Speech Acts Theory Directive Utterances

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Speech Acts Theory and Directive Utterances

1. Speech Acts Theory

In showing their feelings, people should express it by uttering words and also perform actions via those utterances. That is why the message can be delivered to the hearer. Actions that are performed via utterances are generally speech acts . Speech acts is one of the basic ingredients of pragmatics arranging by words and corresponding to sentences. When Debby says Go anywhere today?, she does something and what she does is called ‘asking questions’. This type of act is considered as speech acts. Debby, certainly, expects an answer to her question from the hearer. Austin 1962 and Searle 1969 proposed that language has three main aspects: Locutionary Act, Illocutionary Act and Perlocutionary Act. Searle describes a speech act, i.e., an act of saying but the Locutionary act has itself various facets. Locutions act is the basic act of utterance that producing a meaningful linguistic expression, such as words, phrase that are arranged into a good sentence. Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. Yet, this must be understood that the speaker has to realize what the speaker will say and take it a certain sense. Searle in Celce and Olshtain 2000:25 explains types of illocutionary acts into a limited number of major categories; they are Declarative, Representatives Assertives, Directives, Expressives and Commisives.

2. Directive Utterances

When the speaker asks the hearer to do something, it means that the speaker performs a speech act. Heshe certainly wants hisher action to be understood and then the hearer will do what the speaker wants. According to Searle 1969:24, language is a part of a theory of actions, and speech acts are those verbal acts, or more precisely illocutionary acts, such as promising, threatening and requesting, that one performs in speaking. Yule 1996:54 states that in using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words via the hearer. Leech 1993:327346 gives the detail of directive verbs that usually occur in the construction sentence “S verb O that X” or “S verb O to Y”, they are request, ask, beg, bid, command, demand, forbid, recommend, tell, order, advise, suggest, and invite. A directive act is an illocutionary act whereby a speaker conveys to a hearer that heshe wants the hearer to perform an act which can be benefit for the speaker and, sometimes, for the hearer. For an example, request is for the benefit of the speaker whereas a suggestion is defined as being beneficial to both speaker and hearer, and if the act is performed, it is exclusively for the benefit of the hearer. Thus, the directive act can be characterized as pre-event and the desired act takes place post-utterance, either in the immediate future or at some later stage. In short, directive verbs demand the cost of the hearer and the benefit for the speaker. There are four major categories of request strategies simplified by Anna Trosborg 1994:192-204 that based on the theories of Austin 1962 and Searle 19969, 1976 then reformulated by Brown-Levinson 1978, 1987, House- Kasper 1981, and Blum Kulka-Olshtain 1984. The categories cover: CATEGORY I ─ Indirect Request Strategy 1 ─ Hints: A speaker who does not want to state hisher Impositive intent explicitly has resort to hinting strategies.  Mild : The speaker can leave out the desired action altogether. e.g. I have to be at the airport in half an hour  Strong : The speaker can mention hisher wish partially e.g. My car has broken down. Will you be using your car tonight? Hints strategy involves the condition, as follows: a. Reasonableness Stating some general condition which indicates the speaker’s reason for making hisher request is a useful way of indirectly conveying an impositive intent of the ‘reasonableness precondition’ referred to by Haverkate, 1984. e.g. Would you do the dishes? The kitchen is a total mess b. Availability Questioning some condition that would present an obstacle to compliance if not fulfilled is another way of giving a hint. e.g. Is there any coffee left? c. Obviousness Speaker conveys hisher desire obviously. e.g. Has the letter already been typed? CATEGORY II ─ Hearer-oriented conditions Conventionally Indirect Strategy 2 Questioning hearer’s abilitywillingness a. Ability This depends on the hearer’s capacity in performing the act. e.g. Maybe you could help John dig the garden tomorrow? b. Willingness This depends on the hearer’s willingness in performing the act. e.g. Would you lend me a copy of your book? Statements of ability and willingness Hearer can not give any excuses because speaker has conveyed that heshe considers this condition is fulfilled and anticipates compliance. e.g. Mary, you can clear the table now. Strategy 3 ─ Suggestory formulae When employing suggestory formulae, speaker has anticipated the refusal from hearer. But hearer must invent hisher own reason to refuse because the hearer-based preparatory condition is questioned. CATEGORY III ─ Speaker-based conditions Strategy 4 ─ Statements of speaker’s wishes and desires e.g. I would like to have some more coffee. Strategy 5 ─ Statements of speaker’s needs and demands e.g. I need a pen. CATEGORY IV ─ Direct Request Strategy 6 ─ Statements of obligation and necessity The speaker uses hisher own authority in stating hisher desire. e.g. You shouldought to leave now. Strategy 7 ─ Performatives Performative verb is considered moreless polite ask vs. command e.g. I askrequest ordercommand you to leave. Strategy 8 Imperatives The imperative is the grammatical form directly signaling that the utterance is an order this can be also added by adding tags andor the marker please e.g. Open the door, please. Elliptical Phrases This is phrases in which only the desired object is mentioned. e.g. Two coffee, please.

B. The Politeness of Directive Utterances