Situation Types In The Novel Harry Potter And The Prisoner Of Azkaban

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Semantics

Semantics is the philosophical and scientific study of meaning. Brinton (2000: 11) states that the word semantic has ultimately prevailed as a name for the doctrine of meaning, in particular of linguistic meaning. It means that semantics discuss about the meaning for the linguistics.

Kearns (2000:10) states that semantics is the study of meaning in language. Semantics terms was derived from Greek word sema the meaning is sign or symbol, refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed to the meaning of the words and how they combined two form sentence meaning”. The former is to do with the meaning of words; the letteer is to do with the meaning of phrases, including a sentences. It means that semantics told about the sign/symbol that means of communication to give the message or meaning of them.

Yule (2006:14) states that semantics can be described as the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. Semantics is concerned to the meaning of words and how they combined two form sentences meaning. It is useful to distinguish lexical semantic and structural semantic.

Semantics is one of the branches of linguistics studying about the meaning and it is considered as a major branch of linguistic devoted to the study of meaning in a language. But what is meaning? Philosopers have debated the

question, with particular reference to language, for well over 2000 years, and no more have yet produced a satisfactory to it (Lyons, 1984: 136). In order the meaning to be successfully studied, of course, it must be made clear just what the meaning is. According to what has long been the most widely accepted theory of semantics, meanings are ideas or concept that can be transferred from the mind of the speaker to the hearer by embodying them. So, semantics is the study of meaning which can be used to communicate better in society, not only for special person. Semantics also can be used to understand a literary works, like a prose or a novel.

Semantic analysis is the process of relating synatctic structures, from the levels of phrases, clause, sentences and pharagraphs to the level of the writing as a whole, to their language-independent meanings, removing features specific to particular linguistic and cultural contexts, to the extent that such a project is possible.

2.2 The Importance of Semantics

Semantics is a crucial subject at least if it is seen from two aspects, they are language teaching and communication. Dealing with teaching, Wahab (1997:20) states that students, teachers, and scholars who are interested in linguistic studies realize that semantics is one of the significant aspects of the study of language as its two sibling-phonology and syntax. Logically, semantics should not be neglected in the study of language. Despite its important states in linguistic study, in addition to the two others, semantics is a subject has no place in current curriculum of TEFL on a level of the Indonesian higher educational

system. Consequently, negligence of semantics may result in appropriateness in teaching lexical and sentence meaning. On level of lexical meaning, igmorance of semantics in TEFL may create false concept of synonym, antonyms, and ambiguity. On the level of sentence meaing, problem of grammaticality and acceptability may appear.

Related to the sentence meaning and some problems of grammar including learning the agreed-upon meaning of certain strings of sounds and learning how to combine these meaning or practical. Semantics it also needed for those who want to be a good speaker, writer, or communication better in their daily life activities. The description shows semantic as a branch of linguistics devoted to the study is quite important not only for language teachers and for students but also for those who want to communicate better in the society.

2.3 Definition of Situation

Crossman (2013: 43) states that situation as subject matter of sentences describes states of the society of affairs, events, actions. W.I.Thomas (1923: 20) states thatsituation is what people use to know what is expected of them and what is expected of others in a situation. Through the definition of the situation, people obtain a sense of the statuses and roles of those involved in the situation so that they know how to behave. In semantics, situation is used as a cover term for actions, processes and states. The concept ‘situation’ is so basic that it is very difficult to define it. In describing languages, a fundamental contrast is between situations and participants. Situations are expressed by clauses and participants

are generally expressed by noun phrases. Often the term situation is also used to refer the verb’s meaning (which can more precisely be called situation core).

2.4 Situation Type

Situation Type is also known as lexical aspect or a action art of a verb is a part of the way in which that verb is structured in relation to time. Oshima, D.Y (2012: 45) states that situation type is distinguished from grammatical aspect : Situation type is an inherent property of a (semantics) eventuality, whereas grammatical aspect is a property of a (syntactic or morphological) realization. Situation type is invariant, while grammatical aspect can be changed according to the attitude of the speaker.

Situation type is aspect that describes the situation that relates to time which arises from its meaning. Situation type as subject matter of sentences is focused by their verbs and arguments. It concerns the internal temporal constituency of a (type of) situation denoted by a given predicate.

Vendler (1967:97-121) calssifies four situation types, they are : states, activities, accomplishments and achievements. They will be discussed more under this section..

2.4.1 States

A State is type of situation (or state of affairs). Binnick, R (1991) states that states are non-dynamic ,i.e. they are not associated with change in the (physical, tempolar etc.) conditions. States are situations static (unchanging, qualities of emotional and physical) throughout their duration. Also, state are

continous over period of time, can answer the question, howlong?. States use stative verbs which give the information about the internal structure of the state and it just holds for a certain time. Stative verbs are verb to identify the static situation. A verb which isn’t stative is called a dynamic verb, and is usually an action often stative verbs are about liking or disliking something, or about mental state, not about an action. State verbs based on Smith (1997:222) are :

1. Verbs of emotion are verbs with mental action or process and the sence such as :love, like, worry, fear, know, think, believe, hope.

2. Verbs of perception are verbs of the convey the experince of one of the physical sense such as :see,hear, feel.

3. Verbs of existence are verbs of the fact or state of living objective reality such as :be, live, exist.

4. Verbs of location are verbs denote the position such as :sit, stand, lie, rest. 5. Verbs of relation are verb that related to the object such as : contain,

include, consist of.

6. Verbs of possession are verbs of having/own something such as : have, own.

Examples :

(1). Lisahatesit.

The above sentences means that Lisa doesn’t like something at the time. (2). Ibelieveit.

The sentence means that someone has an emotion of believing something because get the truth or facts.

2.4.2 Activities

Comrie, B (1985: 100) states that activity is a type of situation (or state of affairs) which is durative and atelic. It is the doing the activity/process. We can identify the activity if there’s some physical, physicologial process or dymanic situations, can persist indefinitely, no defind endpoint and have no definite end, can’t answer the question, how long?.Commonly, Smith (1997:215) classifies categories of the activity as :

1. Verbs of motion are verbs describing activities which present progression in space and/or in time such as :hunt, walk , run.

2. Verbs of cation are verbs denoting process of doing something to achieve the aim such as :talk, read, work.

3. Verbs of active perception are verbs indicating that the subject of a sentences is making an effort to perceive something else such as :listen to, watch.

Examples :

(3)We wereobservingthe entrance.

The above sentences means that they are trying to observe to get the entrance.

(4)Watchthis movie!.

It means that to ask someone do the action of watching the movie. (5) I’m deliberaletylookingat the picture.

The sentence means of seeing the pictures with eyes. (6) Our plant isgrowing.

It means thattheir plant is taller than before , grow and we don’t knowthe duration,

2.4.3 Accomplishments

Binnick, R (1991: 103) states that accomplishment is a type of situation (or state of affair) which is dynamic (implies change), telic (has a natural endpoint) and durative (non-punctual). It is the situation that can be marked as the dynamic situations with a defined endpoint/climax and endpoint must be reached, can answer the question, how long?. Smith (1997:218) accomplishment contains of the activity process and have duration. The verbs are commonly : walk to NP, fly to NP. Paint NP, write NP, eat NP, wash NP, tell NP, sing NP, bake NP, create NP, and the accomplishment is usually used inadverbof time.

Examples :

(7) have “finish” : Johnfinishedwriting the letter

The sentence means that John write the letter, where the letter is the endpoint of the action.

(8) happenin_{X time : Sherecoveredfrom the flu in 2 weeks}

The sentence means that She get better from her flu during 2 weeks, where the duration is 2 weeks and the endpoint she gets better.

When an unwell person gets better (an accomplishment), there is a phase of healing or taking medicine or whatever (an activity) which culmintaes in a transition from ill to well (an achivement). And immediately after that the person

is in good health (a state). A compact representation of this is offered in states and activities are taken as simple situations; an achievement is more complex because it contains a state as an embedded proposition; and an accomplishment is even more omplex because it contains both an activity and an achievement. Another set of examples will now be discussed by to begin to illustrate this.

(9) Hejoinedthe bean (achievement)

(10) Hewasa member of the band (state)

(11) Italkedto him about it (activity)

(!2) Igothim to jon the band (accomplishment)

An achievement, such as (9) incorporates an implicit end-state, (10) in this instance : joining the band results in him being a member of the band. There is an entailment here : as soos as (9) becomes true. (10) does too, provided the refers constant. The part of an accomplishment, such as (12), that works towards the goal is an activity, like (11) one way-not the onlyway-of getting people to jon a band is to talk to them about it. The goal of an accomplishment is an entailed achievement, here (9).

2.4.4 Achievements

Achievement is a type of situation (or state of affairs) that is dynamic and has no conceivable duration in time. It is the dynamic situations, occur instantaneously and punctual events in which a state changes, can answer the question, at what time? Smith (1997:247) stated commonly in English word such as :win, find, recognize, leave, lose, finish, start, stop, begin, catch, arrive.

Examples :

(13) Instanteneous : Wereachedthe summit.

It means that they got the summit by doing the action to reach it. (14) culmination phase : Wefounda solution

It means that they find the solution of the problem and have no conceivable time. Achievements rarely combine with the pogressive aspect, as they designate very short, instantaneous situations, which do not allow a continuous interpretation.

2.5 Characteristics of Identifying Situation Type

We can find some criteria of determining situation type according to Novakov (2005:26-27), they are as follows :

2.5.1 Telicity and quantity

In linguistics, the aspectual property of a verb phrase (0r of the sentence as a whole) which indicates that an action or event has a clear endpoint. Also known as telicity or aspectual boundedness. Dahl, O (1985: 97) states that telicity is the distinction between telic and atelic. Telic is a word from Greek, telos that means goal. It means that telic refers to those processes which are seen as having a natural completion. Telic verbs are also sometimes called resultative, processes which are viewed as having a final point of completion or our attention is directed to this end of the process or Telic verb or ver phrase is a verb that presents a complete action. Atelic refers to those precesses which is no having the completion.

Telic and atelic–these refers to situations which have an internal structure consisting of a process leading up to the terminal point and the terminal point (telic, versus situations which do not have an inherent endpoint (atelic). In this semantic distinction, it is particularly clear that situations are not described by verbs alone, but rather by the verb with its arguments (subject and objects), and it is in fact difficult to find sentences that are unambiguously telic or atelic. The telic nature of a situation can often be tested os follows (Comrie 1976 : 44-45): “if a sentence referring to this situation in a form with imperfective meaning (such as the English Progressive) implies the sentence reffering to the same situation in a form with perfective meaning (such as the English Perfect), then the situation is atelic; otherwise it is telic. Thus from John is singing one can deduce John has sing, but from John is making a chair one can not deduce John has made a chair. Thus a telic situation is one that invilves a process that leads up to a awell-defined terminal point, beyond which the process cannot continue.

Quantity is the spesific goal of making a process. atelic + quantified telic (to draw a circle) atelic + unquantified atelic (to drink beer) telic + quantified telic (to splint trunks) telic + unquantified atelic (to splint wood)

2.5.2 Static

Static is unchanging situation for its duartion. It means that defines the situation just hold for certain times. It is against of dynamic. Static relates to stative verbs.

a. Stative verbs

Leech, G (1972: 88) stative verbs have undefined duration. They denote states rather than actions. Example of stative verbs are: want, know, have(when it means possesion), think (when it means opinion), like, love, hate, need, prefer, agree, sound, hear disagree, wish, look (when it mean seem), smell, seem, include. Examples :

(15) I know the truth.

It means that someone has possesion about the truth. (16) I like pizaa

It means that someone has cognition that she/he likes to eat pizza. (17) It sounds like a great idea.

The sentence means that seem like a great idea.

2.5.3 Dynamic Verbs/ Action Verbs

The opposite of stative is dynamic. Lyons, J (1977: 52) Dynamic verbs (action verb) is as opposed to a stative verb, a dynamic (or action) verb shows continued or progressive action on the part of subject.

Examples of dynamic verbs (action verbs) are: act, build, complete, design, develop, draw, fix, gather, handle, held, help, improve, interview,

introduce, justify, listen, lead, meassure, narrate, negotiate, orchestrate, originate, outline, perform, persuade, predict, regulate, record, save, shw, study target, transform, travel, treat, uncover, use, validate, visualize, widen, write, zap, zoom.

These verbs can be used both in the simple and continous forms.

Examples :

(18) Look at her! She is acting foolishly. (19) She acts as a teacher in this movie.

(20) The company is targeting young customers with this new product. (21) We targeted a new market with that product.

The above sentences means doing some action by using the physic like someone for sentence (18) and (19), and doing some action dynamically for the sentence (20) and (21).

2.5.4 Dynamic and stative

Some verbs can be both action verbs and dynamic verbs depending on their meaning:

1. Be

It is usally used as a stative verb-stative.

Be = when it means behave or act, it can be used as an action verb in continuous form–dynamic.

Examples :

(23) Youarebeing silly 2. Think

Think = to express an opinion, to believe–stative

Examples :

(24) Ithinkit’s a fantastic idea.

Think = consider, to reason about or reflect on, ponder, to have or formulate in the mind–dynamic.

Examples :

(25) I amthinkingabout my friend

3. Have

Have = to posses, to own–stative. Examples :

(26) Hehasa beautiful car

Has = when it doesn’t mean own or possess –dynamic. Examples :

(27) He’s having lunch 4. See

See = to perceive with the eye, to understand–stative. Examples :

See = to meet, to be in the company of, to escort, to attend–dynamic. Examples :

See = to meet, to be in the company of, to escort, to attend–dynamic. Examples :

(29) He’s been seeing the same woman eight years.

2.5.5 Durativity vs. Punctuality

If a VP is durative if it is perceived as lasting for a period of time and is punctual if perceived as instantaneous, as not having any internal temporal structure.

a. Durativity

Durativity refers to period of time and durative verbs can be identified as follows : 1. The verbs in this class refers toevents which have “duration”

For example :play, walk, read, sing, rain, rot.

2. Durative verbs are opposed to “punctual” (or “momentary”) verbs which refer to events that do not have duration.

For example :hit, catch, arrive, explode.

3. The distinction between durative and punctual verbs is relavant to the study of English verb tenses and, in particular to an understanding of the meaning of progressive tenses.

4. When a durative verb is put into a progressive tense, the meaning is that an event is (or was) going on over a period of time. The progressive tense of a

punctual cannot be used with this meaning because the events referred to by this type of verb do notaccupya period of time. Punctual verbs can be put into the progressive, but in this case the use of this tense must be interpreted in a special way-not to mean that an event is “onging” but that it is being repeated)

Examples :

(30) Harry iswritingto Jill

We are referring to just one writing event. (31) Harryis knocking onJills door.

We are referring to several knocking events, saying that Harry knocked several times in other words.

5. With some other punctual verbs, such as “arrive” or “die” when a progressive tense is used, the interpretation is that a reference is being made not to arrival or a death but to the approach of one of those punctual events.

Examples :

(32) Jack phoned Jill, and told her that Harry’s plane was arriving.

It means that although Harry’s plane had not yet arrived, it would arrive very soon.

b. Punctuality

Punctuality is one of the factors that explains the incompatibility of some verbs with the progressive, and aspectual verbs like “stop”, “finish”, “start” either exclude punctual verbs as complements or provide them with a particular (e.g.

oterative) interpretation. Punctual verbs have very short duration, the time occupied to express the process is longer than the time occupied to perform it. Examples :

(33) The soldierstarted/finishedshooting an narrow nor

2.5.2 Static

Static is unchanging situation for its duartion. It means that defines the situation just hold for certain times. It is against of dynamic. Static relates to stative verbs.

a. Stative verbs

Leech, G (1972: 88) stative verbs have undefined duration. They denote states rather than actions. Example of stative verbs are: want, know, have(when it means possesion), think (when it means opinion), like, love, hate, need, prefer, agree, sound, hear disagree, wish, look (when it mean seem), smell, seem, include. Examples :

(15) I know the truth.

It means that someone has possesion about the truth. (16) I like pizaa

It means that someone has cognition that she/he likes to eat pizza. (17) It sounds like a great idea.

The sentence means that seem like a great idea.

2.5.3 Dynamic Verbs/ Action Verbs

The opposite of stative is dynamic. Lyons, J (1977: 52) Dynamic verbs (action verb) is as opposed to a stative verb, a dynamic (or action) verb shows continued or progressive action on the part of subject.

Examples of dynamic verbs (action verbs) are: act, build, complete, design, develop, draw, fix, gather, handle, held, help, improve, interview,

introduce, justify, listen, lead, meassure, narrate, negotiate, orchestrate, originate, outline, perform, persuade, predict, regulate, record, save, shw, study target, transform, travel, treat, uncover, use, validate, visualize, widen, write, zap, zoom.

These verbs can be used both in the simple and continous forms.

Examples :

(18) Look at her! She is acting foolishly. (19) She acts as a teacher in this movie.

(20) The company is targeting young customers with this new product. (21) We targeted a new market with that product.

The above sentences means doing some action by using the physic like someone for sentence (18) and (19), and doing some action dynamically for the sentence (20) and (21).

2.5.4 Dynamic and stative

Some verbs can be both action verbs and dynamic verbs depending on their meaning:

1. Be

It is usally used as a stative verb-stative.

Be = when it means behave or act, it can be used as an action verb in continuous form–dynamic.

(23) Youarebeing silly 2. Think

Think = to express an opinion, to believe–stative

Examples :

(24) Ithinkit’s a fantastic idea.

Think = consider, to reason about or reflect on, ponder, to have or formulate in the mind–dynamic.

Examples :

(25) I amthinkingabout my friend

3. Have

Have = to posses, to own–stative. Examples :

(26) Hehasa beautiful car

Has = when it doesn’t mean own or possess –dynamic. Examples :

(27) He’s having lunch 4. See

See = to perceive with the eye, to understand–stative. Examples :

See = to meet, to be in the company of, to escort, to attend–dynamic. Examples :

See = to meet, to be in the company of, to escort, to attend–dynamic. Examples :

(29) He’s been seeing the same woman eight years.

2.5.5 Durativity vs. Punctuality

If a VP is durative if it is perceived as lasting for a period of time and is punctual if perceived as instantaneous, as not having any internal temporal structure.

a. Durativity

Durativity refers to period of time and durative verbs can be identified as follows : 1. The verbs in this class refers toevents which have “duration”

For example :play, walk, read, sing, rain, rot.

2. Durative verbs are opposed to “punctual” (or “momentary”) verbs which refer to events that do not have duration.

For example :hit, catch, arrive, explode.

3. The distinction between durative and punctual verbs is relavant to the study of English verb tenses and, in particular to an understanding of the meaning of progressive tenses.

4. When a durative verb is put into a progressive tense, the meaning is that an event is (or was) going on over a period of time. The progressive tense of a

punctual cannot be used with this meaning because the events referred to by this type of verb do notaccupya period of time. Punctual verbs can be put into the progressive, but in this case the use of this tense must be interpreted in a special way-not to mean that an event is “onging” but that it is being repeated)

Examples :

(30) Harry iswritingto Jill

We are referring to just one writing event. (31) Harryis knocking onJills door.

We are referring to several knocking events, saying that Harry knocked several times in other words.

5. With some other punctual verbs, such as “arrive” or “die” when a progressive tense is used, the interpretation is that a reference is being made not to arrival or a death but to the approach of one of those punctual events.

Examples :

(32) Jack phoned Jill, and told her that Harry’s plane was arriving.

It means that although Harry’s plane had not yet arrived, it would arrive very soon.

b. Punctuality

Punctuality is one of the factors that explains the incompatibility of some verbs with the progressive, and aspectual verbs like “stop”, “finish”, “start” either exclude punctual verbs as complements or provide them with a particular (e.g.

oterative) interpretation. Punctual verbs have very short duration, the time occupied to express the process is longer than the time occupied to perform it. Examples :

(33) The soldierstarted/finishedshooting an narrow nor