Development of rotor for axial (15)
Della Nur Wijiarti
120912011
Historis of Lingustics Development
1.2. The Aristotelian Tradition
A different tradition from the one established by Pluto and contained with the Macedonian
pholosopher Aristoteles ini Athens. First his influence via the notion of truth upon moderntheorotic formal semantics and then the theories of grammar in Antiquity.
1.2.1 Aristotle’s theory of truth: where things went wrong
Verbal and cognitive notions of truth
Aristotle’s defended two distinct notions of truth, both within the general frame of
truth as correspondence. In some passages he presents truth as a property of thought
but in other pessages truth is defined as a property of what is said, without any
reference to underlying thoughts. The former we call the cognitive notion, the verbal
notion of truth. Thought or sentence, on the one hand and an actual state of affairs on
the other.
The formalism of logic based on verbal notion of truth
Aristotle’s logical principles, quite apart from his actual logical system, have been
enormously influential throughout the history of logic, so much so that present-day
logic maintains the Arestotelian principles, even if the actual machinery of his
predicate calculus on isms has been replaced.
Aristotle adds writing as a fourth elements. There are besides the sounds, the mental
impressions, and the actual word and the last a sentence can only be true, in a derived
sense.
On this point, therefore, Aristotle, Plato and the Stoics are one mind. Both Plato and
Aristotle waver between thoughts (opinions) and sentences as bearers of the truth
values. In the context of modern studies of language the point at issue of quite serious,
for two related and important reasons.
Empirical reason: truth is so ce-determined by cognition
The first reason is that it is empirically to say that a sentence, or, if one wishes,
utterance, is the bearer of a truth value, while the underlying thought is nothing but
the mental counterpart of the sentence.
The truth conditions of such sentences are therefore co-determined by non-linguistics.
We must realized that when we say of an uttered sentence that it is true or that it is
false it is taken for granted that such a truth value assignment is conditional upon any
extraneous cognitive information that may have a bearing on the utterance’s meaning.
Consequences for model theory
We see now the that this error go back to the days of Plato and Aristotle, and that it
would certainly be worth our while to try and develop a semantic theory more along
Stoic than along Aristotelian lines.
Cognitive notion of truth has never been formalized
When we now speak of the “Aristotelian notion of truth” we mean the verbal notion
according to which the sentence, not the though, is the bearer of the truth value. The
sentence-based or verbal notion of truth that became dominant, as opposed the
though-based or cognitive notion.
Ogden and Richards’ semiotics triangle
Ogden and Richards’ (1923) notion of the linguistic sign, expressed in their famous
‘semiotics triangle’. Ogden and Richards pointedly fail to show the primary truth
relation, which holds between the though and its ‘referent’. What they call the relation
of ‘adequacy’ is in fact the primary truth relation.
1.2.2 The Alexandrine philologists
First beggining of linguistics as a sustained scientific activity distinct from philosophy were,
at least in part, a result of Alexander’s exploits.
Aristotle and Alexandre the Great
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was the son of a Macedonian physician, the court phycisian of
the Madeconian king Amyntas II, father of Philippus II and grandfather of Alexander
the Great. Macedonian was not a Greek language or dialect, but a totally different
language. And the Macedonian were strictly speaking, considered barbarians. Young
Aristotle studied philosophy with Palto for about twenty years, until Plato’s death in
384-347. In 343-342, to assume the task of educating the crown prince Alexander ‘the
Great’ (356-323 BC). This he did till about 340, when Alexander’s education became
more directed at military matters. Alexander died however, in 323, thirty-three years
old from the effects of an injury incurred during his many beatles. After his death
there was a great deal of strife about his succession. In the end, the great empire wa
split up among some of his generals.
Kelevance of Alexander’s campaign for linguistics
The relvance of Alexander’s campaign in the present context lies in what happened to
the Greek language as a result of it. But Alexander’s campaign brought about an
enormous change in the respect. Wherever he went he let behind Greek, or anyway
Greek speaking officials to rule according to his directives. A sudden and massive
demand thus developed for the teaching of Greek as s foreign language, especially in
Egypt, which was the most powerful and the best organized among the new
Hellenestic kingsdoms.
Foundation of the Museum, the first university
Around the year 280 BC a university, the Museum was established in the capital
Alexandria by the aged Ptomely or his son Ptomely II for the advancement of the
sciences as they had been started by Aristotle, to counteract the intelectual influence
of athens. Proffesors were appointed in different subjects, some of them linguist or
‘philologist’. The Alexandrine philologists were concerned with critical editions of
ancient literary texts, in particular Homer, always with the aim of establishing they
thought of as the original, pure forms of Greek words and sentences.
Early Alexandrine grammar
The early Alexandrine linguist found themselves in a predicament, since they needed
lingustics, in particular grammar, analysis for the purpose of formal grammar
teaching. However, what was provided by the philosophical tradition was too little to
suffice for the Alexandrines’ purpose.
Origin of the term ‘grammar’
The term grammar has its origin in these developments. Its Latin equivalent is
grammatica which is short for ars grammatica. The term began to be used for what we
now call ‘grammar’ though always with strictly normative connotations.
Grammars in the classroom: teaching Greek as a foreign language
In actual practice, the teaching of Greek as a foreign language consisted of the
teaching of inflectional paradigms and othe possible grammatical reguralities.
Linguistics started as applied lingusitics
The work done by the Alexandrines marked the beginning of what we now call
‘linguistics. Greek it began, strictly speaking, as applied lingusitics.
Dionysius Thrax
One particular document from that period must be mentioned specifically, the techne
grammatike traditionally atributed to Dionysius Thrax, who lived ca. 100 BC and had
been traineed by the Alexandrianes.
1.3 Anomalism and Analogism, or Ecologism and Formalism
Two traditions: analogism and anomalism
On the other hand, there is a tradition of Aristotle and the Alexandrine philologist.
These two traditions were at odds with each other.we follow the commonly held view
that such a controversy did indeed exist during that perio, adherents of the former
being called “anomalists” and of the letter “analogist” used in particular for the
reguralities expressed in morphological paradigms. The two traditions, one carried by
the Stoa and the other by the Alexandrines. The relation between language and
thought, or between language and logic, the notion of ‘sign’ and how language can be
considered to be system of signs, the origin, of language as part of human nature, and
similar abstract topics.
The important point is that, the Alexandrines, language is a system of conventional
word forms, which are not “true” or given by nature, as was maintained by anomalist.
They stressed the arbitrary nature of the ‘etymologies’ proposed by their opponents.
The two school merge in first century BC
By the first century BC the controversy apparently died down. It is the combination of
the two schools that produced what we now know as “traditional grammar”.
Difference of method: formalism and ecologism
Two main approaches can be distinguished in the respect, which we shall dub
ecologism and formalism. For the fomalism, language is a formal system describable
in terms of rules. In the ecologist approach, language is primarily seen as a product of
nature, and hence as an object for empirical research.
120912011
Historis of Lingustics Development
1.2. The Aristotelian Tradition
A different tradition from the one established by Pluto and contained with the Macedonian
pholosopher Aristoteles ini Athens. First his influence via the notion of truth upon moderntheorotic formal semantics and then the theories of grammar in Antiquity.
1.2.1 Aristotle’s theory of truth: where things went wrong
Verbal and cognitive notions of truth
Aristotle’s defended two distinct notions of truth, both within the general frame of
truth as correspondence. In some passages he presents truth as a property of thought
but in other pessages truth is defined as a property of what is said, without any
reference to underlying thoughts. The former we call the cognitive notion, the verbal
notion of truth. Thought or sentence, on the one hand and an actual state of affairs on
the other.
The formalism of logic based on verbal notion of truth
Aristotle’s logical principles, quite apart from his actual logical system, have been
enormously influential throughout the history of logic, so much so that present-day
logic maintains the Arestotelian principles, even if the actual machinery of his
predicate calculus on isms has been replaced.
Aristotle adds writing as a fourth elements. There are besides the sounds, the mental
impressions, and the actual word and the last a sentence can only be true, in a derived
sense.
On this point, therefore, Aristotle, Plato and the Stoics are one mind. Both Plato and
Aristotle waver between thoughts (opinions) and sentences as bearers of the truth
values. In the context of modern studies of language the point at issue of quite serious,
for two related and important reasons.
Empirical reason: truth is so ce-determined by cognition
The first reason is that it is empirically to say that a sentence, or, if one wishes,
utterance, is the bearer of a truth value, while the underlying thought is nothing but
the mental counterpart of the sentence.
The truth conditions of such sentences are therefore co-determined by non-linguistics.
We must realized that when we say of an uttered sentence that it is true or that it is
false it is taken for granted that such a truth value assignment is conditional upon any
extraneous cognitive information that may have a bearing on the utterance’s meaning.
Consequences for model theory
We see now the that this error go back to the days of Plato and Aristotle, and that it
would certainly be worth our while to try and develop a semantic theory more along
Stoic than along Aristotelian lines.
Cognitive notion of truth has never been formalized
When we now speak of the “Aristotelian notion of truth” we mean the verbal notion
according to which the sentence, not the though, is the bearer of the truth value. The
sentence-based or verbal notion of truth that became dominant, as opposed the
though-based or cognitive notion.
Ogden and Richards’ semiotics triangle
Ogden and Richards’ (1923) notion of the linguistic sign, expressed in their famous
‘semiotics triangle’. Ogden and Richards pointedly fail to show the primary truth
relation, which holds between the though and its ‘referent’. What they call the relation
of ‘adequacy’ is in fact the primary truth relation.
1.2.2 The Alexandrine philologists
First beggining of linguistics as a sustained scientific activity distinct from philosophy were,
at least in part, a result of Alexander’s exploits.
Aristotle and Alexandre the Great
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was the son of a Macedonian physician, the court phycisian of
the Madeconian king Amyntas II, father of Philippus II and grandfather of Alexander
the Great. Macedonian was not a Greek language or dialect, but a totally different
language. And the Macedonian were strictly speaking, considered barbarians. Young
Aristotle studied philosophy with Palto for about twenty years, until Plato’s death in
384-347. In 343-342, to assume the task of educating the crown prince Alexander ‘the
Great’ (356-323 BC). This he did till about 340, when Alexander’s education became
more directed at military matters. Alexander died however, in 323, thirty-three years
old from the effects of an injury incurred during his many beatles. After his death
there was a great deal of strife about his succession. In the end, the great empire wa
split up among some of his generals.
Kelevance of Alexander’s campaign for linguistics
The relvance of Alexander’s campaign in the present context lies in what happened to
the Greek language as a result of it. But Alexander’s campaign brought about an
enormous change in the respect. Wherever he went he let behind Greek, or anyway
Greek speaking officials to rule according to his directives. A sudden and massive
demand thus developed for the teaching of Greek as s foreign language, especially in
Egypt, which was the most powerful and the best organized among the new
Hellenestic kingsdoms.
Foundation of the Museum, the first university
Around the year 280 BC a university, the Museum was established in the capital
Alexandria by the aged Ptomely or his son Ptomely II for the advancement of the
sciences as they had been started by Aristotle, to counteract the intelectual influence
of athens. Proffesors were appointed in different subjects, some of them linguist or
‘philologist’. The Alexandrine philologists were concerned with critical editions of
ancient literary texts, in particular Homer, always with the aim of establishing they
thought of as the original, pure forms of Greek words and sentences.
Early Alexandrine grammar
The early Alexandrine linguist found themselves in a predicament, since they needed
lingustics, in particular grammar, analysis for the purpose of formal grammar
teaching. However, what was provided by the philosophical tradition was too little to
suffice for the Alexandrines’ purpose.
Origin of the term ‘grammar’
The term grammar has its origin in these developments. Its Latin equivalent is
grammatica which is short for ars grammatica. The term began to be used for what we
now call ‘grammar’ though always with strictly normative connotations.
Grammars in the classroom: teaching Greek as a foreign language
In actual practice, the teaching of Greek as a foreign language consisted of the
teaching of inflectional paradigms and othe possible grammatical reguralities.
Linguistics started as applied lingusitics
The work done by the Alexandrines marked the beginning of what we now call
‘linguistics. Greek it began, strictly speaking, as applied lingusitics.
Dionysius Thrax
One particular document from that period must be mentioned specifically, the techne
grammatike traditionally atributed to Dionysius Thrax, who lived ca. 100 BC and had
been traineed by the Alexandrianes.
1.3 Anomalism and Analogism, or Ecologism and Formalism
Two traditions: analogism and anomalism
On the other hand, there is a tradition of Aristotle and the Alexandrine philologist.
These two traditions were at odds with each other.we follow the commonly held view
that such a controversy did indeed exist during that perio, adherents of the former
being called “anomalists” and of the letter “analogist” used in particular for the
reguralities expressed in morphological paradigms. The two traditions, one carried by
the Stoa and the other by the Alexandrines. The relation between language and
thought, or between language and logic, the notion of ‘sign’ and how language can be
considered to be system of signs, the origin, of language as part of human nature, and
similar abstract topics.
The important point is that, the Alexandrines, language is a system of conventional
word forms, which are not “true” or given by nature, as was maintained by anomalist.
They stressed the arbitrary nature of the ‘etymologies’ proposed by their opponents.
The two school merge in first century BC
By the first century BC the controversy apparently died down. It is the combination of
the two schools that produced what we now know as “traditional grammar”.
Difference of method: formalism and ecologism
Two main approaches can be distinguished in the respect, which we shall dub
ecologism and formalism. For the fomalism, language is a formal system describable
in terms of rules. In the ecologist approach, language is primarily seen as a product of
nature, and hence as an object for empirical research.