2. Intralingual Transfer
Intralingual transfer is a major factor in second language learning. Intralingual error is the outcome from partial learning of the target language
rather than language transfer.
19
It means that students know the background knowledge, the structure or grammatical of target language, but they do not
know the overall. In other word, intralingual errors occur as a result of students‟ attempt to build up the concepts and hypotheses about the target
language from students‟ limited experience.
As Vacide Erdogan had done the study of error analysis at Turkish learners, the error not only occurs in interlingual transfer but also in
intralingual transfer. In this case, students attempt to use two tense markers at the same time in one sentence since they have not mastered the language yet.
For example, „He made me to smile‟, I want learning Arabic, „He is comes here‟, and so forth.
E. The Use of Independent Clause and Dependent Clause in
English Grammar
Before understanding the different kinds of clauses, it is important to understand what a clause is. A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a
verb. On the other hand, if a group of related words does not contain a subject with an attached verb, it is simply a phrase.
20
There are two kinds of clauses: Independent and Dependent.
1. An Independent clause
An Independent clause or main clause is a complete sentence. It can stand alone as a sentence by itself. An independent clause contains the main
subject and verb of sentence, often a complement to express a complete thought.
21
19
Ibid., p. 266.
20
Betty Schrampfer Azar, English Grammar: Understanding and Using, 3
rd
edition, New York: Longman, 1999, p. 239.
21
Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue, Writing Academic English, New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 1999, 3
rd
edition, p. 153.
Table 2. 2 Examples of Independent Clause
Part Subject
Verb Complement
A He
ran I
was late to work
Various elements contributed
to the success
B Where
does Fay live?
What happened
with you?
Notice that while the first sentence only contains two words, it is still a complete sentence because it contains one subject He and one verb or
predicate ran that is also a complete idea. For part A is a statement and part B is a question.
2. A Dependent Clause A Dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, before, even
though, as soon as, whether, if, since, while, if, that, because, although , and so
forth.
22
A dependent clause also has a subject and verb, but alone, it is not complete sentence: it depends on the main clause.
23
22
Marcel Danesi, Basic American Grammar and Usage: An ESLEFL Handbook, New York: Barron‟s Educational Series, Inc., 2006, p. 247.
23
Patricia K. Werner, et al., Interaction 2: Grammar, New York: McGraw Hill, 2002, 4
th
edition, p. 180.
Table 2. 3 Examples of Dependent Clause
Notice that dependent clause can‟t stand alone; it must be connected to independent clause to make a complete sentence. When independent clause is
not attached to an independent clause, it is a fragment incomplete idea. A dependent clause also has another elements, it is named a dependent
word. In the preceding dependent clause, dependent words appear in bold type. There are three main types of dependent clause: noun, adjective, and
adverb.
a Noun Clause
A noun clause is any dependent clause that can function as a subject or predicate object.
24
24
Marcel Danesi, loc. cit.
Main clause Dependent clause
sentence fragment Complete sentence
Almost 200
people were evacuated
because the city was
struck by a powerful earthquake
Because the city was
struck by a powerful earthquake, almost 200
people were evacuated. We were very afraid of
cockroach
when we were children
When we were children,
we were very afraid of cockroach
I know where
Shofie lives I know where Shofie
lives
Table 2. 4 Examples of Noun Clause that Function as a Subject or Predicate
As subject As predicate
Where Fay lives is very large.
I do not know where Fay Live. What he said
was interesting. I heard what he said.
A noun clause can also be introduced by that known as a
complementizer:
Table 2. 5 Examples of Noun Clause that Introduced by That
As subject As predicate
That Joe loves Bali is obvious.
It is obvious that Joe loves Bali. That the world is round
is a fact It is a fact that world is round.
Noun clause beginning with if or whether indirect YesNo
questions:
Table 2. 6 Examples of Noun Clause Beginning with If or Whether
YesNo question Main Clause
Noun Clause indirect YesNo question
Did he see you? Do you know
Ifwhether he saw you or not? Are they hungry?
I don ‟t know
Ifwhether they‟re hungry or not.
b
Adjective Clause
Adjective clause also called a relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun. It describes, identifies, or gives further information
about a noun.
25
An adjective clause consists of a subject and a predicate that modifies a preceding noun or pronoun its antecedent. Adjective
clause introduced with relative pronouns such who, whom, which, or that.
26
The introductory word who or that refers to a person, which or that to a thing, when to a time, where to a place, why to a reason.
Adjective clause pronouns used as the subject, example: “I thanked the woman who helped me.”
Notice that I thanked the woman is an independent clause; who helped me
is an adjective clause. The adjective clause modifies the noun
woman .
Adjective clause pronouns used as the object of a verb, example:
“The man whom I saw was Mr. Ferdy”
or
“The man that I saw was Mr. Ferdy” Notice that Who is usually used instead of whom, especially in speaking.
Whom is generally used only in very formal English.
Reduced Adjective Clause. Adjective clause can be reduced to an adjective phrase. An adjective phrase modifies a noun. An adjective
phrase does not have a subject and a verb. There are two ways to reduce an adjective clause:
1 If the adjective clause has form of be, the subject relative pronoun and
the form of be were omitted. Adjective clause : Do you know the woman who is standing by the
window
?
25
Betty Schrampfer Azar, op. cit., p. 267.
26
Milada Broukal and Ingrid Wisniewska, Grammar: Form and Function, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005, p. 140.
Adjective phrase : Do you know the woman standing by the window
? Clause
: The words that are underlined in red have errors.
Phrase : The words underlined in red have errors.
2 If there is no form of be in the adjective clause, the subject pronoun is
omitted and change the verb to the present participle -ing form. Clause
: Anyone who wants to send a message can use these
computers to do so. Phrase
: Anyone wanting to send a message can use these
computers to do so. Clause
: The Inuit have about 70 words that describe different
kinds of snow. Phrase
: The Inuit have about 70 words describing different kinds
of snow.
c Adverb Clause
An adverb clause is dependent clause that functions as an adverb.
27
An adverbial clause consist of a subject and predicate introduced by a
subordinating conjunction like when, although, because, if, and so forth. Such a clause may be used in initial position, final position, and
occasionally in mid-position with the main verb of the sentence.
“Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.” “He went to bed because he was sleepy.”
Notice that Because he was sleepy is an adverb clause. Because an adverb
clause precedes an independent clause, as in a, a comma is used to
separate the clauses. Because the adverb clause follows, as in b, usually
no comma is used.
27
Marcel Danesi, op. cit., p. 250.
Table 2. 7 The Word Introducing Adverb Clauses
28
Time after, before, when, while, as, as soon as,
since, until, by the time, once, as long as, whenever, every time that.
Cause and effect because, now that, since.
Contrast even though, although, though, while,
whereas.
Condition if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if,
in case, in the event that.
1 Adverb Clause to Prhase Reduction
An adverb clause also can be reduced as well as adjective clause. An adverb clause does not have a subject or a verb. It consists
of a present or past participle and an adverb clause time marker. The present participle replaces verbs in the active voice, and the past
participle replaces verb in the passive voice.
29
Adverb clause : The Internet was for the use for university and
government scientists when it was originally invented.
Adverb phrases : When originally invented, the Internet was for
the use for university and government scientists.
The modifying adverb phrase can come before or after the main clause. A comma is used after the adverb phrase when it comes at the
beginning of sentence.
28
Marcel Danesi, loc. cit.
29
Milada Broukal and Ingrid Wisniewska, op. cit., p. 184.
“Since starting this class, she has made a lot of friends.” “She has made a lot of friends since starting this class.”
An adverb clause can be changed into an adverb phrase when the subject of the main clause and the adverb clause are the same.
“Before I came to the United States, I took some English classes.” “Before coming to the United States, I took some English classes.”
“While I walked, I ran into my best friend.” “While walking, I ran into my best friend.”
Notice that sometimes while can be omitted if it start the sentence and still keep the meaning “at the same time.”
“Walking, I ran into my best friend.”
Upon or on is sometimes used in place of when in an adverb phrase.
The meaning is the same.
“When we entered the house, we took off our shoes.” “Upon entering the house, we took off our shoes.”
“On entering the house, we took off our shoes.” a Eliptical Phrases
Adverb clause with the verb be can be reduced if the subjects in the main and adverb clause are the same.
30
To do this, omit both the subject and the verb be.
Table 2. 8 Examples of Eliptical Phrases
Clause Phrase
Notes When they were finished
with the research , they left
When finished with the research
, they left When
and while can be
omitted in
30
Patricia K. Werner and John P. Nelson, Mosaic 2: Grammar, 4
th
edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2002, p. 365.
the village. the village.
elliptical phrases.
Although she was tired and hungry
, she kept traveling.
Although tired and hungry
, she
kept traveling.
Although and if are
never omitted
in these phrases.
b Dangling Phrases
Phrases must have the same logical subject as the independent clause. Phrases that do not are ungrammatical named dangling
phrases. To correct a dangling phrase, either expand the phrases into a full clause or change the independent clause, it has the same logical
subject as the phrase.
Table 2. 9 Examples of Dangling Phrases
Dangling Phrase Implied Meaning
Corrected Sentence
Having lived for 100 years, the doctors were amazed at
my grandmother. The dangling phrase
implies that
the doctors had lived for
100 years. Because she had lived for
100 years, the doctors were
amazed at
my grandmother.
After finishing
the operation, the patient was
given a sedative. The dangling phrase
would imply that the patient finished the
operation. After
finishing the
operation, the doctor gave the patient a sedative.
F. Independent Clause and Dependent Clause in Argumentative Essay