizers and chemical plant protection products, (3) seasonally dependent amount of
pollutants from the tourist complexes; (4) continuous
flow of domestic wastewater, which is virtually not
treated; (5) the self-purification processes that take
place in surface waters.
738
NYOMAN RAI et al.
m3/s
1600
1
1400
3
2
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Fig. 2. Monthly water potential in Bali: 1—potency of surface water, 2—potency of groundwater, 3—potency of total availability
[1].
Moscow Region
The natural conditions that affect the formation of
regional water resources are the temperate continental
climate, the hilly-plain relief, the hydrogeological
structure with pronounced aquicludes and aquifers.
The distribution of precipitation over the year (compared with Bali) is nearly uniform with an average of
40 to 90 mm per month. The average annual precipitation rate over the past 20 years is 705 mm (with a
minimum of 485 and a maximum of 885 mm per year).
The region shows pronounced seasonal variations in
air and water temperature (4 seasons) and river water
flow (spring floods, winter and summer low water
periods). All the rivers have steady flow, well-developed valleys and floodplains; the spring flood takes
place in April–May. The hydrographic axis of the
region is the Moskva River. Before the construction of
the Mozhaisk Reservoir, which flooded a part of its
meandering riverbed, the river length was 502 km.
Now it is taken equal to 473 km. Most of the rivers of
Moscow oblast are tributaries of the Moskva River.
The Moskva River and its tributaries are the main
resource of river water in the Moscow region for use.
Therefore, the discharge of the Moskva River at its
mouth is an integral characteristic of river water availability in the region. According to reference materials
at runoff modulus is 5.12 L/s km2 the annual runoff
before the transfer of the Volga water was 89 m3/s,
while in recent years, it averaged 199 m3/s. This was
the basis for the calculation of water reserve of rivers
under natural conditions (Table 1).
The largest reservoirs (or artificial water bodies)
near Moscow were formed in the 1930s and 1960s.
These include the Ozerna, Istra, Ruza, and Mozhaysk
reservoirs in the Moskva basin, and reservoirs of the
Volga basin: the Ivankovo, Iksha, Pyalovskoe,
Pestovskoye, Klyazma, and Ucha. The total useful
volume of all constructed reservoirs is 2399 million m3.
The main sources of water pollution are domestic,
storm, and industrial effluents [26] and diffuse flow
[14, 15]. As a result, many rivers in the region are moderately or heavily polluted. It is worth noting that
groundwater is polluted in some areas of the Moscow
Region with a high concentration of industry (the
towns of Lyubertsy, Khimki, Elektrostal, Dzerzhinsky,
and Schyolkovo). This is primarily due to contamination introduced during water intake operation. About
80% of groundwater withdrawal takes place within
industrial and residential areas, where the likelihood
of aquifer contamination is maximal. The concentrations of ammonium, nitrates, and organic matter
(COD) as indicators of anthropogenic stress are the
highest in Balashikha, Lyubertsy, Lotoshinsky, and
Lukhovitsy areas. For less urbanized regions of Moscow oblast, the industrial pollution of groundwater
takes place when there are no impermeable layers
overlying the aquifers. These conditions are typical of
the Podolsk-Myachkovsky aquifer along the valleys of
the Pakhra and Desna rivers.
Surface water quality within a year is determined by
the following major factors: short-time pollution peak
from diffuse runoff, intense self-purification of water
bodies and streams in summer, the dilution of wastewater by receiving water bodies, self-purification in
wastewater discharge zones [27].
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
739
Table 1. Estimates of water resources structure in both regions
Parameter
Units
Area
km2
Population with visitors (2000)
1000 person
Population with visitors (2010)
1000 person
Population density (2010)
person/km2
Precipitation (rainfall)
km3/year
Evaporation
km3/year
Potential water resources*
km3/year
Lakes** Volume
km3
Volume of reservoirs (artificial)***
km3
Reservoir’s water reserve (artificial)***
km3/year
Groundwater reserve
km3/year
Water reserve of rivers and canals under natural
km3/year
conditions
Groundwater
% of the total content
Rivers and canals under natural conditions
% of the total content
Groundwater reserve per unit area
1000 m3 per year/km2
km3/year
Real water resources (groundwater reserve +
reserve of rivers and canals under natural conditions)
Real water resources in dry season
km3 per 1/2 year
km3/year
Total water resources (according to a study
of groundwater and surface water)
using regulatory measures****
Bali
Moscow Region
5637
3250
4200
745
11.29
6.76
4.53
0.19
No data
0.0001
0.54
4.43
46890
17561
19142
408
28.13
21.10
7.03
0.60
2.40
3.60
3.69
2.80
11
89
96.6
4.97
57
43
78.6
6.49
0.31
4.97
No dry season
8.52
* Potential water resources = Precipitation (rainfall) – Evaporation.
** Buyan Lake, Beratan Lake, Tamblingan Lake.
*** For Bali, it is Estuary Dam by utilizing the existing wastewater from the Badung River (Regional Water Company).
**** For Bali, according to current data.
THE STRUCTURE OF WATER RESOURCES
To assess potential water resources (PWR), available in both regions, the following calculation was
made:
PWR = (Precipitation – Evaporation) × Area.
For Bali, we performed the separate calculation for
dry period. The results are presented in Table 1. In
addition to the calculated data, the table shows the
values for available water resources taken from statistical reference books and public sources [1, 4, 5].
It should be taken into account that the Moscow
Region is greater than Bali in 8 times. However, potential water recourses (as the difference between rainfall
and evaporation) differ as little as 1.6 times. Moreover,
real water resources according to the research of
groundwater and surface water differ by 1.3 times.
The structure of the available water sources also
differs: the proportions of groundwater resources for
Bali and the Moscow Region are 11 and 57%, respectively. Groundwater reserves are proportional to the
area of the regions as confirmed by hydrogeological
surveys. Specific groundwater resources per 1 km2 are
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
almost the same for so different regions: 96.6 for Bali
and 78.6 thousand m3 per year/km2 for the Moscow
Region. While the difference in rainfall is 2.5 times,
the groundwater reserves differ by less than 20%
(which is within the error of experimental studies).
The volume of water resources (due to the expansion of water-economic system to another river basin)
has increased by 1.3 times in the 1930s–1960s in the
Moscow Region. In Bali, there are nearly no regulatory mechanisms to create large-scale reserves of surface and rainwater.
WATER CONSUMPTION
Bali
There is a centuries-old water system of Bali. This
system is degrading due to the intensive growth of
water consumption and changes in its structure in the
recent years. Bali is an island with an area of
5636.66 km2, one of Indonesian provinces. Bali population is about 3.7 million, taking into account considerable number of tourists. The increment of the total
740
NYOMAN RAI et al.
population (including tourists) from 2000 to 2010 was
more than 350000 [4]. Bali population is mostly
increasing due to the tourism sector. More than
300000 tourists stay in Bali nowadays. This number
reaches above 400000 tourists in some seasons.
The structure of water consumption for the main
expenditure items in the recent years (2010) is: irrigation – 79.7, domestic water – 17.8, industrial water
(including tourist business, education facilities,
healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports,
sports and general, livestock and fisheries) – 2.2, bottled drinking water – 0.02%.
The main water consumer is agriculture. From the
earliest times in Bali, water resources have been allocated based on social criteria—maintaining the community by ensuring that water is available for human
consumption, sanitation, and food production. The
Indonesian island of Bali is famous for its unique system of irrigation. Guided and informed by religious
values, it combines impressive feats of engineering
with complex and elaborate social structures. Most of
162 large streams and rivers that flow from Bali’s
mountainous interior have cut deep channels into its
soft volcanic rocks. This has made impossible for
farmers to dam and channel water for irrigation in the
usual way. Therefore, they constructed elaborate aqueducts and bamboo piping systems to carry water to the
top of terraced rice fields. From here it can flow, with
gravity, from field to field. Community organizations,
called Subak, control the water irrigation system to
ensure reliable, fair, and equitable distribution.
Besides its technical functions, the Subak also provides social benefits including strengthening the possibilities of its members to maintain social contacts.
Community groups and group activities are traditionally very important in the Balinese society. They reflect
the significance attached in Hindu philosophy to the
relationships an individual has with other members of
the society. This is a highly valued principle particularly in a rural society. Bali’s famous Subak system is
one of the most vital components of the Balinese society. Built over the course of several centuries, Subak
system remains an integral part of Balinese life and is a
product of the island’s history and culture. The existing subaks in Bali number 1583 unit organizations
which cover an area of about 81744 ha [30].
The average area of Subak is about 52 ha. The
channel system for supplying water is constructed in
such a way that all facilities are supplied with water
alternately in accordance with agreements inside the
system. As it was mentioned, the channel system can
redistribute water between Balinese river’s basins. It
should be noted that almost all the plains and foothills,
where it is possible to place terraced fields, participate
in agricultural production. The population density in
Bali is high. On the average it is 700 person/km2, but
for different regencies it varies from 310 (in Jembrana)
to 6400 person/km2 (in Denpasar Regency).
Now water supply in Bali is limited, and water deficiency is expected to decrease due to the pollution of
natural waters. Meanwhile, water consumption will
grow rapidly because of population growth and the
development of tourist industry. Thus, the imbalance
between water supply and water demand will increase
[24, 28]. There were officially fixed periods of acute
water deficit for the population (in 1997 in the regencies of Badung and Denpasar, in 2007 in Gianyar and
Tabanan).
Water shortage leads to lower crop yields, resulting
in a decline in food production and employment of the
population. In addition, the domestic water deficiency
has a negative impact on the tourism business through
the increasing morbidity [34].
The total current water consumption (in 2010) is
1567.14 million m3/year. The main consumers are
agriculture—1247.16, the domestic sector—279.1,
and the tourist industry—34.86 million m3/year
(Table 2).
The one of the structural features of water consumption in Bali Island is the small specific (per capita) water consumption in the domestic sector (131–
182 L/day person), which is in 2 times less as compared to the Moscow Region (Table 2). Currently Bali
is on the stage of increasing individual household consumption, similar to one that was in the Moscow
Region in the middle of 20th century. At that time, this
growth had resulted in excessive consumption, which
required taking special measures later.
The second feature of the region is the consumption of treated water from a reservoir, which was created by a dam in the estuary of one of the rivers. Cleanwater demand is increasing continuously, responded
by the Regional Water Company by utilizing the existing wastewater from the Badung River, known as Estuary Dam. The long-term program is aimed to increase
the water flow to the southern part of Badung Regency
(Bukit Jimbaran). The growing local population and
the number of tourists in Bali have increased the water
demand. To increase raw-water supply capacity, the
government has built the Estuary Dam.
Thirdly, water from wells is widely used in Bali for
domestic purposes. Tourist complexes use local water
treatment systems. Small settlements and individual
users use water for domestic purposes without purification. The quality of this water has recently become
unsatisfactory for drinking purposes. A system of bottled drinking water supply has been developed on the
island in the last decades. This water originates from
springs and is exposed to additional treatment at treatment plants (coagulation, filtration, disinfection).
Thus, water for drinking and water for shower/kitchen
are supplied separately by different companies. It
should be noted that bottled water is not available to
the general population because of its price. It lacks in
some parts of the island so far.
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
741
Table 2. Estimates of water consumption structure in both regions
Irrigation (2000)
Irrigation (2010)
Domestic (2000)
Domestic (2010)
Industrial* total (2000)
Industrial total (2010)
Drinking product now
Drinking necessary**
Consumption total (2000)
Consumption total (2010)
Domestic (2000)
Domestic (2010)
Irrigation (2000/2010)
Domestic (2000/2010)
Industrial (2000/2010)
Drinking (2000/2010)
Units
Bali
Moscow Region
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
1000 m3/year
1000 m3/year
km3/year
km3/year
L/(day person)
L/(day person)
%
%
%
%
2.21
1.61
0.15
0.28
0.03
0.32
946
4599
2.40
1.93
131
182
92.1/83.5
6.5/14.5
1.5/1.8
0.0/0.0
0.00003
0.00003
3.13
2.66
0.64
0.90
860
20961
3.77
3.32
488
381
0.0/0.0
83.0/80.1
17.0/19.3
0.0/0.0
* For Bali, it is non-domestic including for tourist business, education facilities, healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports,
sports and general, livestock and fisheries.
** 3 L/(day person).
Over the last decades, pronounced trends in changing of the structure of the water consumption have
been observed (Table 2). The proportion of water use
for irrigation decreased, and the proportion of domestic consumption increased. The proportion of industrial water consumption (including education facilities, healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports, sports and general, livestock and fisheries)
increases. Estimated projections show that the total
water consumption in the next decade will increase by
at least 20% due to the growth of domestic and nondomestic consumption, while the use of irrigation
water use will continue decreasing. Our calculations
show an ascending trend in domestic consumption,
even in the last decade–from 131 to 182 L/day per user
(Table 2).
Wastewater from domestic sector, tourist complexes, and Subaks, discharged into canals, rivers, and
ocean are completely untreated or partially treated.
Furthermore, intensive agricultural technologies
include a widespread use of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals. Considering that the irrigation
water is partially returned back into the channels and
reused for irrigation of downstream Subak; the concentration of xenobiotics increases downstream by
many times. Thus, the deficit of fresh water increases
due to the pollution of surface waters.
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
Moscow Region
Currently, the total use of surface water and
groundwater for supply in Moscow Region is 3.32,
compared to 3.77 km3/year ten years ago. Moscow
City consumes about 4.2 million m3/day (including
0.07 million m3/day of groundwater). Moscow
oblast consumes 3.1 million m3/day (including
2.8 million m3/day from groundwater sources). Thus,
the proportion of groundwater in the water supply of
Moscow amounts to only 1.5%, whereas the water
supply of the Moscow oblast now is almost entirely
based on groundwater (about 90% of the total water
consumption).
The present capacity of water supply system [21]
can increase the water supply of the Moscow Region
by utilizing surface water. The main sources of water
supply are the Moskva–Vazuza and Volga water systems, which include 15 reservoirs. There are 5 water
treatment stations (the Northern, Western, Eastern,
Southwestern, and Rublevskaya stations) in Moscow.
Their total capacity is 6.7 million m3/day (domestic
water supply) and 0.83 million m3/day (technical
water supply). Surface water from Moscow is partially
supplied to 8 districts of Moscow oblast at a rate of
0.3–0.4 million m3/day.
Groundwater extraction in the Moscow Region is
performed through more than 8000 wells. Groundwater quality reflects the joint effect of the two factors:
natural geochemical anomalies of water and the
degree of anthropogenic pollution. Groundwater
742
NYOMAN RAI et al.
1000 m3/day
10500
1000 person
1
20000
2
10000
18000
9500
16000
9000
14000
8500
12000
8000
7500
10000
7000
8000
6000
1975
6500
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
6000
2015
Years
Fig. 3. Reduced water consumption as a result of the measures taken: 1—The total number of water users, 1000 persons; 2—Total
water consumption, 1000 m3/day.
aquifers show diverse water chemistry, which varies
from bicarbonate to bicarbonate-sulfate or even
hydro-chloride. Groundwater salinity increases
steadily northeastward, depending on its depth, and
also in the area of exploitation in urban areas from
0.3 to 0.7 g/L. Natural pollutants of groundwater
include primarily iron, water hardness, lithium, fluorine and strontium. Most common anthropogenic
contaminants include dissolved organic matter, salts of
nitrogen compounds, as well as microbiological contamination.
The sewage systems of the Moscow City and Moscow oblast have been developed separately. Canalized
area includes the entire Moscow City and about 50%
of Moscow oblast. Sewage system receives only
domestic, municipal, and industrial wastewater. Surface storm waters are collected by an independent system. All domestic and industrial wastewaters are
treated in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) with a
total design capacity of 6.34 million m3/day. The total
length of the sewerage network in the city is more than
8178.4 km [21]. Wastewater is directed to Lyubertsy
and Kuryanovsky WWTP. Treated wastewater is discharged into the Moskva River and its tributaries:
Pekhorka, Desna, and Skhodnya.
The structure of water consumption in the
Moscow Region for the main expenditure items in the
recent years (2010) includes: irrigation – 0.0, domestic water – 80.1, industrial water (including the needs
for the production of reinforced concrete structures
and electric power on a cogeneration plant) – 19.3,
bottled drinking water – 0.01% (Table 2).
The consumption of bottled drinking water is not
widespread in Russia. Water supplied from water treatment plants must conform with the quality standards
for drinking water. However, because of the large distances of supplying water pipes there is risk of second-
ary contamination of water that reaches the consumers. Therefore, the production and use of bottled water
has emerged in Russia over the last 20 years. In addition, residents actively use domestic filters to improve
water quality immediately before use.
In the 1990s, a complex of measures was taken to
reduce domestic consumption, including replacing
plumbing devices, installation of water meters, and
increasing water charges. The population growth by
15% was accompanied with a 20% decrease in water
consumption (Fig. 3). The capacity of five treatment
stations exceeded water consumption in the city. The
excessive resources of clean water can now be used for
the consumption in Moscow oblast, where groundwater is mostly consumed. This can slow down the development of depression cones in the region and enable
the resumption of groundwater reserves.
During the last decade, one could observe the following trends in the restructuring of water consumption in the Moscow Region (Table 2). The proportion
of domestic water consumption decreased, while the
proportion of industrial water consumption increased.
Estimated projections indicate that the total water
consumption in the next decade will not increase or
even decrease due to the incipient trend of reduction
of specific water consumption in the domestic sector.
Thus, the domestic use decreased over the past decade
from 488 to 381 L/day person and continues decreasing due to the use of the regulatory mechanisms: payment for water is made in accordance with the readings of ubiquitous water meters (Table 2).
The pollution of surface water and groundwater is
mainly due to domestic sewage and diffuse pollution
(from urban and agricultural areas). Wastewaters from
various sources with different chemistry enter reservoirs. The self-purification capacity of reservoirs
decreased significantly during their operation. For
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
743
Table 3. Specific indicators of water consumption structure in both regions
Units
Real water resources according to the results
1000 m3 per year/km2
of groundwater and surface water studies (per area)
Full water resources using regulatory measures (per area)
1000 m3 per year/km2
Real water resources according to the results
m3/day person
of groundwater and natural surface water studies (per person)
Real water resources in dry season (per person)
m3/day person
Water resources using regulatory measures (per person)
m3/day person
Full consumption (per person)
m3/day person
many reservoirs (e.g. Klyasminskoye), it is almost at its
limit [15]. In addition, groundwater is contaminated
too: about one-third of extracted groundwater does
not meet the standards for drinking water.
Water transfer from another basin also solves one
important problem in the region—an improvement of
the ecological state of the Moscow River. In the early
20th century, the Moskva River has become unsuitable
for recreational use because of anthropogenic overload: the odor, the high content of pollutants, and low
oxygen in water [26]. Part of the Volga water supplied
the Moskva River. By diluting with clean water of the
Volga River, the ecological status of the Moskva River
was improved. Self-purification processes resumed,
the structure of river ecosystem balanced. However,
since 2010, the river has shown a decreased rate of selfpurification processes. Estimates show that watering
of the river alone fails to maintain a sustainable ecological state [22]. The concentrations of all forms of
nitrogen, organic matter, and other pollutants in the
river’s water are higher now.
There are common features demonstrating the
effects of significant anthropogenic pressures for two
regions.
First, it is the formation of zones with a deficit of
groundwater resources, i.e., the development of
depression cones in aquifers (Fig. 4).
In Bali, a depression cone formed in the area of
urban development of Denpasar and its surroundings.
The population density in the area exceeds 6000 persons/km2, while the average density in Bali is 745 persons/km2. The population density in the urban areas of
Moscow and adjacent satellite cities reaches 8000 persons/km2. Intensive groundwater consumption from
Carboniferous deposits in Moscow Region has led to
the formation of a regional depression cone. This cone
embraces most part of the Moscow Region and partly
Vladimir, Tver, and Kaluga oblasts. Because of the prolonged use of groundwater, the level of aquifers has
moved down in some areas, thus forming unconfined
groundwater.
The second common feature of the two regions is
the increasing pollution of groundwater with anthropogenic contaminants (so-called organic xenobiotics:
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
Bali
Moscow Region
882.2
138.5
882.2
3.24
215.8
0.93
1.02
1.26
1.43
0.48
plant protection products, detergents, drugs, products
of petroleum processing). Only surface waters are subject to biological self-purification. The pollution of
groundwater may be irreversible because there are no
biological processes in deep layers. There is a small
number of living organisms in groundwater layers.
Groundwater may become unusable.
The third feature is the expansion of densely populated urban areas where no large water streams are
present; there are only small and medium streams
here. These areas are represented by tourist complexes
in Bali and urban districts of the New Moscow. This
means that the wastewater will have a hydrological
impact on the nearby rivers. Sewage flow rate will be
comparable with that of the rivers: the discharged
water is abstracted from subsurface sources or
extracted from another river basin. An increase in the
hydrological load on the surface waters changes the
natural hydrological regime of rivers and streams. In
Bali, this problem was solved by constructing a system
of canals, fixing riverbanks. In the Moscow Region,
there are changes of bed and collapses of riverbanks on
some rivers [25].
Regulatory mechanisms have been already
imposed to stabilize water consumption. For Bali, it is
the system of redistribution of water between Subaks,
while for the Moscow Region, it is the system of water
redistribution between river basins. However, these
measures are not sufficient to fix the water scarcity
(Bali) and to enhance the stability of self-purification
and improve water quality in rivers (for Bali and the
Moscow Region). We calculated some specific indicators of water consumption structure in both regions
per area and per person (Table 3) for the present time.
Table 3 illustrates the similarity of these indicators
(per 1 inhabitant) between such geographically different regions experiencing similar problems of water
consumption. For both regions, the critical value of
real water resources per person according to the results
of groundwater and natural surface water studies is
about 1 m3 per day (for Bali—in dry season). The
comparison of potential water resources and real water
consumption demonstrates that these values have
become almost identical.
744
NYOMAN RAI et al.
(a)
Bali
Laut Bali
t
Sea
7
B al i
4 5
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
6
1
Denpasar
Sel
at l
om
bok
2
(b)
1
2
Ri
ver
M
osk
va
Fig. 4. Water spring potency in Bali (a) and location of depression cones in the Moscow region (b) [7, 11]. a: 1—inadequate
quality for drinking water, 2—capacity 30 L/s, 7—lakes. b: 1—the old territory of Moscow, 2—the new territory of Moscow.
Taking into account the development of depression
cones in groundwater, growing pollution of waters,
and the limited ability of self-purification of groundwater from organic xenobiotics, it is necessary to minimize the use of groundwater and maximize the selfpurification of surface water. To do this, the world has
already developed technologies and techniques that
can be used in different regions [27].
To optimize water use in any region of the world,
local governments always develop a complex of water
management measures and measures for protection of
water bodies to achieve water quality targets. Taking
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
into account the development of such practices in various regions, we can say that in most cases these measures are based on calculations of water balances
within the basin (basin principle). However, as shown
by our study, to select appropriate control measures
one should consider long-term dynamics of water use
in the region, assess the changes in the structure of
water use, and make the calculation of specific indicators of water. Of course, the “critical value” for both
regions that we found cannot act as the basis for decision making in other regions, but we proposed a methodological approach to the evaluation of the available
resources. This approach can serve as a basis for the
development of such activities.
The activities that primarily will solve the problems:
(1) The development of scientific and technical
programs of accumulation and optimal use of surface
water, including rainwater;
(2) Separate supply of drinking water and domestic
water in case of possible water pollution in the piping
system;
(3) Extended governmental and industrial monitoring of the entire water system;
(4) The development of technologies enabling
effective landscape self-purification of water
resources.
CONCLUSIONS
Regions with rapid population growth and high
population density that are not located on a major
watercourse but include one or more basins of small
and medium rivers at certain stage of development
begin to suffer water scarcity, exacerbated by groundwater pollution. To assess the situation and forecast the
state of water complex, we propose to use specific indicators, calculated as the ratio of available water
resources per 1 inhabitant. We have shown that critical
value of real water resources according to the results of
groundwater and natural surface water research for
two geographically distinct regions is about 1 m3 per
day per person. The recommended regulatory measures after reaching such values include reducing the
consumption of groundwater, the construction of local
reservoirs and purification plants for surface water, the
development of measures to intensify the self-purification of surface water, and monitoring the entire
water system.
To solve the problem of water supply to the growing
population, industry, and agriculture of these territories, one should begin by determining the boundaries
of the water system, where the mechanisms of distribution of water resources will be implemented. The
design of the structure of a water-economic system
should consider two options: (1) the creation of
groundwater abstraction system, and (2) the creation
of a surface water treatment system. It is necessary to
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
745
take into account that renewability of groundwater in
these areas may decrease because of groundwater pollution at a critical value of specific water consumption.
Therefore, the problem of water scarcity must be
addressed only as a complex problem of creating a unified water management system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project no. 14-17-00672.
REFERENCES
1. BPS
Statistics
of
Bali
Province.
http://
bali.bps.go.id/tabel.php?id=1&rd=
2. Acharyya, S.K., Lahiri, S., Raymahashay, B.C., and
Bhowmik, A., Arsenic toxicity of groundwater in parts
of the Bengal basin in India and Bangladesh: the role of
Quaternary stratigraphy and Holocene sea-level fluctuation, Environ. Geol., 2000, 39, pp.1127–1137.
3. Ariel, D., Rosegrant, M.W., and Meinzen-Dick, R.,
Water allocation mechanisms-principles and examples,
Policy Research Working Paper, http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-1779
4. Bali tourism statistic 2011. http://www.baliprov.go.
id/files/subdomain/disparda/file/CD%20Interaktif/
CD%20Interaktif%202011.pdf
5. BPS, Jakarta, Statistik Air Minum 1996–2000, CV
Mitra Bersama. http://bali.bps.go.id/index_eng. php?
reg=pub_det&id=Statistik%20Air%20Minum%
201996-2000
6. Coward, E.W., Direct or indirect alternatives for irrigation investment and the creation of property, Irrigation
Investment, Technology and Management Strategies for
Development, Easter, K.W., Ed., Boulder, CO: Westview
Press, 1986, pp. 225–244.
7. Danilov-Danilyan, V.I., Jamalov, R.G., Vasilyeva, V.P.,
and Egorov F.B., Water problems of Moscow agglomeration: the state of groundwater resources and surface
waters, Proc. Conf. “Unsolved Environmental Problems
Moscow and Moscow Region”, Moscow: Media-Press,
2012, pp. 115–125.
8. Davydov, L.K., Dmitrieva, A.V., and Konkin, N.G.,
General Hydrology, L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1973.
9. Federal State Statistics Service. http://www.gks.ru/
10. Geocenter Moskva. http://geocentr-msk.ru/content/
view/21/46/
11. Garduño, H., Romani, S., Sengupta, B., Tuinhof, A.,
and Davis, R., India groundwater governance case
study, June 2011. http://water.worldbank.org/sites/
water.worldbank.org/files/GWGovernanceIndia.pdf
12. JICA, 2006. The Comprehensive Study on Water
Resources Development and Management in Bali
Province in the Republic of Indonesia. http://www.
jica.go.jp/english/publications/reports/annual/2006/
13. Kalaida, M.L., and Mugantseva, T.P., Improving the
efficiency of the system of technical water supply of
TPP, Proc. Higher Educational Institutions, Problems of
Energetic, 2012, no. 7/8, pp. 128–131.
746
NYOMAN RAI et al.
14. Kirpichnikova, N.V., Investigation of uncontrolled
sources of pollution (for example, the reservoir Ivankovskoye), Abstract of Cand. Dissertation. Ph.D., M.,
1991.
15. Kirpichnikova, N.V., The main sources of pollution of
the reservoir, in Ivankovskoe Reservoir. Current Status
and Problems of Protection, M., 2000, p. 89.
16. Klepov, V.I., Water resources management in the upper
Volga basin, Advances in Hydro-Science and Engineering, Beijing, China, 1995, vol. II, Pt A, pp. 729–734.
17. Lebedev, N.A., Natural Groundwater Resources of the
Moscow Artesian Basin, M.: Publishing House “Science”, 1972.
18. Lorenzen, R.P. and Lorenzen, S., Changing realities.
Perspectives on balinese rice cultivation, Human Ecology, 2011, vol. 39, pp. 29–42.
19. Lorenzen, R.P., A case study of Balinese irrigation
management: institutional dynamics and challenges,
2nd Southeast Asia Water Forum 29 August–3 September, 2005, https://crawford.anu.edu.au/rmap/pdf/
_docs/Lorenzen_irrigation.pdf
20. Mosekomonitoring. http://www.mosecom.ru/
21. Mosvodokanal. http://www.mosvodokanal.ru/watersupply/
22. Nevsky, A.V., Meshalkin, V.P., and Sharnin, V.A., Analysis and Synthesis of Water Resource Saving Chemical
Engineering Systems, Moscow: Nauka, 2004, 212 p.
23. Nielsen, G.L. and Widjaya, J.M., Modeling of groundwater recharge in Southern Bali, Indonesia, Ground
Water, 1989, vol. 27, pp. 473–480.
24. Rai, I.N. and Adnyana, G.M., Land Use and Water
Competition. Perspective of Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability, Denpasar, Bali: Udayana University Press, 2011.
25. Schegolkova, N.M., Danilovich, D.A., Kozlov, M.N.,
Moizhes, O.V., Pushkar, V.Y., Vladov, M.L., and Starovoytov, A.V., Effect of purified water flooding on the
ecological state of river Pekhorka, Water Supply and
Sanitation Equipment, no. 10, 2008, p. 77–83.
26. Shchegol’kova, N.M., Urban effect on the formation of
the Moskva river environmental state (historical
aspect), Water Resources, 2007, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 217–
228.
27. Schegolkova, N.M. and Venitsianov, E.V., Protection of
Polluted Rivers: the Intensification of Self-Purification
and Optimization of Water Disposal, M.: RAAS, 2011.
28. Stroma, C., A political ecology of water equity and
tourism. A case study from Bali, Annals of Tourism
Research, 2012, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 1221–1241.
29. Sutawan, N., Swara, M., Windia, W., Suteja, W.,
Arya, N., and Tjatera, W. Community-based irrigation
systems in Bali, Irrigation and Water Management in
Asia, Gooneratne, W. and Hirashima, S., Eds., New
Delhi/Bangalore: Sterling Publishers Private Limited,
1990, pp. 81–147.
30. Sutawan, N., Negotiation among irrigators’ associations in Bali, Negotiating Water Rights, Bruns, B.R. and
Meinzen-Dick, Eds., R.S., London: IT DG Pub, 2000,
pp. 315–336.
31. Water governance for agriculture and food security,
Proc. Twenty-fourth Session Rome, 29 September–
3 October 2014, FAO, Committee on agriculture.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-mk967e.pdf
32. Water policy and strategy of the United Nations Environment Programme. http://www.unep.org/themes/
Freshwater/Documents/pdf/WPS_adpoted_ at_GC%
2024.pdf
33. Water quality degraded in Bali’s tourism areas, Xinhua
News Agency December 7, 2007. http://www.china
.org.cn/english/environment/234747.htm
34. Windia, W., Sustainability of subak irrigation system
WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT:
ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ASPECTS
Analysis of the Specifics of Water Resources Management in Regions
with Rapidly Growing Population under Different Climate
Conditions: Case Study of Bali Island and the Moscow Region1
I. Nyoman Raia, S. Shobab, N. Shchegolkovac, R. Dzhamalovc, E. Venitsianovc,
I. Gusti Ngurah Santosaa, Gede Menaka Adnyanaa, I. Nyoman Sunartaa, and I. Ketut Suadaa
a
Udayana University, Bukit Jimbaran, Bali, 80361 Indonesia
b
Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991 Russia
c
Water Problems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Gubkina 3, Moscow, 119333 Russia
E-mail: info@unud.ac.id, nshegolkova@mail.ru
Received March 3, 2015
Abstract—The paper analyzes long-term consumption dynamics of surface water and groundwater in two
different regions of the world, namely the current structure of water consumption and its change over the past
decade, as well as forecasts of water consumption in the future. Changes in water resources of Bali and the
Moscow Region, depending on water consumption, are illustrated based on long-term datasets. The specifics
of water consumption in each of the two regions were characterized, and the effectiveness of the measures regulating the amount of water in the regions was estimated. The paper provides the general principles and specific recommendations for solving the problem of water deficiency in both regions.
Keywords: water consumption, water deficiency, rapid population growth
DOI: 10.1134/S0097807815050127
1
INTRODUCTION
Regions with water deficiency (in various fields of
life support) become widespread in the world. This
deficiency may be due to either natural causes (low
precipitation, river runoff, or groundwater reserves) or
social factors (rapid population growth, economic
development in a particular territory). In the latter
case, the shortage of water resources in different territories demonstrates some common features [2, 11]:
a high population density in the urban agglomeration;
the active use of both surface and subsurface water;
pollution of both surface water and groundwater;
regulation of river flow and water transfers.
The main principles of water management under
its deficiency are well known: (1) water saving, that is,
its most efficient use for any purpose; (2) taking measures to reduce water pollution; (3) the use of water
recycling technologies. As a rule, management units
are water basins. Most water laws are based on the socalled “basin principle” [31, 32]. In the case of water
resources management of large rivers subjected to a
high anthropogenic impact, the basin principle is the
only possible control mechanism. Here, the water
management comprises evaluating water and pollutant
1 The article is published in the original.
balances for major water users. The result of these calculations is the choice of measures to optimize water
use. These measures are aimed to ensure that water
resources are used within the balance considered as
optimal.
The space distribution of the load on water bodies
is extremely heterogeneous. There are zones of maximum load (intensive water consumption, water pollution by effluents) and areas with nearly no load. We
can distinguish two types of impacts on river basins by
the ratio of the size of the object (the source of high
anthropogenic impact) and the size of the basin:
(1) the size of the river basin is much larger than the
object of high anthropogenic influence (urban settlements, agricultural irrigated land, industrial facilities);
(2) the objects of high anthropogenic influence
include several river basins or their size is comparable
with basin area, and/or river cannot ensure water consumption of some settlements within the basin
(Fig. 1).
Island Bali (Indonesia) and the Moscow Region
(including Moscow and Moscow oblast) are referred
to the second type. In both cases, there are a large
urban agglomeration (Denpasar City and Moscow,
respectively) and large water consumers, in addition to
residents: agriculture in Bali and industry in the Moscow Region. Both regions use rivers as water sources
(the Moskva River and rivers in Bali). In their natural
735
736
NYOMAN RAI et al.
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
(b)
(a)
2
2
Fig. 1. Possible combinations of river basins (RB-2) and zones of high anthropogenic load (ZHAL-1): an RB contains several
ZHALs (a); a ZHAL contains several RBs (b).
state, these rivers cannot meet the historically formed
water demand. There is a rapid population growth in
both regions (including immigrants). For a long time
(more than 100 years), both regions have been suffering periodic water deficits: these were water shortages
for the agriculture and population during the dry season in Bali, and for the growing population and industry in the Moscow Region (before water transfer from
the Volga River).
In Bali, this problem was solved as early as the first
millennium A.D., by creating a unique system of river
water redistribution. Rivers that direct from the center
of the island to the ocean were combined in a canal
system enabling effective reallocation of water
between individual agricultural consumers, including
water transfer from one river basin to another. The
water system, which was reliably working for two millennia, is spontaneously degrading now. Researchers
from different countries have been studying this system, called Subak [18, 19, 21, 24, 29, 30, 34]. The
Subaks of Bali is one of the best examples of userbased allocation. The discovery of the sophistication
of these systems provided the basis for some early challenges to assumptions that the governmental management of irrigation was necessary [6, 35]. These irrigation associations have developed and constructed their
own irrigation systems with very little external assistance. The systems have been sustained over time by
elaborate management rules and practices that specify
obligations of each member in terms of labor and cash
contributions for operation and maintenance, including periodic rehabilitation. A key feature of the Subaks
is the “tektek” principle of proportional water allocation to each individual member. The tektek shares are
based on a proportion of flow through diversions
structures. There is a strong emphasis on equity, so that
allocation takes into account the farmers' role in the
association, the distance from the intake, the initial
investment, soil conditions, and transfers of water
rights among members. The systems also exhibit a high
degree of flexibility and responsiveness to negotiations
among members. Balinese Subaks have several advantages, which contribute to their effectiveness, and the
sustainability of the institutions for user-based allocation over time [3].
As for the Moscow Region, water scarcity for the
industry and households has been occurred since the
1920–1930s due to the rapid growth in the urban population and industrial development. In the same
period and earlier (since the early 20th century) the
Moskva River showed unsatisfactory ecological conditions due to large amounts of untreated sewage it
received. The cause of water deficiency was the location of an intensive growing metropolis on a river with
a moderate runoff. It is worth noting that the Moscow
Region traditionally used groundwater for domestic
needs, while Moscow preferred surface water. Since
the 1930s, Moscow has been using water reservoirs,
which accumulate water of two rivers—the Volga and
the Moskva. The transfer of river water from the basin
of another river (the Volga) solved not only the problem of water supply to the population and industry, but
also the problem of increasing the Moskva River runoff to improve its ecological conditions. Before the
construction of the Moscow water supply system, the
drainage basin of the Moskva River was as little as
8000 km2. The construction of the system increased
the basin area sixfold. Nowadays the drainage area of
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
the Moscow water supply system, located on the territory of Moscow, Smolensk, and Tver regions is about
50000 km2 [8]. Thus, the scarce water resources were
replenished by the resources of the neighboring Volga
basin. The natural–technogenic water system in the
Moscow Region has been operating for over 50 years.
At present, the structure of water use in both
regions is expected to change: the number of tourists
increases in Bali, and Moscow borders are expanded
(the area of the capital increased by 2.5 times). The
choice of the optimal scheme of water use requires a
comprehensive study of the long-term dynamics of
water consumption.
We have analyzed the structure of long-term
dynamics of water use in both regions. For Bali, we
used data obtained from the Statistical Office of Bali,
reports of Environment Management Agencies,
reports of the Department of Agriculture and other
agencies [1, 4, 5, 12, 33]. For the Moscow Region, we
used statistical data of Rosstat [9], data of MPUE
“Kanal imeni Moskvy”, and a database of JSC Mosvodokanal [21].
Data on rainfall and evaporation for Bali were
obtained from materials of BPS Provinsi Bali (1995,
1995–1999, 2014) [1], and for Moscow, from Davydov
et al. [8], papers [16, 17] and the Internet resource of
Geocenter Moskva [10]. The available surface water
resources were evaluated based on the total river flow
(in Bali) and the runoff of the Moskva River at its
mouth (for the Moscow Region).
Irrigation water consumption in the Moscow
Region was evaluated proceeding from 550700 ha of
sown areas, 5% of which are irrigated [9]; the irrigation rate was assumed 1000 m3/ha. Water use by industry in the Moscow Region is calculated for the most
water-intensive industrial sectors (the production of
cement and reinforced concrete structures and power
generation at TPP), according to Rosstat data. Specific water consumption rates per production unit
were used [13, 20].
GEOECOLOGICAL FORMATION
CONDITIONS OF THE VOLUME
AND QUALITY OF WATER RESOURCES
Bali
The main factors that govern the formation of water
resources of the island are (1) tropical marine climate
with pronounced seasonal rainfall: a wet period from
October to March and a dry period from April to September; (2) hydrogeological characteristics: a very
high permeability of fractured rock and the absence of
aquicludes, i.e., groundwater is genetically uniform
over depth; (3) the heterogeneity of rainfall over the
territory; the rainfall in different parts of the island
varies from 1700 to 3300 mm/year, the amount of precipitation tends to be higher in the central part of the
island and lower on the coast.
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
737
Water resources of the island are composed of surface waters (rivers, canals, and lakes) and groundwater.
About 162 rivers and streams flow from the center of
the island to the ocean, some of them originating in
the three largest lakes of volcanic origin, located in the
central highlands of the island. The total volume of
these lakes (Buyan Lake, Beratan Lake, and Tamblingan Lake) is about 0.2 billion m3, and the water yield
of lakes is more than 0.3 billion m3/year.
Groundwater supplies are 0.54 km3/year, and the
runoff of rivers and canals are 4.43 km3/year.
The major aquifers in the Southern Bali include a
Pliocene lower calcareous sequence and a Quaternary
upper volcanic sequence. Both exhibit rapid lateral
and vertical facies changes, and hence their hydrogeologic parameters are highly variable. Yields of up to
90 L/s are known from the calcareous system and up
to 60 L/s from the volcanic formations. A model for
recharge was prepared [23], using all relevant available
soil, land use, hydrogeological, and meteorological
data for calibration. The annual recharge for different
soils was 308–605 mm in a medium-rainfall year and
267–481 mm in a dry year.
According to Nielsen et al. [23], the piezometric
surface of the Southern Bali (where groundwater is
most intensively consumed) is very heterogeneous.
The depth of groundwater table in wells is less than
10 m in the coastal area near the ocean, 30–75 m near
the city of Denpasar, and up to 300 m and more in the
central part of the island.
The irregularity of rainfall during the year determines the temporal heterogeneity in the amount of
water (Fig. 2), consisting of surface water and groundwater. The fractured rocks determine a direct relationship between the groundwater level and the amount of
precipitation: the levels and consumption of groundwater significantly decrease in a dry season. The difference in water resources between seasons reach ten
times (Fig. 2).
The main sources of water pollution are domestic
wastewater, sewage of agricultural enterprises, livestock waste, tourist and shopping complexes, diffuse
runoff from agricultural fields, as well as from illegal
dumps. In 2006 I. Ketut Sundra [33] found a high content of organic matter (BOD and COD), nitrogen
compounds, suspended solids, and bacteria in
groundwater in the Southern Bali. The water extracted
from wells in the areas near the ocean in most cases is
salty or brackish because of seawater intrusion.
Throughout the year, surface water quality depends
on the following main factors: (1) surface water dilution by clean rainwater; (2) seasonally dependent
amounts of mineral fertilizers and chemical plant protection products, (3) seasonally dependent amount of
pollutants from the tourist complexes; (4) continuous
flow of domestic wastewater, which is virtually not
treated; (5) the self-purification processes that take
place in surface waters.
738
NYOMAN RAI et al.
m3/s
1600
1
1400
3
2
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Fig. 2. Monthly water potential in Bali: 1—potency of surface water, 2—potency of groundwater, 3—potency of total availability
[1].
Moscow Region
The natural conditions that affect the formation of
regional water resources are the temperate continental
climate, the hilly-plain relief, the hydrogeological
structure with pronounced aquicludes and aquifers.
The distribution of precipitation over the year (compared with Bali) is nearly uniform with an average of
40 to 90 mm per month. The average annual precipitation rate over the past 20 years is 705 mm (with a
minimum of 485 and a maximum of 885 mm per year).
The region shows pronounced seasonal variations in
air and water temperature (4 seasons) and river water
flow (spring floods, winter and summer low water
periods). All the rivers have steady flow, well-developed valleys and floodplains; the spring flood takes
place in April–May. The hydrographic axis of the
region is the Moskva River. Before the construction of
the Mozhaisk Reservoir, which flooded a part of its
meandering riverbed, the river length was 502 km.
Now it is taken equal to 473 km. Most of the rivers of
Moscow oblast are tributaries of the Moskva River.
The Moskva River and its tributaries are the main
resource of river water in the Moscow region for use.
Therefore, the discharge of the Moskva River at its
mouth is an integral characteristic of river water availability in the region. According to reference materials
at runoff modulus is 5.12 L/s km2 the annual runoff
before the transfer of the Volga water was 89 m3/s,
while in recent years, it averaged 199 m3/s. This was
the basis for the calculation of water reserve of rivers
under natural conditions (Table 1).
The largest reservoirs (or artificial water bodies)
near Moscow were formed in the 1930s and 1960s.
These include the Ozerna, Istra, Ruza, and Mozhaysk
reservoirs in the Moskva basin, and reservoirs of the
Volga basin: the Ivankovo, Iksha, Pyalovskoe,
Pestovskoye, Klyazma, and Ucha. The total useful
volume of all constructed reservoirs is 2399 million m3.
The main sources of water pollution are domestic,
storm, and industrial effluents [26] and diffuse flow
[14, 15]. As a result, many rivers in the region are moderately or heavily polluted. It is worth noting that
groundwater is polluted in some areas of the Moscow
Region with a high concentration of industry (the
towns of Lyubertsy, Khimki, Elektrostal, Dzerzhinsky,
and Schyolkovo). This is primarily due to contamination introduced during water intake operation. About
80% of groundwater withdrawal takes place within
industrial and residential areas, where the likelihood
of aquifer contamination is maximal. The concentrations of ammonium, nitrates, and organic matter
(COD) as indicators of anthropogenic stress are the
highest in Balashikha, Lyubertsy, Lotoshinsky, and
Lukhovitsy areas. For less urbanized regions of Moscow oblast, the industrial pollution of groundwater
takes place when there are no impermeable layers
overlying the aquifers. These conditions are typical of
the Podolsk-Myachkovsky aquifer along the valleys of
the Pakhra and Desna rivers.
Surface water quality within a year is determined by
the following major factors: short-time pollution peak
from diffuse runoff, intense self-purification of water
bodies and streams in summer, the dilution of wastewater by receiving water bodies, self-purification in
wastewater discharge zones [27].
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
739
Table 1. Estimates of water resources structure in both regions
Parameter
Units
Area
km2
Population with visitors (2000)
1000 person
Population with visitors (2010)
1000 person
Population density (2010)
person/km2
Precipitation (rainfall)
km3/year
Evaporation
km3/year
Potential water resources*
km3/year
Lakes** Volume
km3
Volume of reservoirs (artificial)***
km3
Reservoir’s water reserve (artificial)***
km3/year
Groundwater reserve
km3/year
Water reserve of rivers and canals under natural
km3/year
conditions
Groundwater
% of the total content
Rivers and canals under natural conditions
% of the total content
Groundwater reserve per unit area
1000 m3 per year/km2
km3/year
Real water resources (groundwater reserve +
reserve of rivers and canals under natural conditions)
Real water resources in dry season
km3 per 1/2 year
km3/year
Total water resources (according to a study
of groundwater and surface water)
using regulatory measures****
Bali
Moscow Region
5637
3250
4200
745
11.29
6.76
4.53
0.19
No data
0.0001
0.54
4.43
46890
17561
19142
408
28.13
21.10
7.03
0.60
2.40
3.60
3.69
2.80
11
89
96.6
4.97
57
43
78.6
6.49
0.31
4.97
No dry season
8.52
* Potential water resources = Precipitation (rainfall) – Evaporation.
** Buyan Lake, Beratan Lake, Tamblingan Lake.
*** For Bali, it is Estuary Dam by utilizing the existing wastewater from the Badung River (Regional Water Company).
**** For Bali, according to current data.
THE STRUCTURE OF WATER RESOURCES
To assess potential water resources (PWR), available in both regions, the following calculation was
made:
PWR = (Precipitation – Evaporation) × Area.
For Bali, we performed the separate calculation for
dry period. The results are presented in Table 1. In
addition to the calculated data, the table shows the
values for available water resources taken from statistical reference books and public sources [1, 4, 5].
It should be taken into account that the Moscow
Region is greater than Bali in 8 times. However, potential water recourses (as the difference between rainfall
and evaporation) differ as little as 1.6 times. Moreover,
real water resources according to the research of
groundwater and surface water differ by 1.3 times.
The structure of the available water sources also
differs: the proportions of groundwater resources for
Bali and the Moscow Region are 11 and 57%, respectively. Groundwater reserves are proportional to the
area of the regions as confirmed by hydrogeological
surveys. Specific groundwater resources per 1 km2 are
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
almost the same for so different regions: 96.6 for Bali
and 78.6 thousand m3 per year/km2 for the Moscow
Region. While the difference in rainfall is 2.5 times,
the groundwater reserves differ by less than 20%
(which is within the error of experimental studies).
The volume of water resources (due to the expansion of water-economic system to another river basin)
has increased by 1.3 times in the 1930s–1960s in the
Moscow Region. In Bali, there are nearly no regulatory mechanisms to create large-scale reserves of surface and rainwater.
WATER CONSUMPTION
Bali
There is a centuries-old water system of Bali. This
system is degrading due to the intensive growth of
water consumption and changes in its structure in the
recent years. Bali is an island with an area of
5636.66 km2, one of Indonesian provinces. Bali population is about 3.7 million, taking into account considerable number of tourists. The increment of the total
740
NYOMAN RAI et al.
population (including tourists) from 2000 to 2010 was
more than 350000 [4]. Bali population is mostly
increasing due to the tourism sector. More than
300000 tourists stay in Bali nowadays. This number
reaches above 400000 tourists in some seasons.
The structure of water consumption for the main
expenditure items in the recent years (2010) is: irrigation – 79.7, domestic water – 17.8, industrial water
(including tourist business, education facilities,
healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports,
sports and general, livestock and fisheries) – 2.2, bottled drinking water – 0.02%.
The main water consumer is agriculture. From the
earliest times in Bali, water resources have been allocated based on social criteria—maintaining the community by ensuring that water is available for human
consumption, sanitation, and food production. The
Indonesian island of Bali is famous for its unique system of irrigation. Guided and informed by religious
values, it combines impressive feats of engineering
with complex and elaborate social structures. Most of
162 large streams and rivers that flow from Bali’s
mountainous interior have cut deep channels into its
soft volcanic rocks. This has made impossible for
farmers to dam and channel water for irrigation in the
usual way. Therefore, they constructed elaborate aqueducts and bamboo piping systems to carry water to the
top of terraced rice fields. From here it can flow, with
gravity, from field to field. Community organizations,
called Subak, control the water irrigation system to
ensure reliable, fair, and equitable distribution.
Besides its technical functions, the Subak also provides social benefits including strengthening the possibilities of its members to maintain social contacts.
Community groups and group activities are traditionally very important in the Balinese society. They reflect
the significance attached in Hindu philosophy to the
relationships an individual has with other members of
the society. This is a highly valued principle particularly in a rural society. Bali’s famous Subak system is
one of the most vital components of the Balinese society. Built over the course of several centuries, Subak
system remains an integral part of Balinese life and is a
product of the island’s history and culture. The existing subaks in Bali number 1583 unit organizations
which cover an area of about 81744 ha [30].
The average area of Subak is about 52 ha. The
channel system for supplying water is constructed in
such a way that all facilities are supplied with water
alternately in accordance with agreements inside the
system. As it was mentioned, the channel system can
redistribute water between Balinese river’s basins. It
should be noted that almost all the plains and foothills,
where it is possible to place terraced fields, participate
in agricultural production. The population density in
Bali is high. On the average it is 700 person/km2, but
for different regencies it varies from 310 (in Jembrana)
to 6400 person/km2 (in Denpasar Regency).
Now water supply in Bali is limited, and water deficiency is expected to decrease due to the pollution of
natural waters. Meanwhile, water consumption will
grow rapidly because of population growth and the
development of tourist industry. Thus, the imbalance
between water supply and water demand will increase
[24, 28]. There were officially fixed periods of acute
water deficit for the population (in 1997 in the regencies of Badung and Denpasar, in 2007 in Gianyar and
Tabanan).
Water shortage leads to lower crop yields, resulting
in a decline in food production and employment of the
population. In addition, the domestic water deficiency
has a negative impact on the tourism business through
the increasing morbidity [34].
The total current water consumption (in 2010) is
1567.14 million m3/year. The main consumers are
agriculture—1247.16, the domestic sector—279.1,
and the tourist industry—34.86 million m3/year
(Table 2).
The one of the structural features of water consumption in Bali Island is the small specific (per capita) water consumption in the domestic sector (131–
182 L/day person), which is in 2 times less as compared to the Moscow Region (Table 2). Currently Bali
is on the stage of increasing individual household consumption, similar to one that was in the Moscow
Region in the middle of 20th century. At that time, this
growth had resulted in excessive consumption, which
required taking special measures later.
The second feature of the region is the consumption of treated water from a reservoir, which was created by a dam in the estuary of one of the rivers. Cleanwater demand is increasing continuously, responded
by the Regional Water Company by utilizing the existing wastewater from the Badung River, known as Estuary Dam. The long-term program is aimed to increase
the water flow to the southern part of Badung Regency
(Bukit Jimbaran). The growing local population and
the number of tourists in Bali have increased the water
demand. To increase raw-water supply capacity, the
government has built the Estuary Dam.
Thirdly, water from wells is widely used in Bali for
domestic purposes. Tourist complexes use local water
treatment systems. Small settlements and individual
users use water for domestic purposes without purification. The quality of this water has recently become
unsatisfactory for drinking purposes. A system of bottled drinking water supply has been developed on the
island in the last decades. This water originates from
springs and is exposed to additional treatment at treatment plants (coagulation, filtration, disinfection).
Thus, water for drinking and water for shower/kitchen
are supplied separately by different companies. It
should be noted that bottled water is not available to
the general population because of its price. It lacks in
some parts of the island so far.
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
741
Table 2. Estimates of water consumption structure in both regions
Irrigation (2000)
Irrigation (2010)
Domestic (2000)
Domestic (2010)
Industrial* total (2000)
Industrial total (2010)
Drinking product now
Drinking necessary**
Consumption total (2000)
Consumption total (2010)
Domestic (2000)
Domestic (2010)
Irrigation (2000/2010)
Domestic (2000/2010)
Industrial (2000/2010)
Drinking (2000/2010)
Units
Bali
Moscow Region
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
km3/year
1000 m3/year
1000 m3/year
km3/year
km3/year
L/(day person)
L/(day person)
%
%
%
%
2.21
1.61
0.15
0.28
0.03
0.32
946
4599
2.40
1.93
131
182
92.1/83.5
6.5/14.5
1.5/1.8
0.0/0.0
0.00003
0.00003
3.13
2.66
0.64
0.90
860
20961
3.77
3.32
488
381
0.0/0.0
83.0/80.1
17.0/19.3
0.0/0.0
* For Bali, it is non-domestic including for tourist business, education facilities, healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports,
sports and general, livestock and fisheries.
** 3 L/(day person).
Over the last decades, pronounced trends in changing of the structure of the water consumption have
been observed (Table 2). The proportion of water use
for irrigation decreased, and the proportion of domestic consumption increased. The proportion of industrial water consumption (including education facilities, healthcare, hotels and restaurants, ports and airports, sports and general, livestock and fisheries)
increases. Estimated projections show that the total
water consumption in the next decade will increase by
at least 20% due to the growth of domestic and nondomestic consumption, while the use of irrigation
water use will continue decreasing. Our calculations
show an ascending trend in domestic consumption,
even in the last decade–from 131 to 182 L/day per user
(Table 2).
Wastewater from domestic sector, tourist complexes, and Subaks, discharged into canals, rivers, and
ocean are completely untreated or partially treated.
Furthermore, intensive agricultural technologies
include a widespread use of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals. Considering that the irrigation
water is partially returned back into the channels and
reused for irrigation of downstream Subak; the concentration of xenobiotics increases downstream by
many times. Thus, the deficit of fresh water increases
due to the pollution of surface waters.
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
Moscow Region
Currently, the total use of surface water and
groundwater for supply in Moscow Region is 3.32,
compared to 3.77 km3/year ten years ago. Moscow
City consumes about 4.2 million m3/day (including
0.07 million m3/day of groundwater). Moscow
oblast consumes 3.1 million m3/day (including
2.8 million m3/day from groundwater sources). Thus,
the proportion of groundwater in the water supply of
Moscow amounts to only 1.5%, whereas the water
supply of the Moscow oblast now is almost entirely
based on groundwater (about 90% of the total water
consumption).
The present capacity of water supply system [21]
can increase the water supply of the Moscow Region
by utilizing surface water. The main sources of water
supply are the Moskva–Vazuza and Volga water systems, which include 15 reservoirs. There are 5 water
treatment stations (the Northern, Western, Eastern,
Southwestern, and Rublevskaya stations) in Moscow.
Their total capacity is 6.7 million m3/day (domestic
water supply) and 0.83 million m3/day (technical
water supply). Surface water from Moscow is partially
supplied to 8 districts of Moscow oblast at a rate of
0.3–0.4 million m3/day.
Groundwater extraction in the Moscow Region is
performed through more than 8000 wells. Groundwater quality reflects the joint effect of the two factors:
natural geochemical anomalies of water and the
degree of anthropogenic pollution. Groundwater
742
NYOMAN RAI et al.
1000 m3/day
10500
1000 person
1
20000
2
10000
18000
9500
16000
9000
14000
8500
12000
8000
7500
10000
7000
8000
6000
1975
6500
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
6000
2015
Years
Fig. 3. Reduced water consumption as a result of the measures taken: 1—The total number of water users, 1000 persons; 2—Total
water consumption, 1000 m3/day.
aquifers show diverse water chemistry, which varies
from bicarbonate to bicarbonate-sulfate or even
hydro-chloride. Groundwater salinity increases
steadily northeastward, depending on its depth, and
also in the area of exploitation in urban areas from
0.3 to 0.7 g/L. Natural pollutants of groundwater
include primarily iron, water hardness, lithium, fluorine and strontium. Most common anthropogenic
contaminants include dissolved organic matter, salts of
nitrogen compounds, as well as microbiological contamination.
The sewage systems of the Moscow City and Moscow oblast have been developed separately. Canalized
area includes the entire Moscow City and about 50%
of Moscow oblast. Sewage system receives only
domestic, municipal, and industrial wastewater. Surface storm waters are collected by an independent system. All domestic and industrial wastewaters are
treated in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) with a
total design capacity of 6.34 million m3/day. The total
length of the sewerage network in the city is more than
8178.4 km [21]. Wastewater is directed to Lyubertsy
and Kuryanovsky WWTP. Treated wastewater is discharged into the Moskva River and its tributaries:
Pekhorka, Desna, and Skhodnya.
The structure of water consumption in the
Moscow Region for the main expenditure items in the
recent years (2010) includes: irrigation – 0.0, domestic water – 80.1, industrial water (including the needs
for the production of reinforced concrete structures
and electric power on a cogeneration plant) – 19.3,
bottled drinking water – 0.01% (Table 2).
The consumption of bottled drinking water is not
widespread in Russia. Water supplied from water treatment plants must conform with the quality standards
for drinking water. However, because of the large distances of supplying water pipes there is risk of second-
ary contamination of water that reaches the consumers. Therefore, the production and use of bottled water
has emerged in Russia over the last 20 years. In addition, residents actively use domestic filters to improve
water quality immediately before use.
In the 1990s, a complex of measures was taken to
reduce domestic consumption, including replacing
plumbing devices, installation of water meters, and
increasing water charges. The population growth by
15% was accompanied with a 20% decrease in water
consumption (Fig. 3). The capacity of five treatment
stations exceeded water consumption in the city. The
excessive resources of clean water can now be used for
the consumption in Moscow oblast, where groundwater is mostly consumed. This can slow down the development of depression cones in the region and enable
the resumption of groundwater reserves.
During the last decade, one could observe the following trends in the restructuring of water consumption in the Moscow Region (Table 2). The proportion
of domestic water consumption decreased, while the
proportion of industrial water consumption increased.
Estimated projections indicate that the total water
consumption in the next decade will not increase or
even decrease due to the incipient trend of reduction
of specific water consumption in the domestic sector.
Thus, the domestic use decreased over the past decade
from 488 to 381 L/day person and continues decreasing due to the use of the regulatory mechanisms: payment for water is made in accordance with the readings of ubiquitous water meters (Table 2).
The pollution of surface water and groundwater is
mainly due to domestic sewage and diffuse pollution
(from urban and agricultural areas). Wastewaters from
various sources with different chemistry enter reservoirs. The self-purification capacity of reservoirs
decreased significantly during their operation. For
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
743
Table 3. Specific indicators of water consumption structure in both regions
Units
Real water resources according to the results
1000 m3 per year/km2
of groundwater and surface water studies (per area)
Full water resources using regulatory measures (per area)
1000 m3 per year/km2
Real water resources according to the results
m3/day person
of groundwater and natural surface water studies (per person)
Real water resources in dry season (per person)
m3/day person
Water resources using regulatory measures (per person)
m3/day person
Full consumption (per person)
m3/day person
many reservoirs (e.g. Klyasminskoye), it is almost at its
limit [15]. In addition, groundwater is contaminated
too: about one-third of extracted groundwater does
not meet the standards for drinking water.
Water transfer from another basin also solves one
important problem in the region—an improvement of
the ecological state of the Moscow River. In the early
20th century, the Moskva River has become unsuitable
for recreational use because of anthropogenic overload: the odor, the high content of pollutants, and low
oxygen in water [26]. Part of the Volga water supplied
the Moskva River. By diluting with clean water of the
Volga River, the ecological status of the Moskva River
was improved. Self-purification processes resumed,
the structure of river ecosystem balanced. However,
since 2010, the river has shown a decreased rate of selfpurification processes. Estimates show that watering
of the river alone fails to maintain a sustainable ecological state [22]. The concentrations of all forms of
nitrogen, organic matter, and other pollutants in the
river’s water are higher now.
There are common features demonstrating the
effects of significant anthropogenic pressures for two
regions.
First, it is the formation of zones with a deficit of
groundwater resources, i.e., the development of
depression cones in aquifers (Fig. 4).
In Bali, a depression cone formed in the area of
urban development of Denpasar and its surroundings.
The population density in the area exceeds 6000 persons/km2, while the average density in Bali is 745 persons/km2. The population density in the urban areas of
Moscow and adjacent satellite cities reaches 8000 persons/km2. Intensive groundwater consumption from
Carboniferous deposits in Moscow Region has led to
the formation of a regional depression cone. This cone
embraces most part of the Moscow Region and partly
Vladimir, Tver, and Kaluga oblasts. Because of the prolonged use of groundwater, the level of aquifers has
moved down in some areas, thus forming unconfined
groundwater.
The second common feature of the two regions is
the increasing pollution of groundwater with anthropogenic contaminants (so-called organic xenobiotics:
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
Bali
Moscow Region
882.2
138.5
882.2
3.24
215.8
0.93
1.02
1.26
1.43
0.48
plant protection products, detergents, drugs, products
of petroleum processing). Only surface waters are subject to biological self-purification. The pollution of
groundwater may be irreversible because there are no
biological processes in deep layers. There is a small
number of living organisms in groundwater layers.
Groundwater may become unusable.
The third feature is the expansion of densely populated urban areas where no large water streams are
present; there are only small and medium streams
here. These areas are represented by tourist complexes
in Bali and urban districts of the New Moscow. This
means that the wastewater will have a hydrological
impact on the nearby rivers. Sewage flow rate will be
comparable with that of the rivers: the discharged
water is abstracted from subsurface sources or
extracted from another river basin. An increase in the
hydrological load on the surface waters changes the
natural hydrological regime of rivers and streams. In
Bali, this problem was solved by constructing a system
of canals, fixing riverbanks. In the Moscow Region,
there are changes of bed and collapses of riverbanks on
some rivers [25].
Regulatory mechanisms have been already
imposed to stabilize water consumption. For Bali, it is
the system of redistribution of water between Subaks,
while for the Moscow Region, it is the system of water
redistribution between river basins. However, these
measures are not sufficient to fix the water scarcity
(Bali) and to enhance the stability of self-purification
and improve water quality in rivers (for Bali and the
Moscow Region). We calculated some specific indicators of water consumption structure in both regions
per area and per person (Table 3) for the present time.
Table 3 illustrates the similarity of these indicators
(per 1 inhabitant) between such geographically different regions experiencing similar problems of water
consumption. For both regions, the critical value of
real water resources per person according to the results
of groundwater and natural surface water studies is
about 1 m3 per day (for Bali—in dry season). The
comparison of potential water resources and real water
consumption demonstrates that these values have
become almost identical.
744
NYOMAN RAI et al.
(a)
Bali
Laut Bali
t
Sea
7
B al i
4 5
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
6
1
Denpasar
Sel
at l
om
bok
2
(b)
1
2
Ri
ver
M
osk
va
Fig. 4. Water spring potency in Bali (a) and location of depression cones in the Moscow region (b) [7, 11]. a: 1—inadequate
quality for drinking water, 2—capacity 30 L/s, 7—lakes. b: 1—the old territory of Moscow, 2—the new territory of Moscow.
Taking into account the development of depression
cones in groundwater, growing pollution of waters,
and the limited ability of self-purification of groundwater from organic xenobiotics, it is necessary to minimize the use of groundwater and maximize the selfpurification of surface water. To do this, the world has
already developed technologies and techniques that
can be used in different regions [27].
To optimize water use in any region of the world,
local governments always develop a complex of water
management measures and measures for protection of
water bodies to achieve water quality targets. Taking
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
ANALYSIS OF THE SPECIFICS OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN REGIONS
into account the development of such practices in various regions, we can say that in most cases these measures are based on calculations of water balances
within the basin (basin principle). However, as shown
by our study, to select appropriate control measures
one should consider long-term dynamics of water use
in the region, assess the changes in the structure of
water use, and make the calculation of specific indicators of water. Of course, the “critical value” for both
regions that we found cannot act as the basis for decision making in other regions, but we proposed a methodological approach to the evaluation of the available
resources. This approach can serve as a basis for the
development of such activities.
The activities that primarily will solve the problems:
(1) The development of scientific and technical
programs of accumulation and optimal use of surface
water, including rainwater;
(2) Separate supply of drinking water and domestic
water in case of possible water pollution in the piping
system;
(3) Extended governmental and industrial monitoring of the entire water system;
(4) The development of technologies enabling
effective landscape self-purification of water
resources.
CONCLUSIONS
Regions with rapid population growth and high
population density that are not located on a major
watercourse but include one or more basins of small
and medium rivers at certain stage of development
begin to suffer water scarcity, exacerbated by groundwater pollution. To assess the situation and forecast the
state of water complex, we propose to use specific indicators, calculated as the ratio of available water
resources per 1 inhabitant. We have shown that critical
value of real water resources according to the results of
groundwater and natural surface water research for
two geographically distinct regions is about 1 m3 per
day per person. The recommended regulatory measures after reaching such values include reducing the
consumption of groundwater, the construction of local
reservoirs and purification plants for surface water, the
development of measures to intensify the self-purification of surface water, and monitoring the entire
water system.
To solve the problem of water supply to the growing
population, industry, and agriculture of these territories, one should begin by determining the boundaries
of the water system, where the mechanisms of distribution of water resources will be implemented. The
design of the structure of a water-economic system
should consider two options: (1) the creation of
groundwater abstraction system, and (2) the creation
of a surface water treatment system. It is necessary to
WATER RESOURCES
Vol. 42
No. 5
2015
745
take into account that renewability of groundwater in
these areas may decrease because of groundwater pollution at a critical value of specific water consumption.
Therefore, the problem of water scarcity must be
addressed only as a complex problem of creating a unified water management system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project no. 14-17-00672.
REFERENCES
1. BPS
Statistics
of
Bali
Province.
http://
bali.bps.go.id/tabel.php?id=1&rd=
2. Acharyya, S.K., Lahiri, S., Raymahashay, B.C., and
Bhowmik, A., Arsenic toxicity of groundwater in parts
of the Bengal basin in India and Bangladesh: the role of
Quaternary stratigraphy and Holocene sea-level fluctuation, Environ. Geol., 2000, 39, pp.1127–1137.
3. Ariel, D., Rosegrant, M.W., and Meinzen-Dick, R.,
Water allocation mechanisms-principles and examples,
Policy Research Working Paper, http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-1779
4. Bali tourism statistic 2011. http://www.baliprov.go.
id/files/subdomain/disparda/file/CD%20Interaktif/
CD%20Interaktif%202011.pdf
5. BPS, Jakarta, Statistik Air Minum 1996–2000, CV
Mitra Bersama. http://bali.bps.go.id/index_eng. php?
reg=pub_det&id=Statistik%20Air%20Minum%
201996-2000
6. Coward, E.W., Direct or indirect alternatives for irrigation investment and the creation of property, Irrigation
Investment, Technology and Management Strategies for
Development, Easter, K.W., Ed., Boulder, CO: Westview
Press, 1986, pp. 225–244.
7. Danilov-Danilyan, V.I., Jamalov, R.G., Vasilyeva, V.P.,
and Egorov F.B., Water problems of Moscow agglomeration: the state of groundwater resources and surface
waters, Proc. Conf. “Unsolved Environmental Problems
Moscow and Moscow Region”, Moscow: Media-Press,
2012, pp. 115–125.
8. Davydov, L.K., Dmitrieva, A.V., and Konkin, N.G.,
General Hydrology, L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1973.
9. Federal State Statistics Service. http://www.gks.ru/
10. Geocenter Moskva. http://geocentr-msk.ru/content/
view/21/46/
11. Garduño, H., Romani, S., Sengupta, B., Tuinhof, A.,
and Davis, R., India groundwater governance case
study, June 2011. http://water.worldbank.org/sites/
water.worldbank.org/files/GWGovernanceIndia.pdf
12. JICA, 2006. The Comprehensive Study on Water
Resources Development and Management in Bali
Province in the Republic of Indonesia. http://www.
jica.go.jp/english/publications/reports/annual/2006/
13. Kalaida, M.L., and Mugantseva, T.P., Improving the
efficiency of the system of technical water supply of
TPP, Proc. Higher Educational Institutions, Problems of
Energetic, 2012, no. 7/8, pp. 128–131.
746
NYOMAN RAI et al.
14. Kirpichnikova, N.V., Investigation of uncontrolled
sources of pollution (for example, the reservoir Ivankovskoye), Abstract of Cand. Dissertation. Ph.D., M.,
1991.
15. Kirpichnikova, N.V., The main sources of pollution of
the reservoir, in Ivankovskoe Reservoir. Current Status
and Problems of Protection, M., 2000, p. 89.
16. Klepov, V.I., Water resources management in the upper
Volga basin, Advances in Hydro-Science and Engineering, Beijing, China, 1995, vol. II, Pt A, pp. 729–734.
17. Lebedev, N.A., Natural Groundwater Resources of the
Moscow Artesian Basin, M.: Publishing House “Science”, 1972.
18. Lorenzen, R.P. and Lorenzen, S., Changing realities.
Perspectives on balinese rice cultivation, Human Ecology, 2011, vol. 39, pp. 29–42.
19. Lorenzen, R.P., A case study of Balinese irrigation
management: institutional dynamics and challenges,
2nd Southeast Asia Water Forum 29 August–3 September, 2005, https://crawford.anu.edu.au/rmap/pdf/
_docs/Lorenzen_irrigation.pdf
20. Mosekomonitoring. http://www.mosecom.ru/
21. Mosvodokanal. http://www.mosvodokanal.ru/watersupply/
22. Nevsky, A.V., Meshalkin, V.P., and Sharnin, V.A., Analysis and Synthesis of Water Resource Saving Chemical
Engineering Systems, Moscow: Nauka, 2004, 212 p.
23. Nielsen, G.L. and Widjaya, J.M., Modeling of groundwater recharge in Southern Bali, Indonesia, Ground
Water, 1989, vol. 27, pp. 473–480.
24. Rai, I.N. and Adnyana, G.M., Land Use and Water
Competition. Perspective of Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability, Denpasar, Bali: Udayana University Press, 2011.
25. Schegolkova, N.M., Danilovich, D.A., Kozlov, M.N.,
Moizhes, O.V., Pushkar, V.Y., Vladov, M.L., and Starovoytov, A.V., Effect of purified water flooding on the
ecological state of river Pekhorka, Water Supply and
Sanitation Equipment, no. 10, 2008, p. 77–83.
26. Shchegol’kova, N.M., Urban effect on the formation of
the Moskva river environmental state (historical
aspect), Water Resources, 2007, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 217–
228.
27. Schegolkova, N.M. and Venitsianov, E.V., Protection of
Polluted Rivers: the Intensification of Self-Purification
and Optimization of Water Disposal, M.: RAAS, 2011.
28. Stroma, C., A political ecology of water equity and
tourism. A case study from Bali, Annals of Tourism
Research, 2012, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 1221–1241.
29. Sutawan, N., Swara, M., Windia, W., Suteja, W.,
Arya, N., and Tjatera, W. Community-based irrigation
systems in Bali, Irrigation and Water Management in
Asia, Gooneratne, W. and Hirashima, S., Eds., New
Delhi/Bangalore: Sterling Publishers Private Limited,
1990, pp. 81–147.
30. Sutawan, N., Negotiation among irrigators’ associations in Bali, Negotiating Water Rights, Bruns, B.R. and
Meinzen-Dick, Eds., R.S., London: IT DG Pub, 2000,
pp. 315–336.
31. Water governance for agriculture and food security,
Proc. Twenty-fourth Session Rome, 29 September–
3 October 2014, FAO, Committee on agriculture.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-mk967e.pdf
32. Water policy and strategy of the United Nations Environment Programme. http://www.unep.org/themes/
Freshwater/Documents/pdf/WPS_adpoted_ at_GC%
2024.pdf
33. Water quality degraded in Bali’s tourism areas, Xinhua
News Agency December 7, 2007. http://www.china
.org.cn/english/environment/234747.htm
34. Windia, W., Sustainability of subak irrigation system