Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol07.Issue3.1996:
Forces and incentives in the promotion of
environmental protection and improved working
conditions
Per Christensen and Sussi Handberg De partme nt o f De ve lo pme nt and Planning,
Aalbo rg Unive rsity, Aalbo rg, De nmark
Presents fi ndings from an
investigation of the adoption
of different “ abatement”
technologies in 30 Danish
fi rms, encompassing traditional iron manufacturers and
electroplating fi rms. The
abatement measures were all
instigated to improve environmental or occupational safety
and health conditions. Reasons and incentives for these
measures were investigated.
Finds that there are big differences between the different types of fi rms. Moreover
public regulation is the most
common incentive for adopting abatement technologies.
Internal forces in the company – attitudes of management and employees – were
also found to have an essential infl uence, while economic
considerations play only a
minor role.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [ 1996] 4 –1 1
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
[4 ]
Introduction
In r ecen t yea r s th er e h a s been a m a jor focu s
on th e tr a n sfor m a tion of in du str ia l pr odu ction tow a r ds a clea n er pr odu ction on a su sta in a ble ba sis[1]. Th e Br u n dtla n d Com m ission ’s r epor t Ou r Com m on Fu tu re[2] defin es
su sta in a bility ver y br oa dly, a n d en com pa sses
n ot on ly a r edu ction of th e en vir on m en ta l
in flu en ces on n a tu r e, bu t a lso a r edu ction of
a dver se im pa cts on people, n o m a tter if th e
im pa cts a r e wor k or leisu r e r ela ted.
On e of th e fou n da tion s for th e tr a n sfor m a tion of pr odu ction is th e im plem en ta tion of
differ en t tech n ologies wh ich a r e a ble to
r edu ce pollu tion a n d a dver se im pa cts fr om
th e tech n ologies in u se. Th e tr a n sfor m a tion
of pr odu ction is tr a dition a lly m a n a ged
th r ou gh th e im plem en ta tion of differ en t a ddon tech n ologies su ch a s ven tila tion , h igh er
sm ok esta ck s, tr ea tm en t of w a ste, a n d th e u se
of pr otective cloth in g a n d scr een in g/ sh ieldin g of m a ch in er y. Recen tly, th e u se of su bstitu tion of m a ter ia ls, clea n er tech n ologies a n d
ch a n ges in h a bits a n d or ga n iza tion a l r ou tin es h ave been a dopted, too. Th e la tter m ea su r es, wh ich a ll cou ld be in clu ded u n der th e
h ea din g “clea n er pr odu ction ” a r e a dva n ta geou s a s th ey pr even t pollu tion or oth er
a dver se im pa cts occu r r in g in th e fir st pla ce.
Th e for m er a dd-on tech n ologies a r e often
r ejected w ith r efer en ce to th e fa ct th a t
a dver se im pa cts a r e displa ced m er ely fr om
on e a r ea to a n oth er, or fr om on e m ediu m , e.g.
a ir, to a n oth er, e.g. w a ter.
Today th er e is con sider a ble a gr eem en t th a t
th e tr a n sfor m a tion of pr odu ction is best
im plem en ted th r ou gh th e a doption of clea n er
tech n ologies a n d a pr even tive a ppr oa ch ,
th er eby avoidin g a n y k in d of “pr oblem displa cem en t”. Ta k in g su sta in a bility ser iou sly
th u s im plies th a t en vir on m en ta l pr otection
sh ou ld ta k e wor k in g con dition s in to con sider a tion .
Ma n y cou n tr ies h ave a dopted en vir on m en ta l a cts wh ich a r e in stiga ted by a per spective
of in te gr a tion a n d pr even tion , u n der th e
m a in a im of stim u la tin g th e in tr odu ction of
clea n er tech n ologies[3,4]. However, in m ost
cou n tr ies th e tr a n sfor m a tion to clea n er tech n ologies is a slow pr ocess, a n d th er e a r e
m a n y in dica tion s th a t clea n er tech n ologies
h ave n ot yet exper ien ced a m a jor
br ea k th r ou gh in a n y br a n ch of in du str y[5].
The question of incentives
In r ela tion to th e qu estion of dissem in a tion of
clea n er tech n ologies, it h a s been qu estion ed
wh ich in cen tives m ost efficien tly a ffect th e
in du str y. Th e tr a dition a l “com m a n d a n d
con tr ol” r e gu la tion h a s been u n der a tta ck for
in efficien cy, a s it n eith er m otiva tes th e a doption of pr even tive m ea su r es n or pr om otes th e
m ost cost-effective solu tion s[6,7]. In stea d it
h a s been poin ted ou t th a t econ om ic in cen tives sh ou ld be fu r th er ed[8]. Besides, it h a s
r ecen tly been em ph a sized th a t in for m a tion ,
edu ca tion a n d a ttitu de bu ildin g in th em selves a r e cr u cia l in cen tives for a su sta in a ble
developm en t.
Differ en t for m s of socia l r e gu la tion , e.g.
occu pa tion a l h ea lth a n d sa fety a s well a s
en vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion , h ave been u n der ta k en in Den m a r k . Th ey fu n ction pr im a r ily
th r ou gh th e u se of differ en t for m s of com m a n d a n d con tr ol in str u m en ts, su ch a s per m its, or der s a n d a dvice a n d th r ou gh th e
im position of efflu en t lim its, tim e lim its,
in spection pr ocedu r es, etc. Th ese in cen tives
w ill be fu r th er ela bor a ted on in th e su bsequ en t section .
In Den m a r k sever a l econ om ic in str u m en ts
h ave been u sed. Th e cla ssica l econ om ic
in cen tive is th e ch a r ge, wh ich in th is con text
is m ea n t to in cr ea se th e pr ice for pr odu cts
wh ich h ave a n a dver se im pa ct on th e en vir on m en t, so th a t th e exter n a l costs a r e r eflected
in th e pr ices[6]. E n vir on m en ta l ch a r ges a r e
u sed on ly w ith in a few a r ea s (w a ste disposa l,
pa ck a gin g, CF C-ga ses). Addition a lly, a n u m ber of differ en t fees or “u ser ch a r ges” a r e
im posed on in du str ies a n d citizen s, e.g. for
h avin g r u bbish collected a n d disposed of, for
tr ea tm en t of w a stew a ter, etc. F u r th er m or e
th is “econ om ic a id” pr ogr a m m e, e.g. for th e
dissem in a tion of clea n er tech n ologies, is a lso
a decisive econ om ic in cen tive. Th e a for em en tion ed in cen tives a r e a ll a im in g a t im pr ovin g
th e en vir on m en t. Wh en it com es to wor k in g
con dition s on ly few econ om ic in cen tives a r e
in u se, pr im a r ily th r ou gh th e im position of
differ en t in su r a n ce pr em iu m s r ela ted to th e
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
r isk a ssocia ted w ith differ en t types of pr odu ction pr ocesses.
Attitu des a n d k n ow ledge a r e often seen a s
decisive fa ctor s wh en com pa n ies for m u la te
th eir ow n en vir on m en ta l policies or tr y to
stay a h ea d of th e r e gu la tor y dem a n ds
im posed on th em [9]. It is well k n ow n th a t
“h u m a n a ction ” is con str a in ed n ot on ly to
in ciden ces wh er e dem a n ds a r e im posed or
econ om ic ben efits ga in ed, bu t a lso th a t people
a ct beca u se it is m or a lly a ppea lin g to th em ,
beca u se th ey h ave a ffection s for th e su bject
a n d feel a com m itm en t[10]. E ven bu sin ess
beh aviou r is in flu en ced by a ttitu des a n d
k n ow ledge, a n d ca n th u s develop differ en t
de gr ees of r espon sibility tow a r ds society a n d
societa l n eeds[11,12]. Th e n u r tu r in g of en vir on m en ta l a ttitu des th r ou gh th e pr ecedin g
deca des, h a s defi n itely h a d a n im pa ct on
pr eviou s a n d com in g gen er a tion s of m a n a gem en t a n d la bou r.
On ly few in vestiga tion s h ave sou gh t to
cla r ify wh ich in cen tives h ave a ffected th e
clea n er tech n ologies a lr ea dy im plem en ted in
in du str y, bu t th ese a ccen tu a te th a t “com m a n d a n d con tr ol” r e gu la tion h a s h a d th e
decisive in fl u en ce[13-15].
Dif ferences in regulatory approach
In Den m a r k , a s in m ost oth er cou n tr ies, occu pa tion a l h ea lth a n d sa fety a n d en vir on m en ta l
r e gu la tion a r e distin ct sph er es of gover n m en t
policy. Th is division of la bou r h a s its dr aw ba ck s, a n d r ecen tly it h a s been discu ssed
wh eth er th is w a s a n optim a l solu tion . Th e
in te gr a tion of th e two a dm in istr a tive bodies
cou ld im pr ove per for m a n ce a n d ser vice a s
well a s cu r b som e of th e gr ow th in th e pu blic
sector [16]. F u r th er m or e, it becom es still m or e
obviou s th a t th er e is a n a ctu a l a s well a s
poten tia l over la p of a ctivities in th e r e gu la tor y bodies[17].
Th e two differ en t k in ds of socia l r e gu la tion
a r e or ga n ized in two differ en t a dm in istr a tive
str u ctu r es. Occu pa tion a l h ea lth a n d sa fety
r e gu la tion is execu ted by th e Min istr y of
La bou r, a n d is th u s a gover n m en ta l a u th or ity,
wh ile en vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion is u n der
loca l a n d r e gion a l a u th or ities a n d execu ted
by th eir a dm in istr a tive bodies. F u r th er m or e,
th e r e gu la tor y settin g differ s w idely between
th e two sph er es. Le gisla tion , r e gu la tor y
m ea n s, en for cem en t a n d th e differ en t pa r ties
involved in th e im plem en ta tion of th e r e gu la tion a r e so differ en t th a t we in fa ct h ave two
differ en t “r e gu la tor y pa r a digm s”. Let u s
br iefly ou tlin e th e fu n da m en ta l differ en ces.
E n vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion is a lm ost exclu sively ba sed on com m a n d a n d con tr ol pr ocedu r es su ch a s pollu tion per m its (pr odu ction
a ppr ova ls a n d w a stew a ter licen ces) a n d
or der s. Th e E n vir on m en ta l P r otection Act is
a fr a m ewor k law, a n d per m its or or der s a r e
issu ed by th e r e gion a l or m u n icipa l a u th or ities. N or m a lly th ey specify lim its a n d sta n da r ds in th e per m its. To a cer ta in de gr ee th e
lim its a r e fi xed on th e ba sis of gu idelin es
esta blish ed by th e E nvir on m en ta l P r otection
Agen cy, bu t th e loca l a u th or ities h ave discr etion a r y power to give du e con sider a tion to
econ om ic a n d tech n ologica l ca pa bilities a s
well a s th e loca l ecologica l con dition s. Th e
en vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion is in flu en ced by
gover n m en t, loca l a u th or ities a n d th e in du str y a s well a s a m u ltitu de of citizen gr ou ps,
en vir on m en ta l or ga n iza tion s a n d n eigh bou r s
wh ich a ll h ave th e r igh t to a ppea l th e issu in g
of per m its, a n d in a ddition th ey h ave fr ee
a ccess to a ll in for m a tion on com plia n ce a n d
ca n even r epor t viola tion s to th e loca l police.
Th e Occu pa tion a l Hea lth a n d Sa fety Act is
a lso a fr a m ewor k law, bu t th e r e gu la tion is
execu ted by specia l gover n m en t la bou r
in spector a tes wh o m on itor fir m com plia n ce
w ith n a tion a l sta n da r ds set by th e Min istr y of
La bou r in join t colla bor a tion w ith th e pa r ties
on th e la bou r m a r k et. Besides com m a n d a n d
con tr ol th e r e gu la tion is a lso ba sed on a pa r ticipa tor y m odel. In fir m s w ith m or e th a n ten
em ployees it is m a n da tor y th a t a join t m a n a gem en t-la bou r h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee
is cr ea ted. Th is com m ittee is r espon sible for
a dm in ister in g th e h ea lth a n d sa fety law,
wh ile th e la bou r in spector a tes’ r ole is to
en for ce th e law a n d a dvise th e fir m s of h ow
best to com ply w ith it. Th e pa r ties on th e
la bou r m a r k et h ave big dir ect in flu en ce on
decision s on h ow occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d
h ea lth pr oblem s a r e to be r e gu la ted, bu t oth er
sta k eh older s a r e n ot ta k in g pa r t in th e decision m a k in g.
Beca u se of th e differ en ces in th e a dm in istr a tive system (cen tr a lized/ decen tr a lized)
a n d th e pa r ticipa tion of a w ide gr ou p of sta k eh older s in en vir on m en ta l pr otection it is
pr oba bly u n lik ely th a t th e two a r ea s of pu blic
policy ca n be fu sed. Th is w a s a lso th e r esu lt
of th e politica l deba tes in 1991 wh ich con clu ded th a t colla bor a tion fr om th e bottom ,
w ith better exch a n ge of in for m a tion , join t
in spection of fir m s, etc., sh ou ld be tr ied ou t
fir st.
Besides cu r bin g th e gr ow th in pu blic spen din g a n d im pr ovin g th e ser vice, a n oth er con sider a tion h a s r ecen tly em er ged th a t poin ts
to th e n ecessity of co-oper a tion between th e
two a dm in istr a tive bodies. Th e developm en t
a n d dissem in a tion of clea n er tech n ologies
h ave been a dopted r ecen tly a s on e of th e m a in
con cer n s of th e en vir on m en ta l pr otection
a u th or ities a n d a r e n ow cor n er ston es in th e
n ew E n vir on m en ta l P r otection Act. With th is
[5 ]
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
n ew str a te gy th e en vir on m en ta l a u th or ities
h ave m oved th eir r e gu la tor y effor ts fr om
pollu tion con tr ol to in flu en cin g th e tech n ologies u sed in th e fi r m , both wh en it com es to
th e specific pr odu ction tech n ologies a s well
a s wor k r ou tin es, th e u se of r aw m a ter ia ls,
a n d so on . Ch a n ges of th e pr odu ction pr ocess
w ill pr oba bly often h ave a n a dver se im pa ct on
th e wor k in g en vir on m en t, a n d en vir on m en ta l
pr otection is th er eby in ter m in gled w ith occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth con sider a tion s.
Th is is a ccen tu a ted by th e la bou r in spector a tes’ focu s on pr odu ction pr ocesses wh ich
a lso em ph a size su bstitu tion of h a za r dou s
m a ter ia ls. In th e lon g r u n th is a t lea st n ecessita tes im pr oved a n d in cr ea sed co-oper a tion
between th e two r e gu la tor y bodies.
Recen tly, in vestiga tion s h ave been m a de
con cer n in g th e con n ection s between envir on m en ta l pr otection a n d occu pa tion a l h ea lth
a n d sa fety[16-18]. In a ll ca ses it w a s sh ow n
th a t in th e a ctu a l r e gu la tion th er e w a s ver y
little over la p between th e r e gu la tion s m a de
by th e two a u th or ities. Wh en la r ger gr ou ps of
in du str ies wer e exa m in ed it w a s con clu ded
th a t th e two a u th or ities a lm ost exclu sively
k ept to th eir ow n a r ea of r e gu la tion , a n d ver y
seldom u sed th e existin g ch a n n els of co-oper a tion to com m en t on a n d in fl u en ce ea ch oth er s’ r e gu la tion . Con tr a r y to th is it h a s been
dem on str a ted th a t som e of th e specific
clea n er tech n ologies developed h ave a n
im pa ct on occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth [19].
Th e r ea son wh y th is con n ection does n ot
sh ow in th e br oa der in vestiga tion s is pr oba bly th a t clea n er tech n ologies h ave n ot yet
been dissem in a ted to la r ger gr ou ps of in du str ies[5]. At lea st in th e lon g r u n it m u st be
expected th a t co-oper a tion w ill in cr ea se con com ita n t w ith th e in cr ea sin g a doption of
clea n er pr odu ction m ea su r es in in du str y.
Methods
In th is in vestiga tion we h ave exa m in ed
closely th e a doption of differ en t “a ba tem en t
tech n ologies” in a gr ou p of 30 Da n ish fi r m s.
Th e fir m s a ll belon g to th e ir on a n d m eta l
in du str y. Fou r teen of th e fi r m s a r e electr opla ter s a n d th e r em a in in g 16 fir m s a pply a
w ide va r iety of tr a dition a l m a n u fa ctu r in g
tech n ologies pr ocesses su ch a s weldin g, cu ttin g, sa n dbla stin g, de gr ea sin g, pick lin g,
pa in tin g.
Th e electr opla tin g fir m s a r e gen er a lly
sm a ll w ith typica lly two to 200 em ployees.
Ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s w ith a n in -h ou se electr opla tin g depa r tm en t, wh ich we h ave in clu ded
in th e electr opla tin g ca te gor y, a r e la r ger in
gen er a l, in th is in vestiga tion w ith u p to 200
em ployees a n d a tu r n over of u p to 250 m illion
[6 ]
Da n ish k r on er. F ir m s execu tin g on ly electr opla tin g h ave n or m a lly on ly two to 20 em ployees a n d a tu r n over of on ly a few m illion
Da n ish k r on er. Th e pr ocesses u sed in typica l
electr opla tin g fir m s or depa r tm en ts a r e
gr in din g a n d polish in g of item s, de gr ea sin g
a n d electr opla tin g[20].
Th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s a r e a lso sm a ll,
a lth ou gh a few fir m s a r e la r ger th a n th e tr a dition a l defin ition of sm a ll a n d m ediu m sized
in du str ies. Th e sizes of th e in vestiga ted fi r m s
a r e fr om six to 650 em ployees a n d a tu r n over
of u p to 700 m illion Da n ish k r on er. Th is su bdivision of fir m s com pr ises a w ide va r iety of
fir m s m a n u fa ctu r in g ir on or differ en t sor ts of
sta in less steel u sin g pr ocesses lik e weldin g,
cu ttin g, pu n ch in g, sa n dbla stin g, gr in din g,
pick lin g, de gr ea sin g, pa in tin g, a n d som e
tim es even electr opla tin g. Th e su bdivision
in to two gr ou ps is th u s n ot clea r -cu t bu t is
m a de w ith r efer en ce to th e fir m ’s m a in a ctivities[21].
Th e in vestiga tion w a s ca r r ied ou t du r in g
1991/ 1992. Th e 30 fir m s a r e a ll loca ted in th e
n or th er n pa r t of J u tla n d. For ea ch fir m we
h ave collected qu a lita tive da ta fr om th r ee
differ en t sou r ces:
1
pla n t in spection a n d a n open -en ded in ter view w ith th e m a n a ger ;
2
a r eview of a ll m u n icipa l docu m en ts
r e ga r din g th e fir m s’ per m its, em ission s,
in spection r epor ts, m in u tes;
3
a r eview of th e la bou r in spector a tes’
docu m en ts r e ga r din g or der s, in spection
r epor ts, m in u tes.
Da ta wer e collected sta r tin g fr om 1974, or
com m en cem en t of pr odu ction , to th e en d of
1991. Th e fir m s wer e loca ted in ten differ en t
m u n icipa lities a n d cover ed by th r ee differ en t
la bou r in spector a tes.
Th e a ba tem en t m ea su r es we look ed in to
wer e a ll in stiga ted to im pr ove en vir on m en ta l
or occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth con dition s.
For a ll iden tifi ed a ba tem en t m ea su r es we
h ave tr ied to ou tlin e a pictu r e of th e r ea son
beh in d th eir a doption . We cla ssify th e r ea son s or in cen tives to h ave been a ttitu des or of
a n econ om ic or le ga l ch a r a cter. Th u s, we a r e
a ble to give a m or e deta iled a ccou n t of th e
for ces sh a pin g th e fir m s’ en vir on m en ta l a n d
occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth per for m a n ce.
With a cr oss-r efer en cin g m eth odology lik e
th is we h ope to be a ble to dr aw a m or e
deta iled pictu r e of th e esta blish ed m ea su r es
a n d th e r ea son s for th eir a doption . To r ely on
in ter view s on ly w ith m a n a ger s or on per u sa l
of a r ch ives, wh eth er a t th e m u n icipa lities or
th e la bou r in spector a tes, wou ld n ot be su fficien t. Often th e m a n a ger s r ecou n t for th e
a dopted m ea su r es in a on e-sided w ay, over estim a tin g th eir ow n in fl u en ce on th e cou r se of
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
a ction . Con tr a r y to th is th e a ccou n ts in th e
a r ch ives ten d to em ph a size th e in fl u en ce of
th e r e gu la tor y bodies. In ea ch sin gle in sta n ce
wh er e we h ave iden tifi ed a tech n ologica l
ch a n ge, we tr y to give a m or e a dequ a te
a ccou n t of th e a ctu a l cou r se of even ts by payin g du e r espect to th e differ en t a ccou n ts of
th e even t in qu estion .
An in vestiga tion lik e th is a lso h a s som e
in h er en t wea k n esses. Two th in gs a r e wor th
m en tion in g:
1 n ot a ll r eleva n t tech n ologica l ch a n ges in
th e fir m s h ave been iden tified;
2 th e ch a r a cter of th e tech n ologica l ch a n ges
a r e pr oba bly bia sed w ith r e ga r d to th e
tech n ica l ch a r a cter of th e ch a n ges.
N ot a ll tech n ologica l ch a n ges m a de fr om
1974, or com m en cem en t of pr odu ction , h ave
been iden tified. Th e r ea son is th a t deta iled
k n ow ledge of th is is n ot ava ila ble. Th e
descr iption s in th e a r ch ives of th e m u n icipa lities a n d th e la bou r in spector a tes give m a in ly
a pictu r e of ch a n ges in wh ich th ese a u th or ities h ave played a r ole, bu t th ey pr oba bly do it
w ith th e sa m e va lidity in a ll th e yea r s fr om
1974 u n til n ow. Th e in for m a tion we ga th er
fr om th e m a n a ger s in th e fir m often in clu des
tech n ologica l ch a n ges n ot m en tion ed in th e
a r ch ives, bu t th is in for m a tion is bia sed w ith
r e ga r d to th e tim e h or izon . Ma n a ger s typica lly h a d n ot been em ployed by th e fi r m sin ce
1974 or com m en cem en t of pr odu ction , a n d
th er efor e obviou sly do n ot h ave in for m a tion
of a ll pr ecedin g ch a n ges. Besides, m ost of th e
m a n a ger s h ave a lim ited m em or y of th ese
ch a n ges. Th e la ter th e ch a n ges th e m or e r elia ble th eir k n ow ledge or m em or y of th em .
Th is differ en ce in m em or y of th e differ en t
sou r ces of in for m a tion w ill lea d pr oba bly to
a n over estim a tion of th e le ga l sou r ces of
in flu en ce on tech n ologica l ch a n ge. As a con sequ en ce of th e differ en ce in m em or y, fu tu r e
investiga tion s sh ou ld focu s on ly on sh or ter
spa n of yea r s (e.g. th r ee to five yea r s) to m a k e
su r e th a t n o over estim a tion of le ga l sou r ces
ta k es pla ce.
A secon d wea k n ess con cer n s th e ch a r a cter
of tech n ologica l ch a n ges ta k en in to con sider a tion . Tech n ologica l ch a n ges a lso in clu de
ch a n ges in th e or ga n iza tion a l con text a n d in
k n ow ledge r ela ted to th e tech n ology. Most
ch a n ges iden tifi ed a r e of a m or e tech n ica l
n a tu r e. Th is im plies th a t ch a n ges in wor k
r ou tin es a n d or ga n iza tion a l set-u p often a r e
over look ed, beca u se th ey a r e seldom in th e
focu s of th e r e gu la tor y bodies, a s well a s often
over look ed by th e m a n a ger s wh o sh a r e a n
en gin eer in g bia s tow a r ds m or e h a r d-cor e
tech n ica lities. Th is poten tia lly lea ds to a n
over estim a tion of tech n ica l ch a n ges.
Technological changes in the two
groups of industries
In th e 30 fir m s we h ave iden tified 268 a dopted
“tech n ologica l m ea su r es”. In th e follow in g
we w ill a n a lyse th ese in r ela tion to two
dim en sion s. F ir st, we a r e in ter ested in fin din g th e r ela tion between th e m edia (w a ter, a ir,
n oise, etc.) a n d th e ch a n ges ca r r ied ou t. Secon d, we a r e in ter ested in u n veilin g th e r ea son s given for th e ch a n ges, i.e. wh eth er th ey
r ela te to a ttitu des or a r e of a n econ om ic or
le ga l or igin . F u r th er m or e we tr y to u n der lin e
som e of th e differ en ces between th e two su bdivision s of en ter pr ises, th e electr opla tin g
fir m s a n d th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s.
In th e follow in g we w ill differ en tia te
between tech n ologica l ch a n ges m a de on fou r
differ en t m edia . Th e w a ter m ediu m sign ifies
th a t ch a n ges a r e ca u sed by pr oblem s r ela tin g
to disch a r ge of w a stew a ter. Air m ediu m sign ifies pr oblem s in r ela tion to a ir qu a lity
wh eth er in th e wor k in g en vir on m en t or in
th e en vir on m en t su r r ou n din g th e fir m . N oise
a lso cover s pr oblem s in th e wor k in g en vir on m en t a s well a s th e su r r ou n din gs of th e fir m .
Th e ca te gor y “m iscella n eou s” en com pa sses a
va r iety of pr oblem s, eith er r ela ted to sk in
a ller gy pr oblem s ca u sed by m a n ipu la tion of
differ en t m a ter ia ls or th e m or e gen er a l r isk
exposu r e con n ected w ith th e h a n dlin g of
ch em ica ls.
In Ta ble I we h ave ou tlin ed th e n u m ber s of
tech n ologica l ch a n ges m a de in r ela tion to th e
fou r ca te gor ies of m edia for th e two types of
in du str y.
In th e electr opla tin g fir m s we fou n d a n
aver a ge of 7.9 a dopted tech n ologica l m ea su r es, wh ile th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s r ea ch ed
a n aver a ge of 9.9 per fir m . Th u s, th e electr opla ter s h ave been less “in n ova tive” th a n th e
oth er fir m s w ith in th e ir on a n d m eta l in du str y. Th is is in a ccor da n ce w ith ou r gen er a l
im pr ession of th e r e gu la tor y effor ts of th e
pu blic a u th or ities. Alth ou gh th e
electr opla ter s a r e in ten sely r e gu la ted by th e
m u n icipa lities r e ga r din g th eir w a stew a ter
disch a r ges[22] th ey a r e a lso k n ow n to be
sm a ll fi r m s th a t a r e n ot in th e focu s of th e
la bou r in spector a tes’ wor k [23]. Mor eover, a s
sm a ll fi r m s th ey often do n ot h ave a h ea lth
a n d sa fety com m ittee, wh ich , a s m en tion ed
a bove, is a pa r t of th e occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d
h ea lth r e gu la tor y system . An oth er ca u se for
th e differ en ces between th e two gr ou ps of
fir m s cou ld be th e va r iety of pr ocesses u sed.
In th e electr opla tin g fir m s or depa r tm en ts
on ly a few differ en t pr ocesses a r e u sed, wh ile
pr ocesses su ch a s weldin g, cu ttin g, pa in tin g,
etc. a r e a lso u sed in th e oth er types of fir m s.
[7 ]
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
As is clea r ly seen fr om Ta ble I we fin d tech n ologica l ch a n ges w ith in a ll fou r types of
m edia , a lth ou gh m or e th a n h a lf of th em a r e
fou n d in con n ection w ith th e a ir m ediu m .
Th er e a r e m a jor differ en ces between th e two
gr ou ps of fi r m s. Th e electr opla ter s a r e r e gu la ted m ost in ten sively on th e w a ter m ediu m
a n d pa r tly on a ir a s well. Th e ir on a n d m eta l
fir m s a r e r e gu la ted a lm ost exclu sively in
con n ection w ith th e a ir m ediu m . Th ese differ en ces m ir r or th e va r iou s types of pr oblem s
en cou n ter ed in th e two gr ou ps of fi r m s. Th ese
differ en ces a r e obviou s wh en we look closer
in to th e two m edia , w a ter a n d a ir. Mea su r es
ca u sed by pr oblem s r ela ted to a ir a r e 6.4 per
ir on a n d m eta l fi r m a n d on ly 2.9 for electr opla ter s. Ta k in g th e toxicity of va pou r s fr om
electr opla tin g ba th s in to con sider a tion we
m u st con clu de th a t th e fi r m s belon gin g to th e
ca te gor y ir on a n d m eta l m u st owe th eir h igh
de gr ee of r e gu la tion to th e m u ltitu de of differ en t pr ocesses u sed in ea ch fi r m , pr ocesses
th a t a lm ost a ll a ffect th e a ir m ediu m . Wh en it
com es to th e w a ter m ediu m we fin d, a s
expected, th a t m or e m ea su r es h ave been
im plem en ted in th e electr opla tin g fir m s (3.4
per fir m ) wh ile th ese h ave been u n der r e gu la tor y pr essu r e in th e 1980s beca u se of pr oblem s w ith h eavy m eta l con ten t in slu dge fr om
m u n icipa l w a stew a ter tr ea tm en t pla n ts. Th e
ir on a n d m eta l fi r m s a lso h ave a va r iety of
pr ocesses cr ea tin g w a stew a ter. Am on g th ese
pick lin g, pa in tin g a n d w a ter -ba sed de gr ea sin g a r e k n ow n to con tr ibu te to h eavy m eta l
pollu tion of th e w a stew a ter. Th ese sou r ces
a r e sm a ller a n d th u s often n ot r e gu la ted or
r e gu la ted la ter th a n th e efflu en ts fr om electr opla tin g ba th s. Addition a lly, oth er w a stew a ter pr oblem s fr om th ese sou r ces a r e of
m in or con cer n wh ile th ey pr im a r ily r ela te to
th e disch a r ge of oil a n d gr ea se. Th u s th e
oth er ir on a n d m eta l fi r m s h ave fewer im plem en ted m ea su r es w ith r ela tion to th e w a ter
m ediu m (0.9 per fi r m ).
It is a lso con spicu ou s th a t on ly few m ea su r es a r e im plem en ted in r ela tion to n oise,
a lth ou gh th is topic is w idely discu ssed in th e
in du str y a n d con sider ed in th e u r ba n a n d
loca l pla n n in g.
The impact of dif ferent incentives
and forces
For ea ch of th e tech n ologica l m ea su r es we
h ave tr ied to iden tify th e r ea son beh in d its
a doption . Th e for ces a n d in cen tives a ffectin g
th e a doption of th ese m ea su r es ca n be m u n icipa l r e gu la tion , th e r e gu la tion of th e la bou r
in spector a te, th e a ttitu des a n d policies of th e
h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee, econ om ic con sider a tion s or m a n a gem en t a ttitu des. If th is
in for m a tion is seen in r ela tion to th e m edia
we r ea ch th e follow in g r esu lts for th e two
gr ou ps of in du str ies (Ta bles II a n d III). All in
a ll we see th a t r e gu la tion plays th e dom in a n t
r ole. Togeth er m u n icipa l en vir on m en ta l
r e gu la tion a n d la bou r in spector a tes ca u sed
73.7 a n d 78.2 per cen t of th e im plem en ted
m ea su r es r espectively in th e two gr ou ps,
wh er e th e m u n icipa lities r e gu la te m ost
a ctively in r ela tion to th e w a ter m ediu m a n d
th e la bou r in spector a te to th e a ir m ediu m .
E ven th ou gh r e gu la tor y a ctivities m ay be
over estim a ted, it m u st be con clu ded th a t th ey
play a r a th er dom in a n t r ole in th e im plem en ta tion of th ese m ea su r es. In con tr a st to th is
we m u st con clu de th a t econ om ic r ea son s a r e
m a r gin a l, even th ou gh th er e m igh t be a n
u n der estim a tion of older m ea su r es in stiga ted
th is w ay. E con om ic r ea son s do play a r ole in
th e a doption of m ea su r es in r ela tion to th e
w a ter m ediu m in th e electr opla tin g fir m s, bu t
th is is in lin e w ith th e expecta tion , wh ile it is
on e of th e few a r ea s in wh ich ch a r ges a n d
u ser fees a r e im posed.
Re gu la tion a n d econ om ic in cen tives a r e
both exter n a l for ces a ffectin g th e fir m a n d its
a doption of tech n ologica l m ea su r es, a n d in
both gr ou ps of in du str ies we fi n d th a t a ppr oxim a tely 80 per cen t of a ll m ea su r es a r e ca u sed
by exter n a l fa ctor s. In con tr a st to th ese exter n a l for ces, a ttitu des a n d h ea lth a n d sa fety
com m ittees a r e in ter n a l for ces em a n a tin g
fr om a ttitu des a n d com m itm en ts in m a n a ge-
Table I
Change s re late d to e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns divide d ac c o rding to trade and type o f
me dia
Electroplating (no. = 14)
Per cent
Number per firm
Iron manufacturers (no. = 16)
Per cent
No. per firm
Total (no. = 30)
[8 ]
Water
Air
Noise
M iscellaneous
Total
48.0
43.6
3.4
14.0
8.9
0.9
62.0
40.0
36.4
2.9
102.0
64.6
6.4
142.0
1.0
0.9
0.1
6.0
3.8
0.4
7.0
21.0
19.1
1.5
36.0
22.8
2.2
57.0
110.0
7.9
158.0
9.9
268.0
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
Table II
Bac kgro und fo r c hange s in the e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns in the e le c tro plating firms
split up into type o f me dia
Water
Air
M unicipality
Labour
inspectorate
Health and safety
committees
Economic
Attitudes
Total
32.5
(67.7)
1
(2.1)
–
–
6.5
(13.5)
8
(16.7)
48
(100)
3
(7.5)
26.5
(66.3)
–
–
7.5
(18.8)
40
(100)
–
–
–
–
1
(100)
3
(7.5)
Noise
–
–
1
(100)
M iscellaneous
–
–
17
(81)
1
(4.8)
1
(4.8)
2
(9.5)
21
(100)
45.5
(41.4)
4
(3.6)
7.5
(6.8)
17.5
(15.9)
110
(100)
35.5
(32.3)
–
–
Note:
Perc entages in parentheses
m en t a n d/ or in th e la bou r for ce a s well.
Th ese in ter n a l for ces play a sm a ller bu t con spicu ou s r ole, a m ou n tin g to 20 per cen t for
th e two gr ou ps of in du str ies r espectively.
Th is m ea n s th a t th e in ter n a l for ces a r e n ot
a s dom in a n t a s th e r e gu la tor y for ces bu t
defin itely of a m u ch h igh er im pa ct th a n
econ om ic for ces.
Th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee plays th e
m ost con spicu ou s r ole in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s gr ou p wh ile (m a n a gem en t) a ttitu des
a r e m ost con spicu ou s in th e electr opla tin g
gr ou p. Th is u n der lin es, a s a for em en tion ed,
th a t h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees exist a n d
a r e well-fu n ction in g in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er gr ou p bu t h a r dly in th e electr opla ter
gr ou p. Th e r ea son for th e differ en t pa tter n s
is pr oba bly two-fold. F ir st of a ll th e com m on
den om in a tor of th e two in ter n a l for ces is
a ttitu des. Ma n a gem en t a ttitu des a r e
expr essed th r ou gh m a n a gem en t decision s in
th e fir m s wh er e we do n ot fi n d a h ea lth a n d
sa fety com m ittee a n d th r ou gh th e com m ittee
wh en it exists a n d fu n ction s well. Th e differ en t pa tter n s between th e two gr ou ps of fir m s
a r e th e r esu lt of th e u se of h ea lth a n d sa fety
com m ittees a n d u ltim a tely of th e size of th e
fir m s. In th e la r ger fir m s th e a ttitu des
expr essed by th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees a r e a lso a n effect of wor k er pa r ticipa tion .
Bu t it is con spicu ou s th a t th e su m of th e two
for ces a r e a lm ost equ a l – on ly a little h igh er
Table III
Bac kgro und fo r c hange s in the e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns in the iro n manufac turing
firms split up into type o f me dia
Water
Air
Noise
M iscellaneous
M unicipality
Labour
inspectorate
Health and safety
committees
Economic
Attitudes
Total
12
(85.7)
–
–
–
–
0.5
(3.6)
1.5
(10.7)
14
(100)
76
(74.5)
16
(15.7)
–
–
5.5
(5.4)
102
(100)
1
(16.7)
5
(83.3)
–
–
–
–
3
(8.3)
22
(61.1)
8
(22.2)
–
–
20.5
(13.0)
103
(65.2)
24
(15.2)
4.5
(4.4%)
–
–
6
(100)
3
(8.3)
36
10
(6.3)
158
(100)
(99.9)
0.5
(0.3)
Note:
Perc entages in parentheses
[9 ]
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
[ 10 ]
in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s gr ou p (21.5 per
cen t) com pa r ed w ith th e electr opla ter s (19.5
per cen t). It seem s a s if m a n a gem en t a ttitu des
a ccou n t to a cer ta in de gr ee for a ll th e
in ter n a l for ces a n d th a t th e wor k er s’ expr ession s of th eir a ttitu des a r e on ly m in u scu le
com pa r ed w ith th is, bu t h er e we m u st bea r in
m in d th a t th e a ctu a l exten t of im plem en ted
m ea su r es is bigger in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s
th a n in th e electr opla ter s gr ou p. Alth ou gh
m a n a gem en t a ttitu des a r e tw ice a s com m on a
ca u se in th e electr opla ter s (1.25 per fi r m )
com pa r ed w ith th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s (0.6
per fir m ) th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee is
five tim es a s com m on a ca u se in th e ir on
m a n u fa ctu r er s (1.5 per fi r m ) th a n in th e electr opla ter s (0.3). Th er e is th en a cer ta in ju stifica tion for th e view poin t th a t wor k er pa r ticipa tion a ctively stim u la tes a n d en h a n ces th e
de gr ee of fir m s’ com m itm en t to im pr ove
wor k in g con dition s. Th is of cou r se is r a th er
obviou s wh en we ta k e in to con sider a tion a ll
th e a dver se im pa cts th a t pr odu ction ca n h ave
on th e wor k for ce. It is a lso obviou s fr om th e
two ta bles th a t th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees h ave been a ctive wh en it com es to “a ir ”
a n d “m iscella n eou s”. Th is sign ifies th a t exposu r e to va pou r s of, for exa m ple, solven ts a n d
gr ea ses ca u sin g sk in a ller gies, h a s been a
pr oblem th a t th e com m ittees h ave r ea cted on ,
wh ile pr oblem s r ela ted to w a stew a ter h ave
n ever been dea lt w ith by th e com m ittees.
In th e pr ecedin g section s we h ave ela bor a ted on th e a dopted tech n ologica l ch a n ges
a n d th e r ea son s given for th ese. On e qu estion
r em a in s to be ta k en in to con sider a tion ,
n a m ely th e r ela tion between th e two types of
pu blic r e gu la tion . In on ly on e in sta n ce of th e
268 a dopted tech n ologica l m ea su r es did we
fin d th a t th er e w a s a n over la p between th e
r e gu la tor y a ctivities of th e two bodies. Th is
h a ppen ed in a n electr opla tin g fir m wh ich w a s
a bou t to in sta ll a ir extr a ction on a n electr opla tin g ba th . In a ll th e oth er in sta n ces th e two
a u th or ities divided th e ca ses a n d th e a r ea s of
in ter est between ea ch oth er. Th e la bou r
in spector a tes a n d th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees h ave focu sed on r edu cin g th e im pa ct
of a ir bor n e pollu ta n ts in th e wor k pla ce by
ven tila tion or su bstitu tion of su bsta n ces. Th e
m u n icipa l a u th or ities h ave focu sed on th e
im pa ct on th e su r r ou n din g en vir on m en t
m a in ly th r ou gh im posin g sta n da r ds for th e
h eigh t of sm ok esta ck s, bu t in a few in sta n ces
th e im position of th ese sta n da r ds ca u sed th e
fir m s to su bstitu te th e pa in tin g to w a ter ba sed pa in tin g or h igh solid solven t-ba sed,
bu t th is su bstitu tion a ppa r en tly w a s n ot
n oted a n d a t lea st n ot r ea cted on by th e
la bou r in spector a te. Th e con clu sion m u st be
th a t a t lea st u p u n til 1991 th e two a u th or ities
ver y m u ch stu ck to th eir tr a dition a l ta sk a n d
division of la bou r w ith ou t even tr yin g to
iden tify a n d ela bor a te on r e gu la tion s th a t
cou ld h ave n e ga tive a s well a s positive effects
on th e oth er pa r ty’s a r ea s of ju r isdiction a n d
in ter est. Th is con clu sion is ver y m u ch in
a ccor da n ce w ith r esu lts fr om th e Da n ish fish
pr ocessin g in du str y[17]. If th is is a cor r ect
con clu sion th er e is n o dou bt th a t th e two
a u th or ities w ill en cou n ter in cr ea sin g pr oblem s con cu r r en t w ith th e esca la tin g im plem en ta tion of clea n er tech n ologies, bu t h opefu lly n ew a n d better pr a ctices of co-oper a tion
h ave developed in th e m ea n tim e.
Conclusion
In th is stu dy we h ave fou n d th a t th er e a r e
pr ofou n d differ en ces between th e two gr ou ps
of in du str ies – tr a dition a l ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s a n d electr opla tin g fir m s – in th e a m ou n t
a n d types of a ba tem en t tech n ologies a dopted.
Th e r ea son beh in d th is is th e differ en ces in
size a n d diver sity of pr odu ction pr ocesses
u sed in th e two gr ou ps of fir m s. For both
gr ou ps of fi r m s pu blic r e gu la tion is th e m ost
com m on in cen tive, w ith th e ver y obviou s
a ddition th a t th e m u n icipa lities a r e r e gu la tin g m a in ly on th e w a ter m ediu m wh ile th e
la bou r in spector a tes r e gu la te m a in ly on th e
a ir m ediu m , th e u se of sk in a ller gic ch em ica ls, a n d th e u se a n d la bellin g of ch em ica ls in
gen er a l. Most r em a r k a ble is th e m in u te
im pa ct th a t econ om ic con sider a tion plays,
u n der lin in g th a t m ost of th e a dver se im pa cts
of pr odu ction , wh eth er a ffectin g th e wor k for ce or th e en vir on m en t, a r e seen still a s
“fr ee goods” wh ich do n ot h ave a n y im pa ct on
th e pr ice-settin g of th e pr odu cts. Th e in ter n a lizin g of th e costs of pr odu ction by u sin g
ch a r ges a n d fees is n ot u sed to su ch a de gr ee
– except m aybe for w a stew a ter disch a r ges –
th a t econ om ic con sider a tion s ca n stim u la te
a n d pr om ote th ese types of tech n ologica l
ch a n ges. Su r pr isin gly, in ter n a l for ces, i.e.
a ttitu des of m a n a gem en t a n d em ployees, h ave
a m u ch m or e essen tia l in flu en ce on th e a doption of a ba tem en t m ea su r es th a n econ om ic
con sider a tion s. In ou r view th is fa ctor u n der lin es th e n ecessity of ta k in g “a ttitu des” in to
gr ea ter con sider a tion wh en policies a r e
design ed a n d im plem en ted.
References
1 F isch er, K. a n d Sch ot, J . (E ds), En viron m en ta l
S tra tegies for In d u str y, In ter n a tion a l Perspectiv es on R esea rch N eed s a n d Policy
Im plica tion s, Isla n d P r ess, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1993.
2 Un ited N a tion s, Ou r Com m on Fu tu re, N ew
Yor k , N Y, 1987.
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
3 Dielem a n n , H. a n d de Hoo, S., “Tow a r d a ta ilor m a de pr ocess of pollu tion pr even tion a n d
clea n er pr odu ction : r esu lts a n d im plica tion s of
th e P RISMA pr oject”, in F isch er, K. a n d Sch ot,
J . (E ds), En viron m en ta l S tra tegies for In d u str y.
In ter n a tion a l Perspectiv es on R esea rch N eed s
a n d Policy Im plica tion s, Isla n d P r ess, N ew
Yor k , N Y, 1993, pp. 245-76.
4 Style, R., “Ar e sta te law s m otiva tin g bu sin ess
to pu r su e pollu tion pr even tion ?”, Pollu tion
Prev en tion R eview , Win ter 1993/ 94, pp. 61-70.
5 Ste ger, U., “Th e gr een in g of th e boa r d r oom :
h ow Ger m a n com pa n ies a r e dea lin g w ith
en vir on m en ta l issu es”, in F isch er, K. a n d
Sch ot, J . (E ds), En viron m en ta l S tra tegies for
In d u str y: In ter n a tion a l Perspectiv es on
R esea rch N eed s a n d Policy Im plica tion s,
Isla n d P r ess, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1993, pp. 147-66.
6 Pea r ce, D., Ma r k a n dya , A. a n d Ba r bier, E .B.,
B lu epr in t for a Green Econ om y, E a r th sca n
P u blica tion s Ltd, Lon don , 1989.
7 Miljøm in ister iet (Min istr y of th e E n vir on m en t), M iljøin d sa tsen i 90'er n e, (En viron m en ta l
Effor ts in th e 1990s), Min istr y of th e E n vir on m en t, Copen h a gen , 1992.
8 OE CD, Econ om ic In stru m en ts for En viron m en ta l Protection , OE CD, P a r is, 1989.
9 E lk in gton , J . a n d Bu r k e, T., T h e Green Ca pita lists. How to M a k e M on ey a n d Protect th e En viron m en t, Victor Golla n cz, Lon don , 1989.
10 DeYou n g, R. a n d Ka pla n , S., “Con ser va tion
beh avior a n d th e str u ctu r e of sa tisfa ction s”,
J ou r n a l of En viron m en ta l S ystem s, Vol. 15
N o. 3, 1985, pp. 233-42.
11 Ca r r ol, A.B., “A th r ee-dim en sion a l con ceptu a l
m odel of cor por a te per for m a n ce”, A ca d em y of
M a n a gem en t R eview , Vol. 4 N o. 4, 1979,
pp. 497-505.
12 Wood, D.J ., “Cor por a te socia l per for m a n ce
r evisited”, A ca d em y of M a n a gem en t R eview ,
Vol. 16 N o. 4, 1991, pp. 691-718.
13 Ir w in , A. a n d Hooper, P.D., “Clea n tech n ology,
su ccessfu l in n ova tion a n d th e gr een in g of
in du str y: a ca se stu dy a n a lysis”, B u sin ess
S tra teg y a n d th e En viron m en t, Vol. 1 N o. 2,
1992, pp. 1-11.
14 Ash for d, N., “Un der sta n din g tech n ologica l
r espon ses of in du str ia l fi r m s to en vir on m en ta l
pr oblem s: im plica tion s for gover n m en t pol-
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
icy”, in F isch er, K. a n d Sch ot, J . (E ds), En viron m en ta l S tra tegies for In d u str y. In ter n a tion a l
Perspectiv es on R esea rch N eed s a n d Policy
Im plica tion s, Isla n d P r ess, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1993,
pp. 245-75.
Ch r isten sen , P., “Th e a doption of w a ter savin gs a n d pollu tion a ba tem en t tech n ologies in
th e fi sh pr ocessin g in du str y in Den m a r k – a n
eva lu a tion of differ en t in cen tives”, J ou r n a l of
Clea n T ech n olog y a n d En viron m en ta l S cien ces,
Vol. 4 N o. 4, 1994, pp. 1-17.
Ar bejdsm in ister iet (Min istr y of La bou r ) a n d
Miljøm in ister iet (Min istr y of th e E n vir on m en t), B eta en k n in g om virk som h ed ers m iljøtilsyn , (Fir m Com plia n ce M on itor in g), Beta en k n in g n r. 1193, Copen h a gen , Ma r ch 1990.
Ha n dber g, S., Ch r isten sen , P. a n d Geor g, S.,
“Th e Da n ish exper ien ce of clea n tech n ology:
co-optim izin g en vir on m en ta l pr otection a n d
wor k in g con dition s”, in Holden , J ., La n e, P.,
E den , S., Reeve, R., Collier, U. a n d An der son , K.
(E ds), Perspectiv es on th e En viron m en t, In ter d isciplin a r y R esea rch N etw ork on En viron m en t
a n d S ociety, Avebu r y Stu dies in Gr een
Resea r ch , Alder sh ot, 1993.
Ha n dber g, S. a n d Ch r isten sen , P., “Re gu la tion
of th e wor k in g con dition s a n d th e exter n a l
en vir on m en t in a clea n er tech n ology str a te gy
in th e fi sh pr ocessin g in du str y”, N ord isk
Ergon om i, N o. 3, 1992, pp. 10-12.
Ha n dber g, S., Work in g Con d ition s a n d Clea n er
T ech n ology in th e Fish Processin g In d u str y,
Th e Da n ish Wor k in g E n vir on m en t F u n d,
Copen h a gen , 1993.
Ch r isten sen , P., T h e Electropla tin g In d u str y.
R egu la tion a n d In n ova tion , P r oject VISIR,
Depa r tm en t of Developm en t a n d P la n n in g,
P u blica tion Ser ies N o. 87, Aa lbor g Un iver sity,
Aa lbor g, 1993.
Ch r isten sen , P., T h e Iron M a n u fa ctu r in g
In d u str y, R egu la tion a n d In n ova tion , P r oject
VISIR, Depa r tm en t of Developm en t a n d P la n n in g, P u blica tion Ser ies N o. 142, Aa lbor g
Un iver sity, Aa lbor g, 1995.
Ch r isten sen , P. a n d Geor g, S., “Th e pr om otion
of clea n er tech n ologies in th e electr opla tin g
in du str y in Den m a r k ”, 1995.
Ha n dber g, S., T h e L ab ou r In spectora tes’ R egu la tor y S tra tegies, 1995, (in pr epa r a tion ).
[ 11 ]
environmental protection and improved working
conditions
Per Christensen and Sussi Handberg De partme nt o f De ve lo pme nt and Planning,
Aalbo rg Unive rsity, Aalbo rg, De nmark
Presents fi ndings from an
investigation of the adoption
of different “ abatement”
technologies in 30 Danish
fi rms, encompassing traditional iron manufacturers and
electroplating fi rms. The
abatement measures were all
instigated to improve environmental or occupational safety
and health conditions. Reasons and incentives for these
measures were investigated.
Finds that there are big differences between the different types of fi rms. Moreover
public regulation is the most
common incentive for adopting abatement technologies.
Internal forces in the company – attitudes of management and employees – were
also found to have an essential infl uence, while economic
considerations play only a
minor role.
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [ 1996] 4 –1 1
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
[4 ]
Introduction
In r ecen t yea r s th er e h a s been a m a jor focu s
on th e tr a n sfor m a tion of in du str ia l pr odu ction tow a r ds a clea n er pr odu ction on a su sta in a ble ba sis[1]. Th e Br u n dtla n d Com m ission ’s r epor t Ou r Com m on Fu tu re[2] defin es
su sta in a bility ver y br oa dly, a n d en com pa sses
n ot on ly a r edu ction of th e en vir on m en ta l
in flu en ces on n a tu r e, bu t a lso a r edu ction of
a dver se im pa cts on people, n o m a tter if th e
im pa cts a r e wor k or leisu r e r ela ted.
On e of th e fou n da tion s for th e tr a n sfor m a tion of pr odu ction is th e im plem en ta tion of
differ en t tech n ologies wh ich a r e a ble to
r edu ce pollu tion a n d a dver se im pa cts fr om
th e tech n ologies in u se. Th e tr a n sfor m a tion
of pr odu ction is tr a dition a lly m a n a ged
th r ou gh th e im plem en ta tion of differ en t a ddon tech n ologies su ch a s ven tila tion , h igh er
sm ok esta ck s, tr ea tm en t of w a ste, a n d th e u se
of pr otective cloth in g a n d scr een in g/ sh ieldin g of m a ch in er y. Recen tly, th e u se of su bstitu tion of m a ter ia ls, clea n er tech n ologies a n d
ch a n ges in h a bits a n d or ga n iza tion a l r ou tin es h ave been a dopted, too. Th e la tter m ea su r es, wh ich a ll cou ld be in clu ded u n der th e
h ea din g “clea n er pr odu ction ” a r e a dva n ta geou s a s th ey pr even t pollu tion or oth er
a dver se im pa cts occu r r in g in th e fir st pla ce.
Th e for m er a dd-on tech n ologies a r e often
r ejected w ith r efer en ce to th e fa ct th a t
a dver se im pa cts a r e displa ced m er ely fr om
on e a r ea to a n oth er, or fr om on e m ediu m , e.g.
a ir, to a n oth er, e.g. w a ter.
Today th er e is con sider a ble a gr eem en t th a t
th e tr a n sfor m a tion of pr odu ction is best
im plem en ted th r ou gh th e a doption of clea n er
tech n ologies a n d a pr even tive a ppr oa ch ,
th er eby avoidin g a n y k in d of “pr oblem displa cem en t”. Ta k in g su sta in a bility ser iou sly
th u s im plies th a t en vir on m en ta l pr otection
sh ou ld ta k e wor k in g con dition s in to con sider a tion .
Ma n y cou n tr ies h ave a dopted en vir on m en ta l a cts wh ich a r e in stiga ted by a per spective
of in te gr a tion a n d pr even tion , u n der th e
m a in a im of stim u la tin g th e in tr odu ction of
clea n er tech n ologies[3,4]. However, in m ost
cou n tr ies th e tr a n sfor m a tion to clea n er tech n ologies is a slow pr ocess, a n d th er e a r e
m a n y in dica tion s th a t clea n er tech n ologies
h ave n ot yet exper ien ced a m a jor
br ea k th r ou gh in a n y br a n ch of in du str y[5].
The question of incentives
In r ela tion to th e qu estion of dissem in a tion of
clea n er tech n ologies, it h a s been qu estion ed
wh ich in cen tives m ost efficien tly a ffect th e
in du str y. Th e tr a dition a l “com m a n d a n d
con tr ol” r e gu la tion h a s been u n der a tta ck for
in efficien cy, a s it n eith er m otiva tes th e a doption of pr even tive m ea su r es n or pr om otes th e
m ost cost-effective solu tion s[6,7]. In stea d it
h a s been poin ted ou t th a t econ om ic in cen tives sh ou ld be fu r th er ed[8]. Besides, it h a s
r ecen tly been em ph a sized th a t in for m a tion ,
edu ca tion a n d a ttitu de bu ildin g in th em selves a r e cr u cia l in cen tives for a su sta in a ble
developm en t.
Differ en t for m s of socia l r e gu la tion , e.g.
occu pa tion a l h ea lth a n d sa fety a s well a s
en vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion , h ave been u n der ta k en in Den m a r k . Th ey fu n ction pr im a r ily
th r ou gh th e u se of differ en t for m s of com m a n d a n d con tr ol in str u m en ts, su ch a s per m its, or der s a n d a dvice a n d th r ou gh th e
im position of efflu en t lim its, tim e lim its,
in spection pr ocedu r es, etc. Th ese in cen tives
w ill be fu r th er ela bor a ted on in th e su bsequ en t section .
In Den m a r k sever a l econ om ic in str u m en ts
h ave been u sed. Th e cla ssica l econ om ic
in cen tive is th e ch a r ge, wh ich in th is con text
is m ea n t to in cr ea se th e pr ice for pr odu cts
wh ich h ave a n a dver se im pa ct on th e en vir on m en t, so th a t th e exter n a l costs a r e r eflected
in th e pr ices[6]. E n vir on m en ta l ch a r ges a r e
u sed on ly w ith in a few a r ea s (w a ste disposa l,
pa ck a gin g, CF C-ga ses). Addition a lly, a n u m ber of differ en t fees or “u ser ch a r ges” a r e
im posed on in du str ies a n d citizen s, e.g. for
h avin g r u bbish collected a n d disposed of, for
tr ea tm en t of w a stew a ter, etc. F u r th er m or e
th is “econ om ic a id” pr ogr a m m e, e.g. for th e
dissem in a tion of clea n er tech n ologies, is a lso
a decisive econ om ic in cen tive. Th e a for em en tion ed in cen tives a r e a ll a im in g a t im pr ovin g
th e en vir on m en t. Wh en it com es to wor k in g
con dition s on ly few econ om ic in cen tives a r e
in u se, pr im a r ily th r ou gh th e im position of
differ en t in su r a n ce pr em iu m s r ela ted to th e
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
r isk a ssocia ted w ith differ en t types of pr odu ction pr ocesses.
Attitu des a n d k n ow ledge a r e often seen a s
decisive fa ctor s wh en com pa n ies for m u la te
th eir ow n en vir on m en ta l policies or tr y to
stay a h ea d of th e r e gu la tor y dem a n ds
im posed on th em [9]. It is well k n ow n th a t
“h u m a n a ction ” is con str a in ed n ot on ly to
in ciden ces wh er e dem a n ds a r e im posed or
econ om ic ben efits ga in ed, bu t a lso th a t people
a ct beca u se it is m or a lly a ppea lin g to th em ,
beca u se th ey h ave a ffection s for th e su bject
a n d feel a com m itm en t[10]. E ven bu sin ess
beh aviou r is in flu en ced by a ttitu des a n d
k n ow ledge, a n d ca n th u s develop differ en t
de gr ees of r espon sibility tow a r ds society a n d
societa l n eeds[11,12]. Th e n u r tu r in g of en vir on m en ta l a ttitu des th r ou gh th e pr ecedin g
deca des, h a s defi n itely h a d a n im pa ct on
pr eviou s a n d com in g gen er a tion s of m a n a gem en t a n d la bou r.
On ly few in vestiga tion s h ave sou gh t to
cla r ify wh ich in cen tives h ave a ffected th e
clea n er tech n ologies a lr ea dy im plem en ted in
in du str y, bu t th ese a ccen tu a te th a t “com m a n d a n d con tr ol” r e gu la tion h a s h a d th e
decisive in fl u en ce[13-15].
Dif ferences in regulatory approach
In Den m a r k , a s in m ost oth er cou n tr ies, occu pa tion a l h ea lth a n d sa fety a n d en vir on m en ta l
r e gu la tion a r e distin ct sph er es of gover n m en t
policy. Th is division of la bou r h a s its dr aw ba ck s, a n d r ecen tly it h a s been discu ssed
wh eth er th is w a s a n optim a l solu tion . Th e
in te gr a tion of th e two a dm in istr a tive bodies
cou ld im pr ove per for m a n ce a n d ser vice a s
well a s cu r b som e of th e gr ow th in th e pu blic
sector [16]. F u r th er m or e, it becom es still m or e
obviou s th a t th er e is a n a ctu a l a s well a s
poten tia l over la p of a ctivities in th e r e gu la tor y bodies[17].
Th e two differ en t k in ds of socia l r e gu la tion
a r e or ga n ized in two differ en t a dm in istr a tive
str u ctu r es. Occu pa tion a l h ea lth a n d sa fety
r e gu la tion is execu ted by th e Min istr y of
La bou r, a n d is th u s a gover n m en ta l a u th or ity,
wh ile en vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion is u n der
loca l a n d r e gion a l a u th or ities a n d execu ted
by th eir a dm in istr a tive bodies. F u r th er m or e,
th e r e gu la tor y settin g differ s w idely between
th e two sph er es. Le gisla tion , r e gu la tor y
m ea n s, en for cem en t a n d th e differ en t pa r ties
involved in th e im plem en ta tion of th e r e gu la tion a r e so differ en t th a t we in fa ct h ave two
differ en t “r e gu la tor y pa r a digm s”. Let u s
br iefly ou tlin e th e fu n da m en ta l differ en ces.
E n vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion is a lm ost exclu sively ba sed on com m a n d a n d con tr ol pr ocedu r es su ch a s pollu tion per m its (pr odu ction
a ppr ova ls a n d w a stew a ter licen ces) a n d
or der s. Th e E n vir on m en ta l P r otection Act is
a fr a m ewor k law, a n d per m its or or der s a r e
issu ed by th e r e gion a l or m u n icipa l a u th or ities. N or m a lly th ey specify lim its a n d sta n da r ds in th e per m its. To a cer ta in de gr ee th e
lim its a r e fi xed on th e ba sis of gu idelin es
esta blish ed by th e E nvir on m en ta l P r otection
Agen cy, bu t th e loca l a u th or ities h ave discr etion a r y power to give du e con sider a tion to
econ om ic a n d tech n ologica l ca pa bilities a s
well a s th e loca l ecologica l con dition s. Th e
en vir on m en ta l r e gu la tion is in flu en ced by
gover n m en t, loca l a u th or ities a n d th e in du str y a s well a s a m u ltitu de of citizen gr ou ps,
en vir on m en ta l or ga n iza tion s a n d n eigh bou r s
wh ich a ll h ave th e r igh t to a ppea l th e issu in g
of per m its, a n d in a ddition th ey h ave fr ee
a ccess to a ll in for m a tion on com plia n ce a n d
ca n even r epor t viola tion s to th e loca l police.
Th e Occu pa tion a l Hea lth a n d Sa fety Act is
a lso a fr a m ewor k law, bu t th e r e gu la tion is
execu ted by specia l gover n m en t la bou r
in spector a tes wh o m on itor fir m com plia n ce
w ith n a tion a l sta n da r ds set by th e Min istr y of
La bou r in join t colla bor a tion w ith th e pa r ties
on th e la bou r m a r k et. Besides com m a n d a n d
con tr ol th e r e gu la tion is a lso ba sed on a pa r ticipa tor y m odel. In fir m s w ith m or e th a n ten
em ployees it is m a n da tor y th a t a join t m a n a gem en t-la bou r h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee
is cr ea ted. Th is com m ittee is r espon sible for
a dm in ister in g th e h ea lth a n d sa fety law,
wh ile th e la bou r in spector a tes’ r ole is to
en for ce th e law a n d a dvise th e fir m s of h ow
best to com ply w ith it. Th e pa r ties on th e
la bou r m a r k et h ave big dir ect in flu en ce on
decision s on h ow occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d
h ea lth pr oblem s a r e to be r e gu la ted, bu t oth er
sta k eh older s a r e n ot ta k in g pa r t in th e decision m a k in g.
Beca u se of th e differ en ces in th e a dm in istr a tive system (cen tr a lized/ decen tr a lized)
a n d th e pa r ticipa tion of a w ide gr ou p of sta k eh older s in en vir on m en ta l pr otection it is
pr oba bly u n lik ely th a t th e two a r ea s of pu blic
policy ca n be fu sed. Th is w a s a lso th e r esu lt
of th e politica l deba tes in 1991 wh ich con clu ded th a t colla bor a tion fr om th e bottom ,
w ith better exch a n ge of in for m a tion , join t
in spection of fir m s, etc., sh ou ld be tr ied ou t
fir st.
Besides cu r bin g th e gr ow th in pu blic spen din g a n d im pr ovin g th e ser vice, a n oth er con sider a tion h a s r ecen tly em er ged th a t poin ts
to th e n ecessity of co-oper a tion between th e
two a dm in istr a tive bodies. Th e developm en t
a n d dissem in a tion of clea n er tech n ologies
h ave been a dopted r ecen tly a s on e of th e m a in
con cer n s of th e en vir on m en ta l pr otection
a u th or ities a n d a r e n ow cor n er ston es in th e
n ew E n vir on m en ta l P r otection Act. With th is
[5 ]
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
n ew str a te gy th e en vir on m en ta l a u th or ities
h ave m oved th eir r e gu la tor y effor ts fr om
pollu tion con tr ol to in flu en cin g th e tech n ologies u sed in th e fi r m , both wh en it com es to
th e specific pr odu ction tech n ologies a s well
a s wor k r ou tin es, th e u se of r aw m a ter ia ls,
a n d so on . Ch a n ges of th e pr odu ction pr ocess
w ill pr oba bly often h ave a n a dver se im pa ct on
th e wor k in g en vir on m en t, a n d en vir on m en ta l
pr otection is th er eby in ter m in gled w ith occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth con sider a tion s.
Th is is a ccen tu a ted by th e la bou r in spector a tes’ focu s on pr odu ction pr ocesses wh ich
a lso em ph a size su bstitu tion of h a za r dou s
m a ter ia ls. In th e lon g r u n th is a t lea st n ecessita tes im pr oved a n d in cr ea sed co-oper a tion
between th e two r e gu la tor y bodies.
Recen tly, in vestiga tion s h ave been m a de
con cer n in g th e con n ection s between envir on m en ta l pr otection a n d occu pa tion a l h ea lth
a n d sa fety[16-18]. In a ll ca ses it w a s sh ow n
th a t in th e a ctu a l r e gu la tion th er e w a s ver y
little over la p between th e r e gu la tion s m a de
by th e two a u th or ities. Wh en la r ger gr ou ps of
in du str ies wer e exa m in ed it w a s con clu ded
th a t th e two a u th or ities a lm ost exclu sively
k ept to th eir ow n a r ea of r e gu la tion , a n d ver y
seldom u sed th e existin g ch a n n els of co-oper a tion to com m en t on a n d in fl u en ce ea ch oth er s’ r e gu la tion . Con tr a r y to th is it h a s been
dem on str a ted th a t som e of th e specific
clea n er tech n ologies developed h ave a n
im pa ct on occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth [19].
Th e r ea son wh y th is con n ection does n ot
sh ow in th e br oa der in vestiga tion s is pr oba bly th a t clea n er tech n ologies h ave n ot yet
been dissem in a ted to la r ger gr ou ps of in du str ies[5]. At lea st in th e lon g r u n it m u st be
expected th a t co-oper a tion w ill in cr ea se con com ita n t w ith th e in cr ea sin g a doption of
clea n er pr odu ction m ea su r es in in du str y.
Methods
In th is in vestiga tion we h ave exa m in ed
closely th e a doption of differ en t “a ba tem en t
tech n ologies” in a gr ou p of 30 Da n ish fi r m s.
Th e fir m s a ll belon g to th e ir on a n d m eta l
in du str y. Fou r teen of th e fi r m s a r e electr opla ter s a n d th e r em a in in g 16 fir m s a pply a
w ide va r iety of tr a dition a l m a n u fa ctu r in g
tech n ologies pr ocesses su ch a s weldin g, cu ttin g, sa n dbla stin g, de gr ea sin g, pick lin g,
pa in tin g.
Th e electr opla tin g fir m s a r e gen er a lly
sm a ll w ith typica lly two to 200 em ployees.
Ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s w ith a n in -h ou se electr opla tin g depa r tm en t, wh ich we h ave in clu ded
in th e electr opla tin g ca te gor y, a r e la r ger in
gen er a l, in th is in vestiga tion w ith u p to 200
em ployees a n d a tu r n over of u p to 250 m illion
[6 ]
Da n ish k r on er. F ir m s execu tin g on ly electr opla tin g h ave n or m a lly on ly two to 20 em ployees a n d a tu r n over of on ly a few m illion
Da n ish k r on er. Th e pr ocesses u sed in typica l
electr opla tin g fir m s or depa r tm en ts a r e
gr in din g a n d polish in g of item s, de gr ea sin g
a n d electr opla tin g[20].
Th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s a r e a lso sm a ll,
a lth ou gh a few fir m s a r e la r ger th a n th e tr a dition a l defin ition of sm a ll a n d m ediu m sized
in du str ies. Th e sizes of th e in vestiga ted fi r m s
a r e fr om six to 650 em ployees a n d a tu r n over
of u p to 700 m illion Da n ish k r on er. Th is su bdivision of fir m s com pr ises a w ide va r iety of
fir m s m a n u fa ctu r in g ir on or differ en t sor ts of
sta in less steel u sin g pr ocesses lik e weldin g,
cu ttin g, pu n ch in g, sa n dbla stin g, gr in din g,
pick lin g, de gr ea sin g, pa in tin g, a n d som e
tim es even electr opla tin g. Th e su bdivision
in to two gr ou ps is th u s n ot clea r -cu t bu t is
m a de w ith r efer en ce to th e fir m ’s m a in a ctivities[21].
Th e in vestiga tion w a s ca r r ied ou t du r in g
1991/ 1992. Th e 30 fir m s a r e a ll loca ted in th e
n or th er n pa r t of J u tla n d. For ea ch fir m we
h ave collected qu a lita tive da ta fr om th r ee
differ en t sou r ces:
1
pla n t in spection a n d a n open -en ded in ter view w ith th e m a n a ger ;
2
a r eview of a ll m u n icipa l docu m en ts
r e ga r din g th e fir m s’ per m its, em ission s,
in spection r epor ts, m in u tes;
3
a r eview of th e la bou r in spector a tes’
docu m en ts r e ga r din g or der s, in spection
r epor ts, m in u tes.
Da ta wer e collected sta r tin g fr om 1974, or
com m en cem en t of pr odu ction , to th e en d of
1991. Th e fir m s wer e loca ted in ten differ en t
m u n icipa lities a n d cover ed by th r ee differ en t
la bou r in spector a tes.
Th e a ba tem en t m ea su r es we look ed in to
wer e a ll in stiga ted to im pr ove en vir on m en ta l
or occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth con dition s.
For a ll iden tifi ed a ba tem en t m ea su r es we
h ave tr ied to ou tlin e a pictu r e of th e r ea son
beh in d th eir a doption . We cla ssify th e r ea son s or in cen tives to h ave been a ttitu des or of
a n econ om ic or le ga l ch a r a cter. Th u s, we a r e
a ble to give a m or e deta iled a ccou n t of th e
for ces sh a pin g th e fir m s’ en vir on m en ta l a n d
occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d h ea lth per for m a n ce.
With a cr oss-r efer en cin g m eth odology lik e
th is we h ope to be a ble to dr aw a m or e
deta iled pictu r e of th e esta blish ed m ea su r es
a n d th e r ea son s for th eir a doption . To r ely on
in ter view s on ly w ith m a n a ger s or on per u sa l
of a r ch ives, wh eth er a t th e m u n icipa lities or
th e la bou r in spector a tes, wou ld n ot be su fficien t. Often th e m a n a ger s r ecou n t for th e
a dopted m ea su r es in a on e-sided w ay, over estim a tin g th eir ow n in fl u en ce on th e cou r se of
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
a ction . Con tr a r y to th is th e a ccou n ts in th e
a r ch ives ten d to em ph a size th e in fl u en ce of
th e r e gu la tor y bodies. In ea ch sin gle in sta n ce
wh er e we h ave iden tifi ed a tech n ologica l
ch a n ge, we tr y to give a m or e a dequ a te
a ccou n t of th e a ctu a l cou r se of even ts by payin g du e r espect to th e differ en t a ccou n ts of
th e even t in qu estion .
An in vestiga tion lik e th is a lso h a s som e
in h er en t wea k n esses. Two th in gs a r e wor th
m en tion in g:
1 n ot a ll r eleva n t tech n ologica l ch a n ges in
th e fir m s h ave been iden tified;
2 th e ch a r a cter of th e tech n ologica l ch a n ges
a r e pr oba bly bia sed w ith r e ga r d to th e
tech n ica l ch a r a cter of th e ch a n ges.
N ot a ll tech n ologica l ch a n ges m a de fr om
1974, or com m en cem en t of pr odu ction , h ave
been iden tified. Th e r ea son is th a t deta iled
k n ow ledge of th is is n ot ava ila ble. Th e
descr iption s in th e a r ch ives of th e m u n icipa lities a n d th e la bou r in spector a tes give m a in ly
a pictu r e of ch a n ges in wh ich th ese a u th or ities h ave played a r ole, bu t th ey pr oba bly do it
w ith th e sa m e va lidity in a ll th e yea r s fr om
1974 u n til n ow. Th e in for m a tion we ga th er
fr om th e m a n a ger s in th e fir m often in clu des
tech n ologica l ch a n ges n ot m en tion ed in th e
a r ch ives, bu t th is in for m a tion is bia sed w ith
r e ga r d to th e tim e h or izon . Ma n a ger s typica lly h a d n ot been em ployed by th e fi r m sin ce
1974 or com m en cem en t of pr odu ction , a n d
th er efor e obviou sly do n ot h ave in for m a tion
of a ll pr ecedin g ch a n ges. Besides, m ost of th e
m a n a ger s h ave a lim ited m em or y of th ese
ch a n ges. Th e la ter th e ch a n ges th e m or e r elia ble th eir k n ow ledge or m em or y of th em .
Th is differ en ce in m em or y of th e differ en t
sou r ces of in for m a tion w ill lea d pr oba bly to
a n over estim a tion of th e le ga l sou r ces of
in flu en ce on tech n ologica l ch a n ge. As a con sequ en ce of th e differ en ce in m em or y, fu tu r e
investiga tion s sh ou ld focu s on ly on sh or ter
spa n of yea r s (e.g. th r ee to five yea r s) to m a k e
su r e th a t n o over estim a tion of le ga l sou r ces
ta k es pla ce.
A secon d wea k n ess con cer n s th e ch a r a cter
of tech n ologica l ch a n ges ta k en in to con sider a tion . Tech n ologica l ch a n ges a lso in clu de
ch a n ges in th e or ga n iza tion a l con text a n d in
k n ow ledge r ela ted to th e tech n ology. Most
ch a n ges iden tifi ed a r e of a m or e tech n ica l
n a tu r e. Th is im plies th a t ch a n ges in wor k
r ou tin es a n d or ga n iza tion a l set-u p often a r e
over look ed, beca u se th ey a r e seldom in th e
focu s of th e r e gu la tor y bodies, a s well a s often
over look ed by th e m a n a ger s wh o sh a r e a n
en gin eer in g bia s tow a r ds m or e h a r d-cor e
tech n ica lities. Th is poten tia lly lea ds to a n
over estim a tion of tech n ica l ch a n ges.
Technological changes in the two
groups of industries
In th e 30 fir m s we h ave iden tified 268 a dopted
“tech n ologica l m ea su r es”. In th e follow in g
we w ill a n a lyse th ese in r ela tion to two
dim en sion s. F ir st, we a r e in ter ested in fin din g th e r ela tion between th e m edia (w a ter, a ir,
n oise, etc.) a n d th e ch a n ges ca r r ied ou t. Secon d, we a r e in ter ested in u n veilin g th e r ea son s given for th e ch a n ges, i.e. wh eth er th ey
r ela te to a ttitu des or a r e of a n econ om ic or
le ga l or igin . F u r th er m or e we tr y to u n der lin e
som e of th e differ en ces between th e two su bdivision s of en ter pr ises, th e electr opla tin g
fir m s a n d th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s.
In th e follow in g we w ill differ en tia te
between tech n ologica l ch a n ges m a de on fou r
differ en t m edia . Th e w a ter m ediu m sign ifies
th a t ch a n ges a r e ca u sed by pr oblem s r ela tin g
to disch a r ge of w a stew a ter. Air m ediu m sign ifies pr oblem s in r ela tion to a ir qu a lity
wh eth er in th e wor k in g en vir on m en t or in
th e en vir on m en t su r r ou n din g th e fir m . N oise
a lso cover s pr oblem s in th e wor k in g en vir on m en t a s well a s th e su r r ou n din gs of th e fir m .
Th e ca te gor y “m iscella n eou s” en com pa sses a
va r iety of pr oblem s, eith er r ela ted to sk in
a ller gy pr oblem s ca u sed by m a n ipu la tion of
differ en t m a ter ia ls or th e m or e gen er a l r isk
exposu r e con n ected w ith th e h a n dlin g of
ch em ica ls.
In Ta ble I we h ave ou tlin ed th e n u m ber s of
tech n ologica l ch a n ges m a de in r ela tion to th e
fou r ca te gor ies of m edia for th e two types of
in du str y.
In th e electr opla tin g fir m s we fou n d a n
aver a ge of 7.9 a dopted tech n ologica l m ea su r es, wh ile th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s r ea ch ed
a n aver a ge of 9.9 per fir m . Th u s, th e electr opla ter s h ave been less “in n ova tive” th a n th e
oth er fir m s w ith in th e ir on a n d m eta l in du str y. Th is is in a ccor da n ce w ith ou r gen er a l
im pr ession of th e r e gu la tor y effor ts of th e
pu blic a u th or ities. Alth ou gh th e
electr opla ter s a r e in ten sely r e gu la ted by th e
m u n icipa lities r e ga r din g th eir w a stew a ter
disch a r ges[22] th ey a r e a lso k n ow n to be
sm a ll fi r m s th a t a r e n ot in th e focu s of th e
la bou r in spector a tes’ wor k [23]. Mor eover, a s
sm a ll fi r m s th ey often do n ot h ave a h ea lth
a n d sa fety com m ittee, wh ich , a s m en tion ed
a bove, is a pa r t of th e occu pa tion a l sa fety a n d
h ea lth r e gu la tor y system . An oth er ca u se for
th e differ en ces between th e two gr ou ps of
fir m s cou ld be th e va r iety of pr ocesses u sed.
In th e electr opla tin g fir m s or depa r tm en ts
on ly a few differ en t pr ocesses a r e u sed, wh ile
pr ocesses su ch a s weldin g, cu ttin g, pa in tin g,
etc. a r e a lso u sed in th e oth er types of fir m s.
[7 ]
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
As is clea r ly seen fr om Ta ble I we fin d tech n ologica l ch a n ges w ith in a ll fou r types of
m edia , a lth ou gh m or e th a n h a lf of th em a r e
fou n d in con n ection w ith th e a ir m ediu m .
Th er e a r e m a jor differ en ces between th e two
gr ou ps of fi r m s. Th e electr opla ter s a r e r e gu la ted m ost in ten sively on th e w a ter m ediu m
a n d pa r tly on a ir a s well. Th e ir on a n d m eta l
fir m s a r e r e gu la ted a lm ost exclu sively in
con n ection w ith th e a ir m ediu m . Th ese differ en ces m ir r or th e va r iou s types of pr oblem s
en cou n ter ed in th e two gr ou ps of fi r m s. Th ese
differ en ces a r e obviou s wh en we look closer
in to th e two m edia , w a ter a n d a ir. Mea su r es
ca u sed by pr oblem s r ela ted to a ir a r e 6.4 per
ir on a n d m eta l fi r m a n d on ly 2.9 for electr opla ter s. Ta k in g th e toxicity of va pou r s fr om
electr opla tin g ba th s in to con sider a tion we
m u st con clu de th a t th e fi r m s belon gin g to th e
ca te gor y ir on a n d m eta l m u st owe th eir h igh
de gr ee of r e gu la tion to th e m u ltitu de of differ en t pr ocesses u sed in ea ch fi r m , pr ocesses
th a t a lm ost a ll a ffect th e a ir m ediu m . Wh en it
com es to th e w a ter m ediu m we fin d, a s
expected, th a t m or e m ea su r es h ave been
im plem en ted in th e electr opla tin g fir m s (3.4
per fir m ) wh ile th ese h ave been u n der r e gu la tor y pr essu r e in th e 1980s beca u se of pr oblem s w ith h eavy m eta l con ten t in slu dge fr om
m u n icipa l w a stew a ter tr ea tm en t pla n ts. Th e
ir on a n d m eta l fi r m s a lso h ave a va r iety of
pr ocesses cr ea tin g w a stew a ter. Am on g th ese
pick lin g, pa in tin g a n d w a ter -ba sed de gr ea sin g a r e k n ow n to con tr ibu te to h eavy m eta l
pollu tion of th e w a stew a ter. Th ese sou r ces
a r e sm a ller a n d th u s often n ot r e gu la ted or
r e gu la ted la ter th a n th e efflu en ts fr om electr opla tin g ba th s. Addition a lly, oth er w a stew a ter pr oblem s fr om th ese sou r ces a r e of
m in or con cer n wh ile th ey pr im a r ily r ela te to
th e disch a r ge of oil a n d gr ea se. Th u s th e
oth er ir on a n d m eta l fi r m s h ave fewer im plem en ted m ea su r es w ith r ela tion to th e w a ter
m ediu m (0.9 per fi r m ).
It is a lso con spicu ou s th a t on ly few m ea su r es a r e im plem en ted in r ela tion to n oise,
a lth ou gh th is topic is w idely discu ssed in th e
in du str y a n d con sider ed in th e u r ba n a n d
loca l pla n n in g.
The impact of dif ferent incentives
and forces
For ea ch of th e tech n ologica l m ea su r es we
h ave tr ied to iden tify th e r ea son beh in d its
a doption . Th e for ces a n d in cen tives a ffectin g
th e a doption of th ese m ea su r es ca n be m u n icipa l r e gu la tion , th e r e gu la tion of th e la bou r
in spector a te, th e a ttitu des a n d policies of th e
h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee, econ om ic con sider a tion s or m a n a gem en t a ttitu des. If th is
in for m a tion is seen in r ela tion to th e m edia
we r ea ch th e follow in g r esu lts for th e two
gr ou ps of in du str ies (Ta bles II a n d III). All in
a ll we see th a t r e gu la tion plays th e dom in a n t
r ole. Togeth er m u n icipa l en vir on m en ta l
r e gu la tion a n d la bou r in spector a tes ca u sed
73.7 a n d 78.2 per cen t of th e im plem en ted
m ea su r es r espectively in th e two gr ou ps,
wh er e th e m u n icipa lities r e gu la te m ost
a ctively in r ela tion to th e w a ter m ediu m a n d
th e la bou r in spector a te to th e a ir m ediu m .
E ven th ou gh r e gu la tor y a ctivities m ay be
over estim a ted, it m u st be con clu ded th a t th ey
play a r a th er dom in a n t r ole in th e im plem en ta tion of th ese m ea su r es. In con tr a st to th is
we m u st con clu de th a t econ om ic r ea son s a r e
m a r gin a l, even th ou gh th er e m igh t be a n
u n der estim a tion of older m ea su r es in stiga ted
th is w ay. E con om ic r ea son s do play a r ole in
th e a doption of m ea su r es in r ela tion to th e
w a ter m ediu m in th e electr opla tin g fir m s, bu t
th is is in lin e w ith th e expecta tion , wh ile it is
on e of th e few a r ea s in wh ich ch a r ges a n d
u ser fees a r e im posed.
Re gu la tion a n d econ om ic in cen tives a r e
both exter n a l for ces a ffectin g th e fir m a n d its
a doption of tech n ologica l m ea su r es, a n d in
both gr ou ps of in du str ies we fi n d th a t a ppr oxim a tely 80 per cen t of a ll m ea su r es a r e ca u sed
by exter n a l fa ctor s. In con tr a st to th ese exter n a l for ces, a ttitu des a n d h ea lth a n d sa fety
com m ittees a r e in ter n a l for ces em a n a tin g
fr om a ttitu des a n d com m itm en ts in m a n a ge-
Table I
Change s re late d to e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns divide d ac c o rding to trade and type o f
me dia
Electroplating (no. = 14)
Per cent
Number per firm
Iron manufacturers (no. = 16)
Per cent
No. per firm
Total (no. = 30)
[8 ]
Water
Air
Noise
M iscellaneous
Total
48.0
43.6
3.4
14.0
8.9
0.9
62.0
40.0
36.4
2.9
102.0
64.6
6.4
142.0
1.0
0.9
0.1
6.0
3.8
0.4
7.0
21.0
19.1
1.5
36.0
22.8
2.2
57.0
110.0
7.9
158.0
9.9
268.0
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
Table II
Bac kgro und fo r c hange s in the e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns in the e le c tro plating firms
split up into type o f me dia
Water
Air
M unicipality
Labour
inspectorate
Health and safety
committees
Economic
Attitudes
Total
32.5
(67.7)
1
(2.1)
–
–
6.5
(13.5)
8
(16.7)
48
(100)
3
(7.5)
26.5
(66.3)
–
–
7.5
(18.8)
40
(100)
–
–
–
–
1
(100)
3
(7.5)
Noise
–
–
1
(100)
M iscellaneous
–
–
17
(81)
1
(4.8)
1
(4.8)
2
(9.5)
21
(100)
45.5
(41.4)
4
(3.6)
7.5
(6.8)
17.5
(15.9)
110
(100)
35.5
(32.3)
–
–
Note:
Perc entages in parentheses
m en t a n d/ or in th e la bou r for ce a s well.
Th ese in ter n a l for ces play a sm a ller bu t con spicu ou s r ole, a m ou n tin g to 20 per cen t for
th e two gr ou ps of in du str ies r espectively.
Th is m ea n s th a t th e in ter n a l for ces a r e n ot
a s dom in a n t a s th e r e gu la tor y for ces bu t
defin itely of a m u ch h igh er im pa ct th a n
econ om ic for ces.
Th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee plays th e
m ost con spicu ou s r ole in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s gr ou p wh ile (m a n a gem en t) a ttitu des
a r e m ost con spicu ou s in th e electr opla tin g
gr ou p. Th is u n der lin es, a s a for em en tion ed,
th a t h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees exist a n d
a r e well-fu n ction in g in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er gr ou p bu t h a r dly in th e electr opla ter
gr ou p. Th e r ea son for th e differ en t pa tter n s
is pr oba bly two-fold. F ir st of a ll th e com m on
den om in a tor of th e two in ter n a l for ces is
a ttitu des. Ma n a gem en t a ttitu des a r e
expr essed th r ou gh m a n a gem en t decision s in
th e fir m s wh er e we do n ot fi n d a h ea lth a n d
sa fety com m ittee a n d th r ou gh th e com m ittee
wh en it exists a n d fu n ction s well. Th e differ en t pa tter n s between th e two gr ou ps of fir m s
a r e th e r esu lt of th e u se of h ea lth a n d sa fety
com m ittees a n d u ltim a tely of th e size of th e
fir m s. In th e la r ger fir m s th e a ttitu des
expr essed by th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees a r e a lso a n effect of wor k er pa r ticipa tion .
Bu t it is con spicu ou s th a t th e su m of th e two
for ces a r e a lm ost equ a l – on ly a little h igh er
Table III
Bac kgro und fo r c hange s in the e nviro nme nt and wo rking c o nditio ns in the iro n manufac turing
firms split up into type o f me dia
Water
Air
Noise
M iscellaneous
M unicipality
Labour
inspectorate
Health and safety
committees
Economic
Attitudes
Total
12
(85.7)
–
–
–
–
0.5
(3.6)
1.5
(10.7)
14
(100)
76
(74.5)
16
(15.7)
–
–
5.5
(5.4)
102
(100)
1
(16.7)
5
(83.3)
–
–
–
–
3
(8.3)
22
(61.1)
8
(22.2)
–
–
20.5
(13.0)
103
(65.2)
24
(15.2)
4.5
(4.4%)
–
–
6
(100)
3
(8.3)
36
10
(6.3)
158
(100)
(99.9)
0.5
(0.3)
Note:
Perc entages in parentheses
[9 ]
Pe r Christe nse n
and Sussi Handbe rg
Fo rc e s and inc e ntive s in the
pro mo tio n o f e nviro nme ntal
pro te c tio n and impro ve d
wo rking c o nditio ns
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
7 / 3 [1 9 9 6 ] 4 –1 1
[ 10 ]
in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s gr ou p (21.5 per
cen t) com pa r ed w ith th e electr opla ter s (19.5
per cen t). It seem s a s if m a n a gem en t a ttitu des
a ccou n t to a cer ta in de gr ee for a ll th e
in ter n a l for ces a n d th a t th e wor k er s’ expr ession s of th eir a ttitu des a r e on ly m in u scu le
com pa r ed w ith th is, bu t h er e we m u st bea r in
m in d th a t th e a ctu a l exten t of im plem en ted
m ea su r es is bigger in th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s
th a n in th e electr opla ter s gr ou p. Alth ou gh
m a n a gem en t a ttitu des a r e tw ice a s com m on a
ca u se in th e electr opla ter s (1.25 per fi r m )
com pa r ed w ith th e ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s (0.6
per fir m ) th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittee is
five tim es a s com m on a ca u se in th e ir on
m a n u fa ctu r er s (1.5 per fi r m ) th a n in th e electr opla ter s (0.3). Th er e is th en a cer ta in ju stifica tion for th e view poin t th a t wor k er pa r ticipa tion a ctively stim u la tes a n d en h a n ces th e
de gr ee of fir m s’ com m itm en t to im pr ove
wor k in g con dition s. Th is of cou r se is r a th er
obviou s wh en we ta k e in to con sider a tion a ll
th e a dver se im pa cts th a t pr odu ction ca n h ave
on th e wor k for ce. It is a lso obviou s fr om th e
two ta bles th a t th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees h ave been a ctive wh en it com es to “a ir ”
a n d “m iscella n eou s”. Th is sign ifies th a t exposu r e to va pou r s of, for exa m ple, solven ts a n d
gr ea ses ca u sin g sk in a ller gies, h a s been a
pr oblem th a t th e com m ittees h ave r ea cted on ,
wh ile pr oblem s r ela ted to w a stew a ter h ave
n ever been dea lt w ith by th e com m ittees.
In th e pr ecedin g section s we h ave ela bor a ted on th e a dopted tech n ologica l ch a n ges
a n d th e r ea son s given for th ese. On e qu estion
r em a in s to be ta k en in to con sider a tion ,
n a m ely th e r ela tion between th e two types of
pu blic r e gu la tion . In on ly on e in sta n ce of th e
268 a dopted tech n ologica l m ea su r es did we
fin d th a t th er e w a s a n over la p between th e
r e gu la tor y a ctivities of th e two bodies. Th is
h a ppen ed in a n electr opla tin g fir m wh ich w a s
a bou t to in sta ll a ir extr a ction on a n electr opla tin g ba th . In a ll th e oth er in sta n ces th e two
a u th or ities divided th e ca ses a n d th e a r ea s of
in ter est between ea ch oth er. Th e la bou r
in spector a tes a n d th e h ea lth a n d sa fety com m ittees h ave focu sed on r edu cin g th e im pa ct
of a ir bor n e pollu ta n ts in th e wor k pla ce by
ven tila tion or su bstitu tion of su bsta n ces. Th e
m u n icipa l a u th or ities h ave focu sed on th e
im pa ct on th e su r r ou n din g en vir on m en t
m a in ly th r ou gh im posin g sta n da r ds for th e
h eigh t of sm ok esta ck s, bu t in a few in sta n ces
th e im position of th ese sta n da r ds ca u sed th e
fir m s to su bstitu te th e pa in tin g to w a ter ba sed pa in tin g or h igh solid solven t-ba sed,
bu t th is su bstitu tion a ppa r en tly w a s n ot
n oted a n d a t lea st n ot r ea cted on by th e
la bou r in spector a te. Th e con clu sion m u st be
th a t a t lea st u p u n til 1991 th e two a u th or ities
ver y m u ch stu ck to th eir tr a dition a l ta sk a n d
division of la bou r w ith ou t even tr yin g to
iden tify a n d ela bor a te on r e gu la tion s th a t
cou ld h ave n e ga tive a s well a s positive effects
on th e oth er pa r ty’s a r ea s of ju r isdiction a n d
in ter est. Th is con clu sion is ver y m u ch in
a ccor da n ce w ith r esu lts fr om th e Da n ish fish
pr ocessin g in du str y[17]. If th is is a cor r ect
con clu sion th er e is n o dou bt th a t th e two
a u th or ities w ill en cou n ter in cr ea sin g pr oblem s con cu r r en t w ith th e esca la tin g im plem en ta tion of clea n er tech n ologies, bu t h opefu lly n ew a n d better pr a ctices of co-oper a tion
h ave developed in th e m ea n tim e.
Conclusion
In th is stu dy we h ave fou n d th a t th er e a r e
pr ofou n d differ en ces between th e two gr ou ps
of in du str ies – tr a dition a l ir on m a n u fa ctu r er s a n d electr opla tin g fir m s – in th e a m ou n t
a n d types of a ba tem en t tech n ologies a dopted.
Th e r ea son beh in d th is is th e differ en ces in
size a n d diver sity of pr odu ction pr ocesses
u sed in th e two gr ou ps of fir m s. For both
gr ou ps of fi r m s pu blic r e gu la tion is th e m ost
com m on in cen tive, w ith th e ver y obviou s
a ddition th a t th e m u n icipa lities a r e r e gu la tin g m a in ly on th e w a ter m ediu m wh ile th e
la bou r in spector a tes r e gu la te m a in ly on th e
a ir m ediu m , th e u se of sk in a ller gic ch em ica ls, a n d th e u se a n d la bellin g of ch em ica ls in
gen er a l. Most r em a r k a ble is th e m in u te
im pa ct th a t econ om ic con sider a tion plays,
u n der lin in g th a t m ost of th e a dver se im pa cts
of pr odu ction , wh eth er a ffectin g th e wor k for ce or th e en vir on m en t, a r e seen still a s
“fr ee goods” wh ich do n ot h ave a n y im pa ct on
th e pr ice-settin g of th e pr odu cts. Th e in ter n a lizin g of th e costs of pr odu ction by u sin g
ch a r ges a n d fees is n ot u sed to su ch a de gr ee
– except m aybe for w a stew a ter disch a r ges –
th a t econ om ic con sider a tion s ca n stim u la te
a n d pr om ote th ese types of tech n ologica l
ch a n ges. Su r pr isin gly, in ter n a l for ces, i.e.
a ttitu des of m a n a gem en t a n d em ployees, h ave
a m u ch m or e essen tia l in flu en ce on th e a doption of a ba tem en t m ea su r es th a n econ om ic
con sider a tion s. In ou r view th is fa ctor u n der lin es th e n ecessity of ta k in g “a ttitu des” in to
gr ea ter con sider a tion wh en policies a r e
design ed a n d im plem en ted.
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[ 11 ]