9
Overgeneralization occurs when student acquired one structure that already saved on their mind, and they use the structure into new structure which different
with the previews structure. For example, when student masters one structure simple present tense then the teacher ask hisher to change into present
continuous which she or he haven‟t masters yet, so shehemight be write “She walks quickly” into “She is walks quickly
c. Error encouraged by teaching material or method Errors appear error can appear to be induced by teaching itself and error is
an evidence of failure of ineffective teaching or lack of control. For example, when the teacher teach tenses, he only emphasized on one structure, so the student
will use the emphasize one foe all structure. In addition, Brown states four sources of error, they are: interlingual
transfer, intralingual transfer, context of learning and communication strategies.
13
a. Interlingual Transfer Interlingual Transfer is a significant source of error for all learners.
Interlingual errors are the result of language transfer, which are caused by the learner‟s first language. Interlingual errors may occur at diffetent levels such as
transfer of phonological, morphological, grammatical and lexical-semantic elements of the native language into target language. For example, language
learners apply their first language grammar structure to the target language. b. Intralingual Transfer
Intralingual transfer is the other reason for second language learner for committing errors. Intralingual errors result from faculty or partial learning of
target language rather than language transfer. They may be caused by the influence of one target language upon another. Intralingual error occurs when the
learners try to build up concept and hypotheses about target language from their limited experience with it. For example, learners try to use two tense markers at
the same time in one sentence while they have not mastered the language yet. Such as in this sentence:
“She is plays the computer” , it is because the singular of
13
H. Douglas Brown, Principles of language Learning and Teaching, 5
th
Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008, p.45.
10
third person requires “is” in present continuous, and “-s” at the end of a verb in simple present.
c. Context of learning In the case of the school learning, context refers to the classroom with its
teacher and material, and in the case of untutored second language learning, context refers to the social situation. In a classroom context, the teacher or text
book can lead the learner to make faulty hypothesis about the language. Students often make errors because of misleading explanation of the teacher, faulty
presentation of a structure or world in a text book, or even because of improperly contextualized pattern.
d. Communication strategies Communication strategies were defined as related to learning style.
Communication strategy relates to how people express meaning and deliver message to others. In learning process, some students may be using some
strategies and style to express their message. However, those strategies that students use sometime can make themselves become a source of error.
3. Step in Analyzing Errors
According to Rod Ellis, the procedure for analyzing errors includes five steps, there are:
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a. Collecting of a sample of learner‟s language
Most samples of learner language which have been used in error analysis include data collected from many speakers who are responding to the same kind
of task or test. Some studies use samples from a few learner that are collected over a period of weeks, months, or oven years in order to determine pattern of change
in error occurrence with increasing L2 exposure and proficiency. b. Identification of errors
The first step in the analysis requires determination of elements in the sample of learner language which deviate from the target L2 in some way. The
14
Rod Ellis and Gary Barkhuizen, Analyzing Learner Language, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 57.
11
identification of error involves a comparison between what the learner has produced and what a native speaker counterpart would produce in the same
context. c. Description of errors
The description of errors involves specifying how the forms by the learner differ from target form. For purposes of analysis, errors are usually classified
according to language level whether an error is phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc., general linguistic category e.g. auxiliary system, passive
sentence, negative construction, or more specific linguistic elements e.g. articles, prepositions, verb form
d. Explanation of errors Accounting for why an error was made is the most important step in trying to
understand the processes of SLA. Two of the most likely causes of L2 errors are interlingual and intralingual factors.
e. Evaluation of errors This step involves analysis on what effect the error has on whoever is being
addressed according to Ellis, the design of error evaluation studies involves decision on who the addresses e.i. the judges will be, what errors hey will be
asked to judge, and how they will asked to judge them.
15
Moreover, in the evaluation of errors the teacher may asks the addressees of error try to correct the
error by themselves. There evaluation of errors includes the following steps: 1
Select the errors to be evaluated. 2
Decides the criterion on which the errors are to be judged. 3
Prepare the error evaluation instrument. 4
Choose the judges.
15
Ellis, op, cit., p.256.
12
C. Passive voice 1.
Concept of Passive voice
As a two-sides coin, passive voice is the opposite of active voice in sentence pattern. Both show different understanding and function and have
dissimilar rule in use. Some linguists have comprehensive view about passive voice, and Sweet
is the one of those whom has done it. He s tates, “the passive voice is …A
grammatical device for a bringing the object of a transitive verb into prominance by making it the subject of the sentence, and b getting rid of the necessity of
naming the subject of a transi tive verb”.
16
Sentence does, at least, contains a subject and a verb. Based on the explanation above, a sentence which has no object, or it is usually named
intransitive, will not be able to be turned into passive voice. This occurs because in passive sentence. Its subject is derived from the object of active sentence. As
what azar writes, “in the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of
the passive verb”.
17
According to Frank about passive voice that “ … the same action is referred to ind
irectly; that is, the original „receiver‟ of the action is the grammatical object of the
preposition by”.
18
Here, she illustrates the subject by naming original doer and the object refers to original receiver. Also, it is used a
preposition by to clear what things to be the object. As it has been demonstrated in the beginning, passive voice has certain
function in its usage. Parrot says “We choose passive constructions to avoid very long subjects- a passive construction allows us to put a long andor complex
16
LjiijanaMiholvic, “Some observations on the Use of the Passive voice”, in W.L.Darley ed., English Language Teaching , Plaistow: Oxford University Press, 1963, vol.XVII No.2, p.
77.
17
Betty SchrampferAzar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, New Jersey : Prentice-Hall, 1989, Second edition, p. 120.
18
Marcella Frank, Modern English; a practical reference guide, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1972, p. 55.
13
phrase at the end of a clause where it is easier to understand than at the beginning”.
19
Then, another is simply addressed by frank, “the passive is preferred when the “doer” of an action or, the agent is unimportant or unknown”.
20
From those explanations the writer concludes that passive voice used for make the sentence or the meaning of the action simpler to deliver.
Furthermore, in detail of its general use, parrot implies some examples of passive voice in sentences as follows:
a. To describe processes, example:
The beans are picked in late summer and are left to dry in the sun. b.
To introduce evidence, argument, or opinion, example: it is sometimes argued that ….
c. To avoid the implication of personal involvement or responsibility,
example:The vase got broken, Mum d.
With certain verbs – verbs we use when the person who did the action generally unimportant, example:He is alleged to be in sanatorium.
21
It may be illustrated for the summary of passive voice‟s usage shown by kameen :
a. Use the passive to place a short object and verb before a long subject thus
avoiding front-heavy sentences, example: The IRS has been cheated by otherwise honest individuals who feel too large
a percentage of their salaries goes for taxes and who believe that the government is wasting their tax dollars.
b. Use the “it” or “second passive” form to sound objective or to indicate that
there is no absolute proof for the statement, example: It is said that governor is a high-stakes gambler.
c. Use the agent less passive to describe technical processes and to report
research procedures and results, example: Cars are manufactured in Detroit.
19
Parrot, op. cit., p 288.
20
Frank, op. cit., p. 67.
21
Parrot, op. cit., p. 2.
14
d. Use the agent less passive to describe technical processes and to report
research procedures and results, example: Hydrogen and Chlorine were combined, and the resulting chemical reaction
was observed. e.
Use the agent less passive to describe technical processes and to report research procedures and results, example:
Hydrogen and Chlorine were combined, and the resulting chemical reaction was observed.
f. Use the passive with the by-agent phrase when referring to historically or
socially significant works, Example : Gone with the wind was written by Mitchell.
22
Else, there is a rule must be noticed in forming passive voice. Dissimilar with active, in producing passive sentence, not all the verbs are able to be turned
into passive. As it has been viewed that only transitive verbs are able to be changed to passive. Michael swan has told that “some transitive verbs cannot be
used in the passive, at least in certain of their meanings. Most of these are “stative” verbs verbs which refer to states, not actions, and which often have no
progressive forms. Example are: they have a nice house. But not: A nice house is had …”.
23
Moreover, Brown has mentioned the verbs single word transitive verbs and single-object prepositional verbs as follows :
Single word transitive verbs : agree, climb, dare, exclaim, guess, hate, have, hesitate, joke, lack, let, like, love, mind, pretend, quit, reply, resemble,
survive, swear, thanks, try, undergo, want, watch, wish, wonder, yell. Single – object prepositional verbs: agree towith, apologize tofor belong to,
bet on, come acrossfor, compete with, cope with, correspond to, glance at, laugh aboutat, listen to, live likewith, look atlike, participate in, smile at,
stay with, talk aboutto, wait forwith.
24
22
Patrick Kameen, “The passive voice : it must be spoken for” in John F. Haskel ed., TESOL NEWSLETTER,lllions: Pantagraph Printing, 1983, p. 181.
23
Michael Swan, Practical English Usage,Oxford University Press, 1983, p. 462.
24
Doughlas Brown,et al., Grammar of Spoken and Written English,London : Longman,1999, p. 481.
15
2. Forms of Active and Passive voice
The passive occurs in both spoken and written English, and it is used very frequently in technical writing.
Most verbs that take an object can be used in the passive voice, the primary focus is on the subject the agent or doer of the action
25
Passive verb-forms are made with different tenses of to be, followed by a past participle. The tenses and the rules for their use are the same as for active
verb-forms
26
. Beside that the “by phrase” is used in passive sentences when it
important to know who forms an action. And usually there is no “by phrase”
when it is not important to know who performs an action
27
. Broukal and wisniewska made rules in forming passive voice in their
book “Grammar Form and Function”, they are
28
: a.
To form the passive voice, we change the object of an active voice sentence into the subject of a passive one. The subject of the active sentence can
become the agent in a passive sentence. The agent tells who or what did the action in a passive sentence. It is introduced with the preposition by.
Subject
Verb Object
Active voice
The Pilot
flew
the airplane
Passive voice The airplane
was flown by the pilot
b. Form the passive voice with a form of the verb be + a past participle Question
use an auxiliary verb before the subject.
25
Patricia K. Werner, et. Al, interaction 2: Grammar, A venue of America, New York : McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2002, 4
th
Edition, p. 267.
26
Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, New York : Oxford University Press, 1980, p. 458.
27
Betty SchramferAzar, AlihBahasaBudjianto, Fundamental of English Grammar. EdisiDwibahasaInggris-Indonesia, Jakarta :BinarupaAksara, 19832
nd
Edition, p. 28.
28
MiladaBroukal and Ingrid Wisniewska, Grammar form and function, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, inc., 2005, pp. 212-214.
