Orientation section Linguistic features in Suba-Simbiti narrative texts

Table 5. Sections of climactic narrative texts Section Crocodile Origin Mgendi Water Buffalo Inheritance Orientation section 1 1–5 1–3 1–4 1–5 1–5 Inciting episode 2–3 6–8 4–6 5–6 6–7 6 Developmental episodes 4–7 9–12 7–14 15–21 7 8–15 8–10 7–10 11–13 14–15 16–18 19–22 Peak episodes 8 13–17 22–24 16–18 11–14 23–26 Denouement 9–12 18–24 25–30 19–21 15–17 27 Conclusion 13 25–26 31–32 – 18–19 28–29 Table 6. Description of sections in “Inheritance” Section Sentences Description Orientation section 1–5 A father had two sons who went to school. One, who went to Europe, was loved more by his father. The other became a trapper on a nearby island. Inciting episode 6 The father becomes very sick. Developmental episodes 7–10 11–13 14–15 16–18 19–22 The father writes to his sons and tells them he is very sick, but neither one returns home. The father writes his will and leaves his cows to be divided between his son the trapper and the other members of the family. He leaves the son in Europe a Bible. The father dies and his cows are divided between the trapper and the other members of the family. The son from Europe comes and is angry to find that he has only been given a Bible. One night, the son from Europe has a dream and is told to open the Bible to the book of Matthew, but he doesn’t. Another night, he has the same dream. Peak 23–26 The son opens the Bible to Matthew and finds a bank check for a large amount of money. He immediately quits his job and returns home where he builds a house. Denouement 27 He has become rich, and even to this day he is helping his family. Conclusion 28–29 Moral: If you are given something, don’t refuse it because it may have value.

1.3 Linguistic features in Suba-Simbiti narrative texts

1.3.1 Orientation section

Orientation sections typically begin with the introduction of major participants using a presentational formula. In four of the stories the presentational formula is a noun phrase. Three of these stories use a noun followed by uwöndëabhandë ‘certain’, as seen in examples 1 and 2. The fourth story uses the compound noun phrase that is shown in example 3. 1 Crocodile 1 Ömöntö uwöndë bha-a-ghööt-irwë na engʼwaina 1.person 1.certain 3 PL - PST -hold- PROX : PASS by 9.crocodile ‘A certain person was bitten by a crocodile.’ 2 Birds 1b Abhaghaaka abhandë o-ka-nyoor-a bha-ra-nyw-a amarwa 2.elderly_men 2.certain 2 SG - NARR -find- FV 3 PL - CONT -drink- FV 6.alcohol ‘It so happened that certain elderly men were drinking alcohol.’ 3 Origin 1 Musimbëtë na Mohaasha m=bhaana abha enda ëmwë bha-a-rë Msimbiti and Mohaasha COP =2.children 2. ASS 9.stomach 9.one 3 PL - PST -be ‘Msimbiti and Mohaasha were siblings.’ In three other stories the narrator seems to be explaining his or her intention to the listeners in the introduction. This can occur anywhere in the orientation section. Examples 4 and 5 show such an introduction. 4 Simbiti People 1–2 Ëkërëngyö ikya bhono Abhasimbëtë bha-ish-irë Maara eno. N-da-rëngy-a 7.example 7. ASS 14. REL 2.Simbiti_people 3 PL -come- ANT Mara 9.here 1 SG - CONT -narrate- FV ikya bhono öni wonswe na-a-rëngëriibhwi amangʼana ghayö like 14. REL 1 SG 1.all 1 SG - PST -narrate: APPL : PROX : PASS 6.news 6. DEM _ REF ‘An example of the way which the Simbiti people came here to Mara. I’m telling this news the way that I was told it.’ 5 Mgendi 1 N-da-tun-a bhoono m-ba-rëngëri amangʼana ghano gha-a-nyöörë 1 SG - CONT -want- FV now 1 SG -3 PL -narrate: APPL 6.news 6. REL 6- PST -find: PROX umumura uwondë ono ya-a-bherek-er-w-anga igha Möghëndi. 1.young_person 1.certain 1. REL 3 SG - PST -call- APPL - PASS - HAB COMP Mgendi ‘I want to tell you what happened to a young person who was named Mgendi.’ Elderly or male characters are often introduced before other major participants, even if they are minor participants throughout the remainder of the story. This is understandable as one considers the importance of family and community relationships in the Suba-Simbiti culture. Paul Werth 1999 refers to such participants as frame participants. In the story “Water” the husband is introduced first even though his two wives are the major participants in the story. Also, in the story “Buffalo” the father, who is a minor participant, is introduced as having a son, who is the major participant in the narrative. Consider the following examples: 6 Water 1–2 Ya-a-re-nga-ho umushaasha uwöndë ono ya-a-re-nga na bhakaaye abhabhërë. 3 SG - PST -be- HAB -16. LOC 1.man 1.certain 1. REL 3 SG - PST -be- HAB with 2.wife 2.two Ömöntö uyö ya-a-hanshirë uwömwë kasi uwöndë oora 1.person 1. DEM _ REF 3 SG - PST -love: PROX 1.one but 1.other 1. DEM _ DIST te-ya-a-mo-hanshirë hë. NEG -3 SG - PST -3 SG -love: PROX NEG ‘There was a man who had two wives. One wife he loved but that other one he didn’t love.’ 7 Buffalo 2 Omoghaaka uyö Bhiragë m=möntö uwa Amaghuru ya-a-rë na 1.elderly_man 1. DEM _ REF Birage COP =person 1. ASS Maguru_people 3 SG - PST -be with ya-a-re-nga na abhamura 3 S S- PST -be- HAB with 2.young_men ‘This elderly man named Birage was from Maguru; he had teenaged sons.’ Another common feature of the orientation section in Suba-Simbiti stories is the prevalent use of the past habitual 1 TAM form, as shown in example 8. It is also common for information that is relevant to the story as a whole to be presented in the orientation section. This information usually serves to notify the listener of a particular character’s attributes or to provide background knowledge that is essential to the story. In example 8 from “Buffalo,” the listener learns that the major participant was very strong from the information that is presented in the main clause. There is also a relative clause in this example that serves to set the scene. 8 Buffalo 3 Umumura ömwë ono ya-a-rëësy-anga situgho wonswe ya-a-rë na 1.youth 1.one 1. REL 3 SG - PST -shepherd- HAB 10.herds 1.all 3 SG - PST -be with singuru sinsharu. 10.strength 10.many ‘One young man who was shepherding his herds all by himself, was very strong.’

1.3.2 Inciting episode