Conclusion Researching Education Different Ways of

activities as texts or as a collection of symbols expressing layers of meaning Berg, 2004, p. 266. In deriving the actual meanings from the texts for theorizing, the verbatim transcription is preferred as it offers the advantage that all possible analytic uses are allowed for. Although laborious and time consuming, the researcher is of the opinion that since he does not know in advance what the most significant point of analysis are, doing it verbatim means he will not lose any data which may later become significant. In presenting the interview data, the researcher has decided to adopt the narrative account. This is to ensure that he remains very close to the words of the respondents and with a minimum interpretation so as to understand their views before jumping to conclusions Cookson, 1994. The documentary data is being analysed and organised for theorizing using Taylor’s 2004 critical discourse analysis CDA framework. This framework draws on Fairclough’s 2003 distinction between textually and non-textually oriented discourses and is thus a model for analysing social policy which focuses on both the social context and the linguisticsemiotic features of texts. The analysis of the texts extracted from the ‘fCUBE’ documentation is being done at the linguisticsemiotic and inter- discursiveintertextual tiers. The former centres on bringing to the fore, the linguistic and semiotic choices which have been made in the writing and layout of the ‘fCUBE’ policy- texts. This will be achieved through the examination of the following aspects of the texts extracted for analysis: • Whole text organisation structure: for example, native, argumentative, descriptive etc; • Clause combination; • Grammatical and semantic features transitivity, action, voice, mood, modality; and • Words e.g., vocabulary, collocations, use of metaphors, etc Fiarclough, 2001a, pp. 241-242. The inter-discursiveintertextual tier of analysis focuses mainly on identifying and analysing which genres and discourses are drawn on and how these are worked together in the texts. It is geared specifically towards identifying and documenting multiple and competing discourses within the ‘fCUBE’ policy-texts, highlighting the marginalised and hybrid discourses as well as exemplifying any possible discursive shifts in the policy implementation process. The use of this model is grounded in consideration of the fact that it enables the researcher to go beyond speculation and demonstrate how policy texts work in practice. Similarly, the CDA is relevant to this study because it allows a detailed investigation of the relationship of language to other social processes, and of how language works within power relations Taylor 2004, p. 436.

5. Conclusion

The relevance of the outcome of this study is two-fold. Firstly, it is hoped that it will generate useful perspectives which will show the ways by which strategies could be developed to see improvement in the implementation of the ‘fCUBE’ policy and basic 196 education provision in Ghana. Secondly, the findings may also add up to knowledge about the diverse contexts within which educational policies are implemented in Ghana and other developing countries. The findings may thus help these Governments and their Education Authorities to orient themselves towards developing theoretical frameworks and guidelines which could be useful for practitioners in implementing and improving social justice in their schools. References Ball, J. S. 1994 Education reform: A critical and Post-structural Approach. Buckingham: Open University Press. Bennett, N., Crawford, M., Riches, C. 1992 Eds. Managing Change in Education: Individual and Organisational Perspectives. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Limited. Berg, B. L. 2004 Qualitative Research Methods for Social Sciences: International Students edition 5 th Edition. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Codd, J. A. 1988 “The Construction and Deconstruction of Educational Policy Documents” in Journal of Education Policy 3 No 2 pp 235 – 247. Cookson, W. P. Jr. 1994 “The Power Discourse: Elites Narratives and Educational Policy Formation” in Walford G. Ed Researching the powerful in education: Social Research today. pp 116–130 London: UCL Press Limited. Corbitt, B. 1997 “Implementing Policy for Homeless Kids in School: Reassessing the Micro and Macro Levels in the Policy Debate in Australia” in Journal of Education Policy, 12 No 3 pp 165 – 176. Everard, K.B. and Morris, G. 2004 Effective School Management 3 rd edition London: Paul Chapman Publishing Limited. Fairclough, N. 1995 Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. London: Longman Group Limited. Fairclough, N. 2001a “The Discourse of New Labour: Critical Discourse Analysis” in Weatherall M. Taylor S. and Yates S.Eds. Discourse as data: A guide for analysis. pp 229–266. London: Open University Press. Fairclough, N. 2001c Language and Power 2 nd edition Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Fairclough, N. 2003 Analysing Discourse and Text: Textual Analysis for Social Research. London: Routledge. Fullan, M. 1988 “Research into Educational Innovation” in Glatter R., Preedy M., Riches C. and Masterton M. Eds Understanding school management. pp 195–211 Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Fullan, M. 2001 The New Meaning of Educational Change 3 rd edition. London: Routledge Falmer. GOG 1992 The Fourth Republican Constitution of Ghana. Accra: Ghana Publishing Cooperation. Huczynski, A. and Buchanan, D. 2001 Organizational Behaviour. An Introductory Text 4 th edition. London: Pearson Education Limited. Kress, G. 1989 Linguistic Processes in Sociocultural Practices 2 nd Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 197 Nudzor, H. P. 2004 “The ‘fCUBE’ programme in the Akatsi district of Ghana: Effective or Not?” MSc. Thesis. Faculty of Education: University of Strathclyde. Olssen, M., Codd, J., O’neil, A. 2004 Education Policy: Globalization, Citizenship and Democracy. London: Sage Publications Limited. Shulock, N. 1999 “The Paradox of Policy Analysis: If It Is Not Used Why Do We Produce So Much Of It?” in Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 182, 226– 244. Taylor, S. 2004 Researching educational policy and change in ‘new times’: Using critical discourse analysis. Journal of Education Policy 19 No 4 pp 433 – 451. Trowler, P. 1998 Education Policy: A Policy Sociology Approach. Eastbourne, East Sussex: The Gildridge Press Limited. Walford, G. 2000 Policy and Politics in Education: Sponsored Grant-maintained Schools and Religious Diversity. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Wengraf, T. 2001 Qualitative Research Interviewing. London: Sage Publication Limited. 198 ‘Different ways of knowing and doing’: using mixed methods of data collection and analysis within the same PhD study David Preece Abstract This paper compares and contrasts two different methods of data collection used within my PhD research, which is concerned with identifying factors associated with the use and non-use of short breaks respite care services by families who have children with autistic spectrum disorder ASD. After outlining the rationale for combining methods within this study, I move on to outline the methods under consideration: • a self-assessment postal questionnaire, to be analysed using Excel and SPSS • semi-structured interviews with families with children with ASD including siblings and the children with ASD themselves, to be analysed using NVivo. The design processes of both data collection tools are discussed, and particular emphasis is given to common factors, including: • steps taken to ensure the research is grounded both in the literature and the experience of the researched and to minimise researcher bias • fitness and appropriateness for purpose • ethical issues • questions of validity and reliability • data inputting and coding issues • the inevitability of trade-offs and limitations The argument is made that, if used appropriately and rigorously, quantitative and qualitative methods can fruitfully be combined within the same study to shed light on different types of ‘knowledge’ about the same phenomenon. Introduction This paper compares and contrasts two different methods of data collection used within my PhD research. After outlining the rationale for combining methods within this study, I move on to outline the methods under consideration: • a self-assessment postal questionnaire, analysed using Excel and SPSS • semi-structured interviews with families with children with autism spectrum disorder ASD – including siblings and children with ASD themselves – analysed using NVivo. 199 The design processes of both data collection tools are discussed. Common factors are identified, including the minimisation of researcher bias; fitness and appropriateness for purpose; ethical issues; validity and reliability; data inputting and coding; and trade-offs and limitations. It is suggested that quantitative and qualitative methods can fruitfully be combined within the same study to shed light on different types of ‘knowledge’ about the same phenomenon. Overall focus of the study My doctoral study is concerned with investigating factors associated with the use – and non-use – of ‘short breaks’ or respite care services by families that have children with ASD. This study is relevant and timely, as the topic has received little attention up till now. Research within the field of education has identified that the impact of the characteristic impairments of children with ASD is such that their needs may differ from those of other disabled children, and that differentiated approaches and methods of service delivery may be beneficial Jordan and Jones 1997. However, although it has been identified that children with ASD prove a challenge to short breaks services Carlin, Morrison, Bullock and Nawaz 2004, there has been little research into the needs of these children and their families in this area. Where research has been carried out, the findings are limited, for a number of reasons. Studies have focused almost exclusively on the needs and wishes of parents Barson 1998; Brady 1998; Oberheim 1996; Preece 2000; Sargent 1995. This reliance on parents’ views and interpretations can ignore the child’s perspective Shakespeare, Barnes, Priestley, Cunninghambirley, Davis and Watson 1999. Furthermore, many studies have had small and potentially unrepresentative samples: for example, Barson 1998 surveyed just 53 families – all of whom were members of the National Autistic Society – to report on the needs of families in Wales; and Tarleton and Macaulay’s UK-wide study 2002 was based on a response rate of only 15. Finally, the conclusions suggested by the literature are contradictory, dependent upon authors’ standpoints. While some stress the importance and value of short breaks in enabling families to continue caring for their disabled child Robinson and Stalker 1990 others consider such services abnormal, and that they stigmatise disabled children, reinforcing their status as a problem for the family, and segregating children in preparation for a life of separation as an adult Cocks 2000; Middleton 1999. This research is important to me in my role as a practitioner, as I manage short breaks services for children with ASD and their families within an English shire county. It is essential that the services I manage are fit for purpose, and that the views and priorities of children with ASD and their families are taken into account in shaping these services. Epistemological position and research questions These research aims and my stance as a practitioner are consistent with my realist epistemological position May 2001; Sayer 2000. Realism argues that the function of research within the social sciences is to identify the mechanisms and structures of the social world, in order to understand the policies and practices that exist within it May 200 2001. This social world is complex and stratified, incorporating individual, interactive, institutional and societal layers. While individuals’ understanding of it may be only partial, this knowledge nonetheless affects their behaviour; and while they may be unaware of the underlying mechanisms of the social world, these mechanisms impact upon and shape their experience. This research is further informed by family systems theory Seligman and Darling 1997: instead of considering ‘parents’ or ‘disabled children’ separately as much of the literature has done, I have approached families as interactive units comprising discrete yet interdependent individuals, with both individual and group needs. This research study is concerned with critical interpretation. To comprehend a social practice such as short breaks it is necessary to identify and interpret what the practice means to the various individuals involved. All of these actors in the process may hold differing assumptions and beliefs about the practice, dependent on their role, understanding and beliefs. Children with ASD – and their families – experience stress and social exclusion both because of the inherent problems of ASD and due to conditions and mechanisms within society such as the value society places on disabled people, and the priority it gives to meeting their needs, and the needs of those who care for and live with them. I believe that a social practice such as short breaks can only be explained through interpretation, and that research should not only collect observations, but examine the mechanisms that affect the choices and inform the actions of the researched. Therefore the research questions I am seeking to address in this study are: • What factors affect the use and non-use of short breaks by families with children with ASD? • How do factors internal to and external of the family interact with regard to service use or non-use? • How do parents, siblings, children with ASD and service providers conceptualise the practice of short breaks, and what do they perceive as quality and outcomes? Mixed design A mixed design is used to address these research questions. Social phenomena are complex and varied, and so different methods may be appropriate to different aspects of an enquiry. As Greene, Benjamin and Goodyear 2001, p25 suggest, “The social phenomena that we study ‘on the ground’ in the real world are unarguably complex, dynamic and contextually diverse…We therefore need to use all our methodological expertise and skills in this endeavour for contemporary understanding of social issues. We need to marshall all of our multiple ways of knowing, and their associated multiple ways of valuing, in the service of credible and useful understanding.” Using mixed methods can result in greater validity and credibility of inferences, more comprehensive findings, more insightful understandings, and an increased consciousness 201 of diverse values and perspectives Greene et al. 2001. In this study I have used different research methods depending upon their appropriateness to address the questions being asked. In this paper I consider two stages of the research and the methods used within each stage: these are • the initial phase of the research, which was undertaken by way of a self-completion postal questionnaire sent to parents • a later stage, in which I interviewed a number of families parents, siblings and children with ASD using semi-structured interviews. I shall now move on to briefly describe these stages of the research, before considering issues of commonality between them. Surveying the parents The initial phase of the research Preece and Jordan 2006 was undertaken to ascertain the range of services used by families with children with ASD, and to identify factors significantly associated with the use or non-use of short breaks. Acknowledging that samples should be as representative as possible of the whole population Edwards and Talbot 1999, the sample group for this study comprised all families with children who had a firm diagnosis of ASD within the county in which I work who were registered on the local authority’s register of disabled children when the survey was undertaken in autumn 2003 n = 278. Comparison with health and education databases suggested that this was between 70-80 of all such families. The instrument selected for this phase of the research was a self-completion postal questionnaire. This was selected because the literature identifies Edwards and Talbot 1999; Robson 2002 that surveys: • are the most effective way of obtaining information about a large set of people • can quickly provide large amounts of standardised data • are relatively unobtrusive, which can improve response rates • can ensure anonymity, maximising frankness and validity. Interviewing the families The analysis of this phase of the research was carried out using SPSS and Excel Nelson 2002; Pallant 2001. In the event, 155 families completed the survey a response rate of 60.5; and analysis of the data yielded some interesting results and raised some interesting directions for further study. One of these areas was to explore how families with children with ASD experience their lives, looking in particular at why some families seek formal support and others do not, and to identify the types of support that families find most helpful and appropriate. 202 A semi-structured interview format was identified as being the most appropriate data collection instrument for this phase of the research. Such a format offers a number of advantages Edwards and Talbot 1999; Gillham 2000; Robson 2002 including: • 100 response rate to questions • the opportunity to probe and explore meanings and interpretations in a flexible and individualised manner • providing rich, deep and potentially illuminating and insightful data for qualitative analysis. Analysis of this data would be undertaken using NVivo Gibbs 2002. The analysis of the survey data had revealed that the total population of families with children with ASD could be segmented into three groups - users of short breaks, would- be users of short breaks, and families who did not wish to use a service – whose members held statistically significantly different views about some issues concerning short breaks. Each of these groups contained a number of families who had children who were highly dependent in the survey I made use of Robinson and Stalker’s 10 Point Dependence Scale 1990 to identify the child’s level of dependence and who had indicated at the time of being surveyed that they and in some cases, their children would be willing to be interviewed. In total, 60 families – parents, siblings and children with ASD – met these criteria. This was the population from which I would draw the sample group. Areas of commonality It can be clearly seen that these are very different pieces of research, using different methods. However, they are underpinned by a number of common factors. In this section, I shall explore some of these factors. Minimising researcher bias As a practitioner with over 25 years experience of working within the field of short breaks, I inevitably have a number of ‘pre-understandings’ Usher 1996 about the topic. I am aware that that these pre-understandings may be inconsistent both with those of other researchers in the field and of the researched who may have very different ideas with regard to the nature of short breaks and methods of service delivery. Bias would inevitably result from designing the research instruments – both the survey questionnaire and the interview questions – based upon my assumptions and attitudes alone. It was vital therefore to ground the design of both instruments within both the literature and the experience of the researched whom I wished to ensure were involved in deciding what questions should be asked. In both cases, design was preceded by a lengthy literature search. Regarding the survey, this centred on questionnaire design; with regard to the interviews, I reviewed the literature regarding interviewing families; ascertaining, through interviews, the opinions of children; and ascertaining the views of children with ASD. Furthermore, the design of 203 both tools was carried out with the involvement of parents of children with ASD, who were similar to, but distinct from, the sample groups. The survey questionnaire was designed in collaboration with parent members of the local autism society in a neighbouring county Preece 2005. The areas of questioning in the interviews derived from the analysis of the survey data, and the interview questions were trialled with the mother of a highly dependent child with ASD who had used short breaks some years previously before the child was placed at a residential school. Ethical issues There were a number of common ethical issues to be considered with regard to both phases of the research. How these were addressed differed dependent upon the nature of the research process. Some, like guaranteeing anonymity, were able to be addressed in the same way across the studies. With regard to others, the different nature of the research process required a different approach. For example, with regard to consent, in the survey this was interpreted by response: the act of sending back the completed questionnaire was considered as giving consent. With regard to the interviews, the concept of consent was more complex. Due to the emergent nature of the interview process, it was impossible to fully inform the family of what they were consenting to beforehand Miller and Bell 2002. Furthermore, Lindsay 2000 argues that researchers have extra responsibilities when children are participating in research, and that among the factors to be considered in ensuring the child is adequately informed are their age, cognitive ability, life experience and emotional state. The situation was even more sensitive when consulting directly with children with ASD, who have difficulties with communication, social interaction and events out of the ordinary Preece 2002. For all of these reasons, consent was considered as an ongoing process, both during and after the interviews. Validity and reliability Regardless of the nature of the research tool, validity and reliability are crucial, and similar processes were carried out with regard to both stages of the research to maximise validity and reliability. • Sample selection was rigorously addressed. In the survey, the whole population was sampled. In the interview process, a dimensional approach was used Robson 2002 utilising clearly defined primary dimensions high dependence of child, willingness to participate in interviews, secondary dimensions whether or not the family had a social worker, child’s school placement, child’s age, child’s diagnosis and tertiary dimensions number of adults in household, number of children in household, ethnicity, derived from the earlier research, to ensure that families would be appropriately differentiated across these dimensions to provide illustrative case studies. • The research was designed in conjunction with ‘the researched’. • Pre-testing was carried out by piloting the research instruments with similar but discrete populations. 204 • Checking for ‘face validity’ or reasonableness was carried out by comparing the data to that produced in the pilot study and with my pre-understandings and experience. • Data was triangulated with other sources of information. Coding and data inputting In both phases of the research it was essential to begin the classification and coding process before the piloting stage. As Rose and Sullivan 1996, p 38 write, “the coding process is the first step in preparing data for computer analysis. It constitutes the first step in mapping our observations into data”. Furthermore it was acknowledged that some responses would not fit pre-existing codes, and that coding would be an iterative process. Another common factor was that data inputting was a lengthy and painstaking process. Regarding the survey, I had to transfer the data from 155 questionnaires onto an Excel spreadsheet. Regarding the interviews, I had to transcribe 42 interviews 12 with mothers, 6 with fathers, 2 with both parents, 10 with siblings and 12 with children with ASD into Microsoft Word, before inputting into NVivo. In both cases the data preparation process took over three months. Tensions and trade-offs Finally, some tensions and trade-offs were common to both phases of the research. I experienced role discomfort during the design of both tools, with parents viewing me as a knowledgeable and informed professional, while I was coming to them as a researcher. This role discomfort continued throughout many of the research interviews. Daly 1992 identifies that families being interviewed can easily confuse the researcher role with that of ‘expert helper’, particularly if the researcher also has a professional role separate to the research they are undertaking. With regard to both research tools, the question format I finally used differed from that desired by the parents collaborating in the process – I had to acknowledge that collaboration did not mean unquestioning acceptance. And in both cases my wish to hold an ethical, honest and rigorous stance – refusing to ‘target’ families on whom to pilot the survey to influence the data, and interviewing only families who met the requirements of the dimensional sampling model – impacted upon access and participation. Summary This paper describes how mixed methods such as surveys and interviews can be used to shed light on different types of ‘knowledge’ about the same phenomenon, and suggests that there are more areas of commonality between these different ways of ‘knowing’ and ‘doing’ than might at first be first apparent. As Gorard and Taylor 2004, pviii state, “all 205 research has an overarching logic, and…within this, the fruitful combination of methods is possible”. References Barson, C. 1998 Autism: Supporting the Family. London: National Autistic Society. Brady, P. 1998 Shaping Family Support.. Nottingham: National Autistic Society. Carlin, J., Morrison, J., Bullock, J. and Nawaz, S. 2004 All Kinds of Short Breaks. Bristol: Shared Care Network. Cocks, A. 2000 “Respite care for disabled children: micro and macro reflections” in Disability and Society 15 pp 507 – 519. Daly, K. 1992 “The fit between qualitative research and characteristics of families” in Gilgun, J.F., Daly, K. and Handel, G. eds Qualitative Methods in Family Research pp 3 – 11 Newbury Park: Sage. Edwards, A. and Talbot, R. 1999 The Hard-pressed Researcher. 2 nd Edition. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Gibbs, G.R. 2002 Qualitative Data Analysis: Explorations with NVivo. Buckingham: Open University Press. Gillham, B. 2000 The Research Interview. London: Continuum. Gorard, S. with Taylor, C. 2004 Combining Methods in Educational and Social Research. Maidenhead: pen University Press. Greene, J.C., Benjamin, L. and Goodyear, L. 2001 “The merits of mixing methods in evaluation” in Evaluation 7 pp 25 – 44. Jordan, R. and Jones, G. 1997 “Measuring quality of provision for children with autism” in Linfoot, G., Shattock, P., Savery, D. and Whiteley, P. eds Living and Learning with Autism.. Sunderland: Autism Research Unit. Lindsay, G. 2000 “Researching children’s perspectives: ethical issues” in Lewis, A. and Lindsay, G. eds Researching Children’s Perspectives pp 3 – 20 Buckingham: Open University Press. May, T. 2001 Social Research. Buckingham: Open University Press. Middleton, L. 1999 Disabled Children: Challenging Social Exclusion. Oxford: Blackwell Science. Miller, T. and Bell, L. 2002 “Consenting to what? Issues of access, gatekeeping and informed consent” in Mauthner, M., Mirch, M., Jessop, J. and Miller, T. eds Ethics in Qualitative Research pp 53 – 69 London: Sage. Nelson, S.L. 2002 Excel Data Analysis for Dummies. New York: Wiley. Oberheim, D. 1996 The Support Needs of Adults and Children with Autism and their Carers in Kent. Gillingham: Kent Autistic Trust. Pallant, J. 2001 SPSS Survival Manual. Buckingham: Open University Press. Preece, D. 2000 “An investigation into parental satisfaction with a short-term care service for children with an autistic spectrum disorder” in Good Autism Practice 1 pp 42 – 56. Preece, D. 2002 “Consultation with children with autistic spectrum disorders about their experience of short-term residential care” in British Journal of Learning Disabilities 30 pp 97 – 104. 206 Preece, D. 2005 “Negotiating different agendas: designing a research tool through collaboration with parents of children with autistic spectrum disorder” in Bhaowises, C., Evans, D., Mariou, E., Muhammad, N. and Sousa de las Heras, L. Eds Papers from the Student Conference held on Saturday 4 th June 2005. pp 107 – 117 Birmingham: University of Birmingham School of Education Preece, D. and Jordan, R. 2006 “Short breaks services for children with autistic spectrum disorders: factors associated with service use and non-use” in Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders in press. Robinson, C. and Stalker, K. 1990 Respite Care: the consumer’s view. Bristol: Norah Fry Research Centre. Robson, C. 2002 Real World Research. 2 nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Rose, D. and Sullivan, O. 1996 Introducing Data Analysis for Social Scientists. 2 nd Edition. Buckingham: Open University Press. Sargent, J.A. 1995 The Future of Respite Care Resources for Children with Autism in North East Essex. Colchester: Essex County Council. Sayer, A. 2000 Realism and Social Science. London: Sage. Seligman, M. and Darling, R.B. 1997 Ordinary Families, Special Children. 2 nd Edition. New York: Guilford Press. Shakespeare, T., Barnes, C., Priestley, M., Cunninghambirley, S., Davis, J. and Watson, N. 1999 Life as a Disabled Child. Leeds: University of Leeds Disability Research Unit. Tarleton, B. and Macaulay, F. 2002 Better for the Break? York: Shared Care Network. Usher, R. 1996 “A critique of the neglected epistemological assumptions of educational research” in Scott, D. and Usher, R. eds Understanding Educational Research. pp 9 – 32 London: Routledge. 207 An investigation into the Integration of Information, Communications and Technology in Taiwanese Primary Schools: Effects on and Changes to Administration and Management Fang--Kai Tang Abstract Following a brief introduction about background and the research aims, the rationale of methodology and research design was highlighted in order to examine the different ways to approach the research. In approaching this research, case studies involving four Taiwanese public primary schools were chosen as the research strategy. Questionnaires, interviews and document reviews were the research sources. During the data analysis stage, both quantitative and qualitative approaches were applied. In addition, since the nature of this research involved people as the sources of data, ethical issues were carefully considered.

1. Introduction