Researching Education Different Ways of

CONTENTS

Page 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Introduction

Foreword by D.A. Evans Notes on Contributors

Kholode Mohammad Al-Obaidli: The Identity of ESL Teachers in Independent Schools in Qatar and the Reform of Education in Qatar Samuel Ofori Bekoe: Researching the Practice of Professionals in Education: Is there any Best Methodology/Method?

Katharine Carter: Knowing the System: Investigating how UK H.E. Teachers’ Thinking is Shaped by Experiences of Teaching in

International Contexts

Shagufta Shafqat Chandi: Systems Thinking as a Tool for Teaching and Learning Biological Complexity

I-Fang Chung: Students’ Attitudes towards English Teaching and Learning at Senior High Schools in Taiwan

Eulet Davy: Researching Education: Different Ways of Knowing and Doing in Educating Black Young People

D.A. Evans: Do Aspects of Pupil Identity Account for the Poor Performance of Boys in Modern Foreign Languages at Secondary School by Comparison with Girls?

Shirley Evans: E-learning – Accessibility, Usability E-learning – Accessibility, Usability and Pedagogical Issues for Blind Learners: Data Presentation and Analysis from the Main study of a PhD programme at Birmingham University

Samuel Hayford: Examining the Impact of Continuous Assessment on the Motivation and Learning of Lower Achieving Primary School Children in Two LEA’s in Ghana

Jennie Henley: Learn as You Play: An Investigation into Adult Instrumental Group Learning

4 7 8 12 22 30 39 46 55 68 80 90 99

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Yi-Cheng Huang: Senior High School Students’ Attitudes towards School Political Education in Taiwan: A Pilot Study through Focus Group Interviews

Se-young, Hwang: Researching teachers’ thinking and practice in environmental education: reflections on the research framework Darius Jackson: Museums and the Different Ways of Learning About the Holocaust in Britain

Rachael Jackson: Undertaking Research on Thinking Skills in Religious

Barbara Majer: “Different ways of knowing? No thanks: you came on this course to learn the right way!”

Joel Maketla Mamabolo: Perspectives of Young Offenders and Teachers in a Youth Centre in South Africa: Rehabilitation through Education?

Euzobia Mugisha Baine: The Impact of Liberalisation on Promoting Gender Equity : A Case Study of Uganda’s Teacher Education Institutions

Baishali Mukherjee: Music and Musicality, a base for learning: Musical Interactions with Children with Autism

Singhanat Kenny Nomnian: Investigating Classroom Engagement of a Thai ESL Learner in an EAP Course in a British University Hope Pius Nudzor: The ‘fCUBE’ policy in Ghana: Reality or Rhetoric? An Interpretive and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Perspective

David Preece: ‘Different Ways of knowing and doing’ : using mixed methods of data collection and analysis within the same PhD study Fang-Kai Tang: An Investigation into the Integration of Information, Communications and Technology in Taiwanese Primary Schools : Effects on and Changes to Administration and Management.

Mei Tian: Researching educational experiences of Chinese Masters’ students: the use of audio diary in longitudinal qualitative research Qi Wang: A Real Story of Doing a PhD - The Development of My Literature Review 107 117 127 133 141 150 160 169 180 189 199 208 215 225

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Paul Weeden: Using large national data sets to explore patterns of subject choice

Hua Yang: Understanding experiences of being a Chinese overseas student in the United Kingdom: learning, culture and identity Posters

Gianna Andreou Maria Rontou

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‘WAYS OF KNOWING AND DOING’ STUDENT CONFERENCE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

1st July 2006 INTRODUCTION

Background to the conference

The Student Conference organised by the School of Education for postgraduate students has now been running for five years. The aim of the conference is to give students the opportunity of celebrating their research in a supportive and friendly environment. This is particularly important for those who are just beginning their journey towards a postgraduate degree.

One of the most challenging things for any committee when trying to organise a conference, is deciding the topic that ‘glues’ the day together. What should be the theme that links a dispersed group of postgraduate researchers together, that encapsulates the breadth of educational exploration and yet captures the individual experience of research? What could be a common strand?

Clearly there is a wealth of topics to choose from but what all of the delegates, contributors, experts and our guest speaker have in common is that we are all engaged in a quest for knowledge. And the ways that we go about collecting that knowledge are rich and diverse. From here it is a small step to a theme linking this research community together: the theme of the University of Birmingham’s student conference for 2006 was ‘Ways of Knowing and Doing’.

Structure of the day

We were fortunate this year to have as our guest speaker Professor Richard Pring. His keynote address was inspirational and enabled us to start the day with a sense of common purpose. This year we changed the order of the day and invited the audience to question our ‘expert panel’ of educational scholars. Questions were diverse and thought-provoking, and we are grateful to Professor Angela Creese, Professor Ann Lewis, Dr. Steve Rayner and Dr. Jim McGrath (who stepped in at a moment’s notice) for sharing their time and expertise with conference delegates.

The introduction of a lunch-time workshop was another innovation for this year. Not only did the lunch break provide opportunities for networking and meeting up with colleagues old and new, but also provided the opportunity to join in a workshop run by Alison Taysum on writing for publication.

The afternoon session consisted of three parallel sessions of presentations. Presenters were at different stages of their postgraduate degrees and for some this was their first opportunity to disseminate their work.

In spite of the competition from the World Cup and Wimbledon tennis, the day finished with a substantial number of delegates who took part in a short plenary session that reflected on the day in terms of a platform to disseminate research as well as part of the student learning experience.

The proceedings

The response to the theme of ‘Ways of Knowing and Doing’ was impressive. As a result of this enthusiasm several sub-themes emerged including: educational disadvantage, relating to themes such as ethnicity or disability; adult learners, ranging from experiences of EFL students to approaches to learning; music, the role of music to encourage participation; design and methodologies, embracing educational and essentialist views of culture as well as issues of reflection and reflexivity; politics and policy, examining attitudes towards political education and the policy implementation paradox; language, discussing gender issues in relation to modern foreign languages and learner identity of bi-lingual adult students; finally, secondary education that reflects on teaching thinking and practice as well as the decline of student numbers in GCSE geography.

This book is a collection of these themes, which are arranged in alphabetical order by author; further information on the authors can be found in ‘Notes on Contributors’. In accordance with our philosophy that the conference is a learning experience, submitting a paper for publication is voluntary – some students who presented chose not to be published. We have also included the posters presented at the conference – these can be found in a separate section towards the end of this book.

Acknowledgements

Putting together a conference such as this requires considerable effort and, with one exception, all members of the committee are Doctoral students at the School of Education. As that exception, I would like to take this opportunity of thanking all the committee members for their dedication and hard work:

Host/Management Team Natasha MacNab

Gill Eveleigh Jan Georgeson Samuel Hayford Marie English

Conference Marketing Alison Taysum

Konstantina Lampropoulou Kholode Al-Obaidli

Submissions/Proceedings Dave Evans

Carole Nicholson Chris Corcoran

The conference also has as its foundation excellent administrative support and I would like to thank Denise Lees and Helen Joinson for their expertise and attention to detail. Also, thanks to Dr. Steve Rayner, Director of Studies, for his input, especially on the day itself.

Finally, preparations for the next conference are already underway and we hope to see you all again on 30th June 2007.

With best wishes, Dr. Chris Corcoran

Postgraduate Research Manager Chair, Student Conference

‘Ways of Knowing and Doing’ Foreword

Dave Evans

University of Birmingham

When I first attended University of Birmingham, School of Education as a part-time student on the PGCert course I was fascinated by the subject known as ‘epistemology’. This asks and attempts to answer the question ‘What is knowledge?’ As a mature student this was the first ‘ology’ I had studied in many years and I began to see how important it is to know what facts are. Are they something ‘out there’ that have always existed since the beginning of time and are patiently waiting for us to discover them or are they constructed by us as we try to make sense of the world?

In other words, is knowledge separate from us and objective or is it a part of us, created mutually by our beliefs and perceptions to which we subsequently all sign up? Is it objective or subjective or maybe both? This debate was reflected on the day of the conference by our key speaker, Professor Pring who talked about different methodological designs to address different areas of knowledge from the large scale to the lived experience of individuals. This debate was also broached in open forum with our expert panel. I still think this is fascinating and perhaps we should return to it more fully at another conference. I also think it wonderful that so many people can come together to share their own individual journey on the long path to understanding and knowledge. Each research project is unique and yet I feel we are a community that explores the social world and shares the ideals that ultimately the outcome of our projects will somehow contribute to its justice.

Dave Evans July 2006

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Kholode Al-Obaidli is a PhD student studying at the moment at the School of

Education, University of Birmingham. Her thesis is about “The Identity of ESL teachers in Independent Schools and the Reform of Education in Qatar”, the first PhD in Qatar to cover the Reform of Education, sponsored by the Higher Education Institute in Qatar. She had finished her master in Educational Technology and ELT from University of Manchester in 2003, and her Bachelor in Education and ELT from Qatar University in Qatar 1998. She has been teaching English in Ministry of Education Schools in Qatar for 4 years and served as a Head of ELT Department in the Language Teaching Institute IN Qatar until now.

Samuel Ofori Bekoe

holds a combined BEd degree in Social Studies and Mathematics Education from the University of Education in Winneba, Ghana, where he subsequently worked as a Teaching Assistant. He is currently in the final year of his PhD studies at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow, Scotland.

Katharine Carter

is a full time Staff and Educational Development Officer at the University of Nottingham, and a part time Phd student at the University of Nottingham School of Education.

Shagufta Shafqat Chandi

is a full time PhD student (2nd year) in the

Faculty of Education, Department of Sports, Culture and Arts, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland. International student (Pakistan), MSc (Biology) and MEd

4 Year experience as a Science teacher in Secondary School 2 years experience as a biology Lecturer at college level Contact: Mobile number: 07910574117

Email: shagufta.shafqat-chandi@strath.ac.uk; shag_shaf2000@yahoo.co.uk

I-Fang Chung

is an EdD student in Applied Linguistics and ELT at CELTE, The University of Warwick. Before doing her doctoral studies, she had taught English at high school in Taiwan for 7 years. She has passed her oral examination in June, 2006.

Eulet Davy

is a teacher of English with experience in Section 11; Ethnic Minority Achievement (EMA); the supplementary school sector and private tutoring. Current research interests involve: Improving educational outcomes for Black young people. This research has been made possible by an award from the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).

David A. Evans

completed a B.Ed hons degree in 1977 with French as main subject, awarded by the University of Bristol . He has taught modern languages in secondary schools for almost 30 years with a year spent teaching English in a French‘college’. He completed a Master’s degree in Education at the O.U in 2000, a P.G.Cert. in Research

Skills in 2004 at the University of Birmingham and is now reading for a Ph.D at the University of Birmingham.

Shirley Evans

is Manager of ICT/E-learning and Research, Development and Consultancy at The Royal National College for the Blind (RNC) in Hereford. My main research interest is e-learning and blindness. I am in the final stages of a PhD in this subject at the University of Birmingham and I am particularly interested in the additional cognitive load imposed by the assistive technology and the impact on the learning process.

Samuel Hayford

is a 4th Year PhD student, School of Education, University of Birmingham; former Lecturer at the University of Education in Ghana. Published 11 articles in referenced journals, including ISEC 2000 at Manchester, and BERA Conference 2005; 5 modules of distance education training materials for Degree programmes in Ghana and co-authored 4 books for undergraduate studies in Special Educational Needs (SEN).

Jennie Henley works for Gloucestershire Music as a flute tutor and music centre

director. She has been involved with adult instrumental learning both as a tutor and a manager, working with the ‘Learn As You Play’ scheme since its inception. She is researching for her PhD at the University of Central England.

Yi-Cheng Huang

is a 3rd year EdD student at Institute of Education, Warwick University, UK. He has recently passed his viva of doctoral thesis with the title “Youth, Schooling and Politics: A Study of Senior High School Students Attitudes towards School Political Education in Taiwan”.

Se-young Hwang is a doctoral student at University of Bath. She is currently at

mid-way stage in her doctoral project that is concerned with environmental education discourses and narratives, with focus on teachers’ narratives in Korea. Her broad research interests contain learning and education opportunities around environmental consciousness.

Darius Jackson is Lecturer in History and Citizenship in Education at the School of

Education, University of Birmingham. He taught History, amongst other subjects, for 19 years in a variety of comprehensive schools in Gloucestershire and Birmingham. His two main areas of research are in how children construct meaning from studying the holocaust in schools, and how reception and K.S.1 children construct an understanding of time.

Rachael Jackson

has a BA and MA in Religious Studies and a PGCE in Religious Education have been obtained from the University of London. Currently undertaking a PhD at the University of Birmingham. Taught in mixed, single sex, comprehensive, grammar, state and private secondary schools both in the United Kingdom and Africa.

Barbara Majer

began her teaching career in the 1970s while on a post-graduatescholarship in the former Czechoslovakia. Since then she has taught English in colleges, prisons and community venues. The central role played by language in a person’s identity is an abiding passion and it forms the foundation of her research interests.

Joel Maketla Mamabolo

completed BA Ed. in 1985 (South Africa) and MA in 1988 at Sussex University. In 2003, the Ford Foundation awarded me a scholarship to study for PhD in Curriculum Reform at Birmingham University. I worked as a lecturer for 12 years (1986-1998) responsible for initial teacher trainees. In 1999 to date I served as a senior education specialist in (SA) Department of Education.

Euzobia Mugisha Baine

is third year PhD (Education) candidate at the University of Birmingham. She obtained her BA (Social Sciences) from Makerere University, Uganda and MA (Development Studies) from the Institute of Social Studies, The Netherlands. She is interested in the role of education, particularly teachers, in promoting gender equality.

Baishali Mukherjee

is a PhD student at the Department of Childhood and Primary Studies, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow. I hold a Master degree in Psychology and diplomas in Indian classical dance and music. The dream behind my PhD is to pioneer an effective musical intervention for children with autism in India, with Indian music.

Singhanat Kenny Nomnian is an EdD student in TESOL and Applied Linguistics

at School of Education, University of Leicester. He was previously an EFL lecturer at Mahidol University, Kanchanaburi Campus, Thailand. His current research interests are postgraduate students’ identities and agency and classroom engagement in a British university and D/discourse analysis. He could be reached at: sn73@le.ac.uk

Hope Pius Nudzor

is a full-time PhD Candidate MSc. in Management and Leadership in Education (University of Strathclyde–2004); BA in Linguistics (University of Ghana–2001). E-mail: hope.p.nudzor@strath.ac.uk

Department of Educational and Professional Studies, University of Strathclyde, Crawfurd Building, C 113, 76 Southbrae Drive, Glasgow, G13 1PP.

David Preece

has an MEd in Autism from the University of Birmingham, and manages Northamptonshire County Council’s services for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and their families, including ‘short breaks’ (respite care) services. He is currently undertaking a PhD at the University of Birmingham, supervised by Prof. Rita Jordan, researching factors associated with the use and non-use of short breaks by families with children with ASD. He has authored/co-authored a number of published articles, and has presented at the Autism Europe Congress (Glasgow, 2000), British Psychological Society Conference (2001), Chiba Prefecture Conference on Autism, Japan (2004), TEACCH-UK Conference (2001, 2005) and Division TEACCH International

In-service, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (1998, 2001, 2005). Contact: david_preece@tiscali.co.uk

Fang-Kai Tang is a PhD student at the University of Birmingham. His main interests

are ICT supporting educational administration and management, ICT supporting teaching and learning, virtual learning environment, developing online learning communities and distant learning.

Mei Tian

(Temmy) is a second year PhD student from Xi’an, China, in the Department of Education, University of Bath. Before this, she was an English teacher in China and then did an MA at Bath. Her general research interest is the learning experiences of Chinese masters’ students in the UK. Adopting a diary method as the main data resource, she aims to problematize essentialist views of Chinese culture, particularly the Chinese ‘culture of learning’. She is now in the stage of data collection.

Qi Wang

is a PhD student in the department of education at the University of Bath. She is currently writing up her thesis. Her PhD study is about a localized lifelong learning programme in Shanghai, China and its participants’ perception of the programme and the labour market competition. Her broad research interest is education and national development.

Paul Weeden

is lecturer in geography education at the University of Birmingham, having previously worked at the University of Bristol and as a humanities advisory teacher. He taught in a Bristol Comprehensive for 17 years. He has wide experience of GCSE examining and has undertaken a number of research projects for QCA and awarding bodies.

Hua Yang, completed her B.A. Hon. at HeBei Univeristy in China in 2003. She

completed her Master’s degree at the University of York in 2004, and got a research student studentship from the School of Education of the University of Manchester. Currently, she is doing her Ph. D in Education. Her research interests are cultural and identity issues in multicultural contexts, especially those about experiences of Chinese overseas students, their learning needs, and their developmental constructions of identities.

Different Ways of Knowing and Doing: Different Ways of Understanding the Identity of ESL Teachers in Independent Schools and the Reform of Education in

Qatar

Kholode Al-Obaidli

Abstract

My research is based on the idea of transforming the culture of education within a sector of the school system in Qatar. To begin with I will explore the Qatari context in terms of its legacy of practices and the dominant culture in teacher identity. This will involve describing the overall structure of education in Qatar as well as its general educational culture. I will also describe the structures of institutions and the kinds of identities that are enabled within these structures for teachers – particularly in relation to the idea of teacher development. In addition, the contemporary political situation in Qatar will be explored in terms of (i) outside influences and the call for modernization and (ii) in terms of Islamic culture.

My paper will then explore the dominant paradigms of professional identity –particularly in relation to the idea of reflective practice as a model of transformation. Using Dewey as a key starting point, the philosophy and the value of reflective practice will be explored, identifying key positions and the necessary inclusion of reflection into professional domains of teaching. A key move, however, will be to consider the western tradition of reflective practice – with its implications for ideas about identity – in relation to Islamic philosophy. This will involve some account of key figures within Islamic philosophy and the ontological and epistemological implications of their work. My research will seek to bring together these two apparently different traditions to construct some synthesis between them in order to provide a model for reflective practice in the contemporary Qatari context.

To begin with the practical component of the research will examine patterns of identity within existing institutions among teachers. At the centre of this exploration of identity in contemporary Qatari teachers is the idea of narrative paying particular attention to where the potential for development may be revealed. This will involve some engagement with discourse analysis as a tool for exploring aspects of the self. Some preliminary materials – garnered from practical research in Qatar - will provide sample evidence to illustrate the issues arising form this attempt to construct a methodology to explore teacher identity and its possibilities for reflective transformation.

Qatari Context

Supreme Education Council (SEC): Education for a new era

HH Shakiha Mouza bint Nasser Al-Messend (Consort of HH Emir, Vice Chair of SEC) said at the Oxford Islamic Studies Centre in London:

'Education is not only the right for every citizen but also a pillar of developed and just society, Qatar recognises the power of education in stimulating a genuine cultural, social and political awaking. The principles of collaboration, respect for others, and popular participation have been the impetus to changes in all levels of our educational structure' (March, 2005)

Qatar began a series of educational reforms in 1998.The goal of the reform is to build a modern, world-class school system to provide Qatari children with a high quality education comparable to that offered in the best schools around the globe because:

1. The current system fails to produce the right, adequate outcomes. Universities find incoming students poorly prepared and unmotivated, and industry finds graduates lacking in the required knowledge and skills.

2. The traditional curriculum is not geared to global or domestic developments, and emphasises race-learning (i.e. number one is the best).

3. The rigidity of the centralised government-operated system does not allow for flexibility and improvement.

Therefore, since year 2004, the state of Qatar laid the foundation and put in place the infrastructure for education reform. The Supreme Education Council and its three institutes - the Education Institute, the Evaluation Institute and the Higher Education Institute - are now in operation. These organisations oversee education reform, help it grow, and objectively monitor its progress.

The reform is based on four principles: autonomy, accountability, variety and choice. Autonomy encourages new Independent Schools to be innovative and to improve student outcomes. Accountability, through national assessment, ensures compliance and measures progress. Variety ensures that a number of schooling alternatives are available to parents and students. Choice will allow parents to pick the schooling option best suited to their child. Twelve Independent Schools were opened in September 2004, with additional schools planned for subsequent years.

The Education Institute develops Grades 1-12 curriculum standards in four subjects - Arabic, English, Science, and Mathematics - based on international benchmarks. To clarify, the Independent School is government-funded school granted autonomy to carry out its educational mission and objectives while being held accountable to terms agreed to in an operating contract.

Theoretical Framework

Different theories about the formation of identity will be reviewed, although not for the purpose of evaluating their relative merits and disadvantages and subsequently selecting one perceived as the 'correct' one, but rather to argue for the importance of multiple theories, like Feyeraband (1988), because only by exploring the various perspectives so far generated, is it possible to secure a fuller picture of the complex phenomenon of teacher identity. To clarify, by juxtaposing four fields: teacher identity, professional

development, reflective practice and Islamic philosophy and by explicitly drawing parallels between them in terms of aligning them with the Qatari context, I aim to open up the possibility of dialogue across these fields. My goal is not to evaluate one theory against another but rather to use one to enlighten the other. It is as simple as ‘gathering flowers from different gardens’.

Teacher Identity

It has become clear that identity is a crucial component in the success of the teacher education enterprise. In research on language teacher education, teacher identity has emerged as a key theme. What’s more, Goodson (2003) claims that the way teachers are studied, reflects the value placed upon them, confirming the sort of people society believes teachers are and should be.

Teacher ‘identities’ refer to the different modalities of being that individuals may claim for themselves and may be expected to adopt in the professional context. It can be seen from this formulation that identity is not static but dynamic, changing according to variations in the contexts teachers inhabit (Reynolds, 1996:67). In order to understand language teaching and learning it is obvious that we need to understand teachers: and in order to do this a clear sense of the individual, professional, cultural and political identities teachers claim and that are assigned to them is required. Hargreaves and Fullen (1992:16) argue that ‘understanding teacher development involves understanding not only knowledge and skills that teachers should acquire, but also understanding what sort of person the teacher is and the context in which most teachers work’.

One important dimension of identity concerns values and attitudes. In the classroom, teachers hold and express many beliefs and attitudes that have a bearing on their behaviour. Teachers’ beliefs, attitudes and values clearly impact upon their professional identities, affecting their strategies and actions in the teaching environment as well as life in general. The focus of my research is to explore in depth the identities, values and beliefs of ESL teachers in Independent schools in Qatar, looking at their career development cycles, their claims about their role and their professional growth in the context of the reform of Education in Qatar.

In particular, this research is predicated on the belief that individual teacher plays a vital role in the constitution of classroom practices: hence, the teacher is the focus of the research project. This line of thinking sees teacher identity as a crucial component in determining how language teaching is enacted. To my knowledge very little or nothing is known about the specific identity of ESL teachers in Independent schools in Qatar within the context of the current educational reform, and as a result I believe this project to be of assistance in:

ƒ Defining the Qatari context in which ESL teachers operate;

ƒ Exploring how ESL teachers define themselves and their work;

ƒ Considering what an effective teacher of ESL is and what is a productive context for learning (i.e. to understand teachers’ views and beliefs about professional competence);

ƒ Exploring the concerns of ESL teachers within the context of educational change in Qatar;

ƒ Examining the relationship between teachers’ beliefs about professional competence, years of experience, and their career cycles;

ƒ Relating the above aims to the Islamic traditions of education philosophy;

ƒ Identifying factors that may enhance positive development of productive teacher identities within this specific context of reform.

Teacher Development

Day (1999) describes professional development as an experiential involvement by a teacher in the process of growing. This process is not short term, but is rather a

continuous, developmental activity. Underhill (1986) asserts that teacher development is the process of teachers becoming the best kind of teachers that they personally can be. And when teachers regularly ask themselves ‘How I can become a better teacher?’, ‘How can I enjoy my teaching?’, ‘How can I feel that I am helping learning?’ they are thinking about ways of developing. Such development can mean many different things and take many different forms, as teachers find ways of responding to the inner desire that motivates them to learn. Head and Taylor (1997:1), considering the characteristics of teacher development, suggest that:

1. It draws on the teacher's own inner resources for change. It is centred on personal awareness of the possibilities for change and what influences the process of change.

2. It builds on the past, because recognising past experiences helps in identifying opportunities for change in the present and future.

3. It also draws on the present, in encouraging a fuller awareness of the kind of teacher one is currently.

4. It is a self-reflective process, which is done through questioning old habits, as a result of which alternative ways of being and doing are able to emerge.

Reflective Practice

Reflective practice is a powerful approach to professional development, representing an integrated way of thinking and acting focused on learning and behavioural change; it is seen when individuals work to improve organisations through improving themselves (Osterman and Kottkamp, 1993). I believe that reflective practice is based on the beliefs that organisational change begins with us, that unless we change our behaviour organisation will not change, and that many barriers to change are rooted in unexamined assumptions guiding our stable behavioural patterns. To create change, then we must

examine our own behaviours carefully, bring unexamined assumptions to awareness, and consciously self-monitor both our behaviour and our assumptions. Osterman and Kottkamp (1993:5) assert that reflective practice takes a more optimistic perspective toward change, believing that organisational change is possible and that individuals have the power to create it. To accept this perspective, this study examines the customary thoughts and beliefs of ESL teachers about the reform of education that takes place in Independent schools in Qatar, as well as their self-images and their career cycles.

Narrowing the angle of the lens to focus more directly on reflective practice as a process of professional development, we can see that while often confused with reflection, reflective practice is neither a solitary nor a relaxed meditative process. Rather, it is a challenging, demanding, and often trying process that is most successful as a collaborative effort. Osterman and Kottkamp (1993:19) define reflective practice as

A means by which practitioners can develop a greater level of self-awareness about the nature and impact of their performance, an awareness that creates opportunities for professional growth and development.

To achieve this awareness, practitioners must come to an understanding of their own behaviour; they must develop a conscious awareness of their own actions, effects and the ideas of theories-in-use that shape their action strategies. Schö_{n (1983) described this}

process in the context of professional practice, contending that professional knowledge is grounded in professional experience, and making the point that "Competent practitioners usually know more than they can say. They exhibit a kind of knowing–in-practice, most of which is tacit" (p.viii).

In short, reflective practice is a professional development strategy designed to enable professionals to change their behaviour, thereby improving the quality their performance. Essentially, it is a fundamental process in enhancing professional development.

Reflection is a key element in the action research process (Reason and Bradbury 2001) and a main element in the theory of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984) as well as in the practice of teaching and learning (Cruickshank, 1987; Grimmett & Erickson, 1988; Henderson, 1992; Pollard and Tann, 1987; Schö_{n, 1987). Despite its power to improve}

learning and practice, however, reflection does not seem to be a spontaneous activity in our professions or every day life, and it is necessary to dedicate time and effort to engage in the process.

Reflective practice can occur almost anywhere, on a formal or informal basis, whenever anyone begins a process of inquiry for the purposes of examining actions and events as a means to understanding and improving performance. However, in order for the process to flourish, a nurturing environment, characterised by openness and trust, is essential. This poses a dilemma for reflective practice in a group setting in Qatar, since such practice can be understood as a high-risk process. As noted by Argyris (1990), it involves an openness that goes against the grain in most organisational situations, and particularly within a

Qatari cultural perspective, problems may be viewed as a sign of weakness. For instance, the teacher who has discipline problems in the classroom does not ask for advice or assistance because by admitting she has such difficulties, she is perceived by everyone else in the school as incompetent.

To break this culture of silence, and engage in the reflective process, teachers need to believe that discussion of problems will not be interpreted as incompetence or weakness, and such belief is reliant upon new organisational norms that encourage teachers to feel safe, secure, and able to take the risk of sharing their problems. That said, the question can seriously be asked as to whether it is possible to find this type of supportive environment for ESL teachers in Qatar’s Independent schools. In essence, reflective practice can only be fostered in an environment characterised by trust, and if the reflective process is to thrive in Qatari Independent schools, teachers must be confident that the information they disclose will not be used against them.

Islamic Philosophy

Along with Judaism and Christianity, Islam is one of the world's three great monotheistic religions, and about one–fifth of the world's populations are Muslims. Islam is part of what can be termed the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition, sharing with Judaism and Christianity many core beliefs, ideas and values (Regan, 2000:181).

Islamic religious law (shari'a) provides the framework within which Islamic communities should exist. Sarwar (1989:13) explains:

Islam is a complete way of life. It is the guidance provided by Allah, the creator of the Universe, for all mankind. It covers all the things people do in their life time. Islam tells us the purpose of our creation, our final destiny and our place among other creatures. It shows us the best way to conduct our private, social, political, economic, moral and spiritual affairs.

In a nutshell, Islam is not a religion to follow on Fridays only, but it encompasses a whole way of life, Islam necessarily involves the concept of reflection. To practise Islam, you should reflect about your actions and sayings everyday.

Education has played a vital role in Islam since the time of the Prophet Mohammed. The mosques were the first schools in Islam and the Qura'an was the first textbook. Abdullah (1982:25) asserts

Since the Qura'an provides the Muslims with an outlook towards life, its principles must guide Islamic education. One cannot talk about Islamic education without taking the Qura'an as one's starting point … the Qura'an lays down the foundation for education aims and methods, moreover, the

Muslim educator will find in the Qura'an, the guiding principles which help in selecting the content of the curriculum.

In truth, from an Islamic viewpoint, education makes little sense if one removes it from a religious context and it is in relation to the Qura'an that educational thought should be positioned.

In Islamic thought, education, which here takes in religion and morals, is a process that ends at no determined stage or age but lasts an entire lifetime. The Prophet Mohammed said "Learn science from the cradle to the grave". As a Muslim researcher, I believe that learning is an endless process and that is explained why I am reading for the degree of PhD in United Kingdom at the moment.

Islamic educational thought based on the Qura'an and the Hadith (tradition) has been further developed and articulated by Muslim scholars and educators. Among the best examples of such educational philosophers in the Islamic tradition are Al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun. My research used Dewey as a key starting point, examining the philosophy and the value of reflective practice had been identifying key positions and the necessary inclusion of reflection into professional domains of teaching. An important dimension for me, however, considered the western tradition of reflective practice with its implications for ideas about identity in relation to Islamic philosophy. This involved a review of Al-Ghazali's and Ibn Khaldun's ontological and epistemological philosophies, and their implications for teaching.

From a review of these three perspectives it is possible to establish areas of convergence, which would seem to be a good starting point for the development of a theory that has application in the contemporary Qatari context, and Table 1 provides a brief summary of the positions of the three philosopher educators: Dewey, Al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun, thereby allowing the similarities to be highlighted.

With regard to the fundamental concept of education and, by implication, its aims, it is clear that all three philosophers believe education to be concerned with the replication of a moral code and order approved by society, and it is equally obvious that they all share the belief that the norms of ‘correct’ behaviour are in some way underpinned by religious teachings, and the person (i.e. the teacher) responsible for cultivating these norms is fulfilling a public service. In this conception of the teacher as a servant of society, as a person with a social and moral duty, there is also the implication that s/he should be revered for the duty s/he performs in giving instruction and allowing pupils to develop their intellectual capacities, which should in turn, provide them with open and inquiring minds, and lead them to adopt considered positions in life.

Dewey Al-Ghazali Ibn Khaldun Concept of

Education

Involves not only the teaching of rules, it is moral education based on care, concern, and commitment. It is more about who we are, and our habits of doing, thinking, and feeling, than about what are publicly stated.

Education is not limited to training the mind and filling it with information, but involves all aspects of the learner’s personality.

The acquisition of a 'habitus', which is like gradually formed 'colours' of the soul. They take shape when a person is still in his or her 'state of natural simplicity'.

Aim of Education Enabling participants to continue their education and the object of learning is continued capacity for growth.

Cultivating the right habits rather than simply memorising information.

Not filling the pupil's minds with facts but preparing them for a life of purity and sincerity Role of the

Teacher

Engaging in the formation of the proper social life not in the training of individuals.

Preparing students for a life of purity and sincerity.

Preparing students for a good life within the context of society.

Reflective Practice Explicit mentioned all through his philosophy.

The concept of Allah and His relationships with the creation. Allah is the creator of the universe and of its attributes and laws, as well as being the cause of every event whether great, small, past, present or future.

The second stage of education, a student explores deeper, thus encourages him/her to reflect on what he/she has already assimilated.

Table 1: al-Obaidli’s Summary of the Positions of the Three Philosopher Educators: Dewey, Al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun,

The notion of reflection is present in all three philosophers’ views on education: Dewey refers explicitly to the need for this; Al-Ghazali introduces it through reference to Allah and His relationships with the creation; and Ibn Khaldun talks about three stages in education, in which the second probes deeper, thereby encouraging the student to reflect on what he/she has already assimilated (Cheddadi, 1994). All three scholars emphasise the aim of education as being to prepare pupils for a ‘good’ life, whatever that might be within the context of the society in which they find themselves, and stress that filling their heads with hard facts is not the objective of education.

My research will seek to synthesise these traditions in order to provide a model of thinking for reflective practice in the contemporary Qatari context.

Conclusion

In this paper I have discussed briefly the story of the reform of education in Qatar and the initiative that was made by Her Highness Sheikha Moza Bint Nasser Al-Messend, the consort of the HH the Emir of the State of Qatar. This context is the landscape where ESL teachers will operate, teach and grow professionally.

I have framed my proposed research in terms of the idea of reflection, seeking to reconcile the theory of reflective practice – and reflective identity – in western educational thought – with ideas about reflection and its importance for Islamic thought. In doing so, I have had to be prepared to put together a new theoretical position, drawing from varied sources, being ready to accommodate dialogue between and across theories and different fields. The research will continue by exploring the identities of actual teachers in Qatar and will use this data to reflect back on the theory and – hopefully – to make some suggestions for how institutions of teacher education and development, as well as schools, may cultivate reflective practice in order to be more effective and more healthily productive institutions?

References

Abdullah, A. S. 1982. Educational Theory: A Qur'anic Outlook. Makkah, KSA: Umm Al-Qurra University.

Al-Ghazali, A.H (undated1) Ihya' Ulum ad-Din, Vol.3. Al-Ghazali, A.H. (undated 2) Ihya' Ulum ad-Din, Vol.1. Al-Ghazali, A.H. (undated 3) Ihya' Ulum ad-Din, Vol.4.

Cheddadi, A. 1994 Ibn-Khaldun (A.D 1332-1406/A.H 732-808), The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education. Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education. Vol. XXIV, no.1/2 (p.p. 7-19)

Cruickshank, D.R. 1987. Reflective Teaching: The Preparation of Students of Teaching. Reston, VA: Association of Teacher Education.

Day, C. 1999. Developing Teachers: The Challenge of Lifelong Learning. London: Falmer Press.

Dewey, J. 1916. Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan.

Dewey, J. 1933. How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. Boston: DC Health and Company.

Dewey, J. 1938. Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. New York: Henry Holt.

Dewey, J. 1941. Education Today. London: George Allen and Linwin Ltd. Edited and with a forwards by Joseph Ratner.

Dewey. J 1897 ‘My Pedagogic Creed, Article I-What Education Is? In J. Dewey. Education Today. London: George Allen and Linwin Ltd. Edited and with a forwards by Joseph Ratner.

Feyeraband, P. 1988. Against Methods. (Rev.ed.) London: Verso.

Goodson, I.F 2003. Professional Knowledge, Professional Lives: Studies in Education and Change. Berkshire: Open University Press, McGraw-Hill Education.

Grimmett, P.L., Erickson, G.L 1988 Reflection in Teacher Education. New York: Teacher College Press.

Hargreaves, A. and Fullen, M.G (1992) Understanding Teacher Development. New York: Teacher College Press.

Head, K. and Taylor, D. 1997. Reading in Teacher Development. Oxford: Heinemann English Language Teaching.

Henderson, J.G 1992. Reflective Teaching: Becoming an Inquiring Educator. New York: Maxwell Macmillan.

Osterman, K.F and Kottkamp, R.B 1993. Reflective Practice for Education: Improving Schools through Professional Development. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.

Pollard, A. and Tann, S. 1987. Reflective Teaching in the Primary School: A Handbook for the Classroom. London: Cassell.

Reason, P. and Bradbury, H. 2001. Handbook of Action Research, Participatory Inquiry and Practice. London: Sage Publications.

Reynolds, C. (1996) Cultural Scripts for Teachers: Identities and their Relation to Workplace Landscapes. In M. Komph, R. Bond, D. Dowret and R. Boak (eds.) Changing Research and Practice: Teachers' Professionalism Identities and Knowledge. London: Falmer Press.

Regan, T. 2000 Non-Western Educational Traditions: Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice. 2ed edition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Chapter 8: "No Gift is better than Education", (p.p. 181-204). Sarwar, G. 1989. Islam: Beliefs and Teaching. London: Muslim Educational Trust. Schön, D.A 1983. The Reflective Practitioner: Towards a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. New York: Basic Books.

Schön, D.A 1987. Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Towards a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. New York: Basic Books.

Researching the Practice of Professionals in Education: Is there any

Best Methodology/Method?

Samuel Ofori Bekoe Abstract

The choice of an appropriate methodology to conduct a study has never been a straightforward matter, especially for the relatively inexperienced researcher. There have been many contentious debates about the primacy of the two main research traditions (quantitative and qualitative) in any research enterprise. It will however be argued that the definition of a good research is not a function of which of the traditions was utilised in the research, as the issue in research should not be that of the primacy of a research paradigm, but rather how a particular paradigm might be useful to the researcher. For instance, evidence from research, conducted by this researcher, indicates that the use of the questionnaire survey to research into practice might lead to inappropriate responses that have serious implications for the reliability and validity of the data. This problem and its implications will be discussed and alternative research tools recommended.

Introduction

This paper resulted from a study that evaluated of the impact of external assessment on the classroom practices of senior secondary school Social Studies teachers in Ghana. These practices were operationally defined as all the methods, strategies, procedures, objectives and activities that teachers decide on, select and employ for the purpose of instruction and assessment in the classroom so as the meet the curriculum goals and objectives. Thus some of the objectives of the study were to find out the methods of assessment these teachers employ, and the learning outcomes they mostly emphasise in their classroom instruction and assessment.

The foregoing thus requires the utilisation of a research design- involving a methodology and method(s) - that will be most appropriate and effective for the collection of valid and reliable data for the study. It must be pointed out that while methodology is a way of thinking about and studying reality or a phenomenon, methods have to with a set of procedures and techniques for gathering and analysing data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In choosing a research design, it must be realised that whichever way one thinks about conducting a research and whichever procedures and techniques are adopted, the definition of a good research is based on the choice of an appropriate design within the context of the research questions, initial assumptions, values and philosophical position shared by the researcher and the intended use of the results (Caracelli & Greene, 1997). The Methodological Debates

The first issue that usually confronts researchers is the choice of an appropriate methodology to study their particular problem and also to justify the research design and analytical tools/procedures (Gaskell & Bauer, 2000). However, the choice of a

methodology is not a straightforward matter, particularly for the relatively inexperienced or first time researcher. This issue becomes compounded when one becomes embroiled in the controversial quantitative – qualitative divide in research. Especially so when the research enterprise in education, like other fields of inquiry, has been characterised by pitched debate about the relative strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Tierney & Dilley, 2002).

This debate has pitched the two traditions as dichotomous, with each representing different theoretical and ideological perspectives, which have different characteristics. Some researchers are of the opinion that the epistemological underpinnings of the quantitative motif postulates the existence of definable and quantifiable facts within the social context, whilst the qualitative position hold that reality cannot be subsumed within numerical classifications (Henwood, 1996). It is for instance argued that “Quantitative research often produces banal and trivial findings of little consequence due to the restriction on and the controlling of variables” (Burns, 2000:10). Burns (op cit) further argued that the mechanistic ethos of the quantitative research tends to exclude notions of freedom, choice and moral responsibility from the data so gathered. In this case, it is held that the researcher has no scope to find out the beliefs, feeling or perceptions of the respondents that do not fit into the pre-ordained response categories. The counter argument provided by those embedded in the quantitative traditions is that methods employed by qualitative researchers do not fit into the rigorous scientific enquiry model, thus bringing into question the legitimacy, reliability and the generalisability of findings from such studies.

Bryman (1988) is of the view that there are both a minimalist and maximalist versions of the quantitative and qualitative debates, which he describes as the technical and the epistemological, respectively. The technical version is said to base the choice of either numerical (quantitative) or non-numerical (qualitative) methods, purely, on pragmatic considerations. Thus for instance, the choice of any of these traditions or research methods will mainly be based on the scope for and constraints upon operationalising the research variables; the availability of time and resources and the compromises involved in making decisions about sampling. The epistemological version, on the other hand, views the gathering, analysis and interpretation of data being carried out within the broader understanding of what constitute legitimate enquiry and warrantable knowledge. This thus places the debate within the Constructionism – Realism continuum. And Henwood (1996: 26) is of the opinion that “Researchers who adopt a more open, interpretative, constructionist stance have a clear affinity for qualitative research plus a strong conviction that choice of method is liberated and informed by the position one takes within the epistemological debate”.

Henwood’s (op cit) argument suggests that those who hold a more dogmatic view of methodological issues in research are more likely to position themselves on the realism end of the continuum. Thus supporting their convictions with arguments about what is legitimate enquiry and warrantable knowledge. And, in it more positivist view point, legitimate enquiry and warrantable knowledge is seen as knowledge that resulted from a rigorous scientific procedure, normally within a controlled setting.

The discussion above brings to the fore the issue of primacy of the research traditions in the field of inquiry, particularly in the social context. Especially, as “much effort has been invested in juxtaposing quantitative and qualitative research as competing paradigms in social research” (Bauer, Gaskell & Allum, 2000: 7). According to Tierney & Dilley (op cit: 454) “there are those who believe that education has utilised the interview as a central tool in its research efforts for more than a century and has experienced a quantum leap in the use of its qualitative versions in the past few decades”. This thus suggests that the qualitative tradition has assumed primacy in educational research.

However, irrespective of the dogmatic positions often taken in favour of either quantitative or qualitative research the issue is not of primacy, but rather when and how each paradigm might be useful and practical to the researcher. More so when, as Bauer, Gaskell & Allum (op cit: 8) posited, “space has been reopened for a less dogmatic view of methodological matters”. This space can first be place within the school of thought that suggest that the dichotomy way of viewing the two research traditions must be challenged and replaced by a continuum way of discussing their usage in research (Bavelas, 1995). In this way the researcher is given the opportunity to select his/her methods within this continuum and based their justification on a mixture of philosophical assumptions and technical/pragmatic consideration rather than on purely theoretical and ideological arguments. There is also evidence to suggest that the dichotomy between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies might not be as incompatible as purists from both sides argue, as studies using mixed method design have shown that integration of these traditions within the same study can be seen as complementary to each other (Caracelli & Greene, 1997: Tripp-Reimer, 1985).

It is therefore argued that the definition of a good research is not a function of which of the traditions was used in the research, but, as Caracelli & Greene (op cit) implied, varies according to initial assumptions, values and philosophical positions shared by the researcher and based on the intended use of the results. To this Gaskell & Bauer (2000: 337 & 338) also add, “To some extent the choice of method is a function of the researcher’s theoretical orientation… and the awareness of and competence in using different methodological tools”.

Choosing an Appropriate Design

The discussion so far suggests that the choice of a methodology and or methods to conduct a research should mainly be informed by practical considerations; involving the research questions, operational definitions of variables, assumptions, ideological perspective, purpose and audience of the study. Thus taking the above criteria into consideration the author decided to settle on the mixed-method/multi-method research approach as the most appropriate design to conduct the study described in the introduction. The choice of design, as indicated above, implies the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods in carrying out the study. This decision was not based on just choosing a bimodal approach to bring in complementarity and triangulation

to the research process, but, as indicated above, based primarily on the framework and the operational definitions of the research variables as well as the philosophical assumptions and ideological perspectives shared by the author.

For instance the operational definition given to teachers’ classroom practices, as indicated above, suggests the use of either quantitative or qualitative methods. The decision therefore to utilise both the questionnaire and interview in collecting data on teachers’ classroom practices was partly informed by the intended audience of the research and the limitations upon operationalising the variables. The idea was therefore to present findings in a precise manner, with additions of interpretative colour of rich text capturing the beliefs, feelings and perceptions of the participants. The foregoing is related to one of the philosophical assumptions adopted by this researcher and brought to bear on the research process. This assumption, the ontological assumption- the nature of reality, holds that reality is constructed by individuals involved in the research situation (Creswell, 1998). Thus to capture and report reality, one needs to rely on the voices and interpretations of the informants through usage of extensive quotes in the report.

However, sight was not lost on the possible advantages and disadvantages that a mixed-method design might bring to the study, and thus affects the way in which results are interpreted. It is, for instance, believed that with the combination of the two research traditions in one research, each of them adds something essential to the ultimate findings. Nau (1995) in this direction opines that the blending of research methods from the two traditions can produce a final product which can highlight the significant contributions of both. And one of the most important contributions this type of research design is said to bring to the research enterprise is the linking of the qualitative depth with the quantitative breadth in any single research.

Another advantage of the mixed-method approach lies in the fact that both qualitative and quantitative methods of research bring different perspectives into how data is viewed, and thus have the tendency to provide complementary data sets which together may produce a more complete picture of the issues being researched than can be obtained using either method singly. This is because with the qualitative approach, the broad aim is to look for meaning and understanding (Gaskell, 2000) and thus often provides a far richer description of the phenomenon under study by capturing the perspectives and experiences of the respondents. The quantitative methods, on the other hand, are more number driven and thus are able to provide a more precise description of the phenomenon, and enable the researcher answer questions like; how often or how much of the phenomenon is present within the research context (Nau, op cit).

Greene, Caracelli & Graham (1989) also mentioned triangulation, among others, as a purpose and an advantage of the mixed-method design. Triangulation in this case means testing for the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments. Thus in the case of the study conducted by this author, the purpose was to test for the consistency of findings from the questionnaire data with that of the interview data or vice versa. However, cognisance was taken of the danger such an approach might bring to the research process. That is the mixed-method design and thus any design that seeks to

marry the two research traditions are not without inherent dangers which require one to tread cautiously when applying them in a single research endeavour.

Gaskell & Bauer (op cit: 345), for instance, opine that “approaching a problem from two perspectives or with two methods will inevitably lead to inconsistencies and contradictions”. They posited that some inconsistencies might be due to methodological limitations; however they may also demonstrate that social phenomena look different as they are approached or viewed from different angles. Thus if the major aim of the research is to authenticate results from one method with the other, the inconsistencies and contradictions that may inevitably arise will jeopardise the whole research.

Inappropriate Responses in Questionnaire Data and Implications

True to the caution given by Gaskell & Bauer (op cit), inconsistencies and contradictions arose in some aspects of the data collected for the research described above. Specifically, whereas the majority of respondents in the questionnaire survey (about 61%) had indicated that their assessment items adequately cover the gamut of the learning outcomes of Social Studies, only 10% of them repeated this claim when interviewed. These contradictions nearly jeopardised the study, as they would have made the findings in that respect inconclusive. A critical analysis of the responses, however, revealed that teachers’ responses to that question on the questionnaire were not wholly appropriate within the study’s context.

Firstly, as an insider, it became apparent that the majority view in the questionnaire cannot be wholly relied on, as it did not represent the true state of affairs so far as assessment in Ghana is concerned. For instance the respondents had selected Attitudinal Scales, provided in the questionnaire, as one of the tools they employ in assessing their students to indicate that they were actually assessing to adequately cover all the important learning outcomes of the subject. However it is common knowledge that many teachers do not know what this method of assessment entails, since they had had no training in its design and usage.

Secondly, the majority of teachers indicated during the interview that they have been utilising the same assessment tools as employed by the agency responsible for the external assessment and also emphasise similar outcomes as this agency. Since these teachers have indicated elsewhere on the questionnaire that the external assessment items do not adequately cover the gamut of the curriculum and thus the outcomes of Social Studies, it seems contradictory for them to claim that their internal assessment items do so. The instances above and others revealed in the study indicate that the responses of teachers, on the questionnaire, in respect of the question stated above cannot be relied on. The question therefore is why will respondents, in a questionnaire survey, select responses that do not truthfully or wholly represent the phenomenon being studied? Burns (2000) proffers an answer to this question when he argued that close-ended items (questionnaires) have the tendency to force responses that are inappropriate. Singleton, Jr & Straits (2002: 75) also cite Sudman et al (1996) as positing that

“From the perspective of cognitive processing, obtaining reliable and valid responses require that the respondents comprehend the literal and intended meaning of the question; retrieve the information required from memory; formulate a response in accordance with the question and the information retrieved and communicate a response deemed appropriate”

Since respondents make sense of questions by relying on interviewers to help interpret the question (Schober & Conrad, 1997) and researchers are not supposed to help respondents in strictly standardised interviews or questionnaires (Singleton, Jr & Straits, op cit),

“There is a breakdown in the question-answer task, when among other things the accessed information does not fit the response options provided in the questionnaire or when the respondent modifies the information to project a favourable image to the interviewer” (Singleton, Jr. & Straits, ibid).

Analysis of the responses in question indicates that they were most likely selected by the respondents in order to project a favourable image about their professional practice. However, if the responses are to be understood within the context of what these teachers believed to be the ideal situation in assessment, particularly when the assessment guidelines in the syllabus recommends same, then it can be said that such responses are invalid. This is because the question was about teachers’ actual assessment practices and not what they believed to be the ideal, since some researchers have demonstrated that what people believe in is different from what they do (see Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In another instance the teachers exhibited fear of the author making judgements about their professional competence through the evaluation of their past internal assessment items, by refusing to give him copies when the demand was made. It could therefore be inferred from the above that professionals, for fear of being judged as incompetent, are more likely to give/select inappropriate responses in a questionnaire survey if they feel that their truthful responses will rather seem inadequate in relation with what their profession requires of them or the response categories provided.

Thus in the particular instance of the study described above, conclusions which would have resulted from the analysis of the responses would have been unreliable and invalid had the researcher only employed the questionnaire in the study and had he not been an insider, to have realised the problem with the questionnaire responses. This is due to the fact that such conclusions would not have captured the true state of affairs, so far as teachers’ assessment emphasis and coverage in Ghana are concerned.

Alternative Research Designs/Tools

In the research context provided above, the anticipation of the contradictions and inconsistencies in the responses led the author to include the collection of teachers’ past internal assessment items for evaluation. This was to enable him verify the responses that would have been given in both the questionnaire and the interview. However, as indicated above, teachers were reluctant in giving out these documents. Since the

assessment items were records of their assessment practices, they could have given a truer picture of the outcomes of emphasis in teachers’ assessment practices and whether they cover the gamut of the learning outcomes in the subject.

In view of the author’s experience and arguments in the literature (see Burns, 2000; Strauss & Corbin, 1998) about the implication of using the questionnaire to research peoples’ practice, we can conclude that this method of data elicitation might not be wholly appropriate in studying some aspects of professional practice. Possibly, the methods that can most appropriately elicit reliable and valid data in this case are the Interview, Observation and Document Analysis. This is because in the interview process the interviewer has the opportunity to further examine the responses of the interviewee and where in doubt, ask for more evidence to verify or clarify any knotty points identified.

In the case of observation, one is directly gathering data at first hand and unless the respondent is faking his or her practice could result in data that is more authentic. In areas where diaries or portfolios of practice are kept by practitioners/professionals, such documents might become rich sources of reliable and valid data for research. In the particular case of teachers’, lesson plans and notes, and past assessment papers are documents that may paint a clearer picture of their professional practice than what they might provide on a questionnaire.

However if time and resources will allow, the mixed-method design seems the most appropriate alternative approach of researching professional practice, instead of the questionnaire. This research design allows for data gathered with one of the methods to be verified and clarified with the other method(s). However in so doing, one must always bear in mind that there could be potential inconsistencies and contradictions in data so gathered. It is therefore important that this problem is foreseen and strategies adopted to deal with it whenever it occurs in the research process.

References

Bauer, M. W., Gaskell, G. and Allum, N (2000) “Quality, Quantity and Knowledge Interest: Avoiding Confusions” in M. W Bauer and G. Gaskell (eds) Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound: A Practical Handbook. pp 3-17 London: Sage Publications.

Bavelas, J. B. (1995) “Quantitative versus Qualitative?” in W. Leeds-Hurwitz (ed) Social Approaches to Communication. pp 49-62 New York: Guilford Press.

Bryman, A. (1988) Quantity and Quality in Social Research London: Unwin Hyman. Burns, R. B. (2000) Introduction to Research Methods London: Sage Publications. Caracelli, V. J. and Greene, J. C. (1997) “Crafting Mixed-Method Evaluation Design” in Creswell, J. W. (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Gaskell, G. (2000) “Individual and Group Interviewing” in M. W. Bauer and G. Gaskell (eds) Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound: A Practical Handbook. pp 38-56 London: Sage Publications.

Gaskell, G. and Bauer (2000) “Towards Public Accountability: Beyond Sampling, Reliability and Validity” in M. W. Bauer and G. Gaskell (eds) Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound: A Practical Handbook. pp 336-350 London: Sage Publications.

J. C. Greene and V. J. Caracelli (eds) Advances in Mixed-Method Evaluation: The

Challenges and Benefits of Integrating Diverse Paradigms. New Directions for Programme Evaluation. No. 74 pp. 19-32 San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J. and Graham, W. F. (1989) “Towards a Conceptual Framework for Mixed-Method Evaluation Design” in Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11(3) pp 255-274.

Henwood, K. L. (1996) “Qualitative Inquiry: Perspectives, Methods and Psychology” in T. E. Richardson (ed) Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for Psychology and the Social Sciences. pp 25-40 Leicester: The British Psychology Society.

Nau, D. S. (1995) “Can Bimodal Research be a Viable Post-Positivist Tool?” The Qualitative Report, 2(3).

Schober, M. F., and Conrad, F. G. (1997) “Does Conversational Interviewing Reduce Survey Measurement Error?” Public Opinion Quarterly 61 pp 576-602.

Singleton, Jr. R. A. and Straits, B. C. (2002) “Survey Interviewing” in J. F. Gubrium and J. A. Holstein (eds) Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method. pp 59-82 Thousands Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Sudman, S. et al (1996) Thinking about Answers: The Application of Cognitive Processes to Survey Methodology San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Tierney, W. G. & Dilley, P. (2002) “Interviewing in Education” in J. F. Gubrium & J. A. Holstein (eds) Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method. pp 453-471 Thousands Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Tripp-Reimer, T. (1985) “Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies” in M. M. Leininger (ed) Qualitative Research Methods in Nursing. pp 179-194 Orlando, FL: Grune & Strathon.

Ways of knowing and doing – exploring how experiences of teaching in international contexts shape UK HE teachers’ thinking.

Katharine Carter

Abstract

This paper will discuss formulation and application of qualitative fieldwork methods by contrasting and exploring the varying potential data sets from a range of approaches, to answer the above research question. In this context ‘ways of knowing and doing’ will be approached in terms of how researchers uncover implicit norms, values, and cultural constructs relating to professional expectations and skills in HE teaching. As a starting point I will refer to my experience of collaborative HE project work in staff development with a medical college in northern Tanzania, from which my Phd research question evolved. Initial interview data will be presented as part of the discussion about methods and data sets, as well as the practical and ethical issues these raised.

1. Introduction

This paper is about documenting the development of a research question, discussing methods for shaping and testing it, and exploring how experiences of teaching in international contexts shape UK HE teacher’s thinking. Firstly I would like to share my approach to these terms:

Experiences – social, cultural, emotional, professional, practical (teaching; project management), ethical

Teaching – activities of educating or instructing or teaching; activities that share or develop knowledge or skill(Webster, 2006)

Teachers – those involved in instruction or teaching, concerned with the activity and context rather than the professional status of individuals. Potentially a sample would include Academics, Administrators, Volunteers, other professions (such as nurses), elective students.

International – Tanzanian – and perhaps more widely applicable? Thinking – life approach

2. Background

Between 2002 and 2005 I managed a British Council Link programme between the University of Nottingham Centre for Teaching Enhancement (quality assurance and staff development) and Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College (KCMC), Northern Tanzania. This project supported British Council and Department for International Developments' (DfID) objectives, including promoting sustainable development by enhancing the teaching and training capacity of our overseas partner institution (KCMC). I organised 4 visits per year, two of which were workshops of 10 days or more at KCMC. I became

relevant to the research topic. In Anzaldua’s (2002:178) words, it provides the research an opportunity to ‘walk in the other’s shoes’. Therefore, it requires the understanding of others’ experiences from their subjective perceptions, including the situations, professions, institutions, life styles; it is also about comprehending the relationship, the complex interaction between individuals and society, self and contextual influences. In the context of this study, the students were identified within a macro context, in the UK or in China, of overseas experiences, of institutionalized learning, of constraints of language. Therefore, their particular stories needed to be understood with the reference to the historical (past, present and future), cultural (western or Chinese) and social (power and interpersonal relationships) contexts from where their experiences originated .

Simon and Dippo (1986) make the point that the production of knowledge cannot be understood apart from the personal histories of the researchers and the larger institutional context in which researchers work. We are individuals, the values we hold are precious, the work we do, and beliefs and norms we cherish --- all these factors need to be considered in the research. Therefore, we cannot merely keep our personal experiences out of the research, but must use this contextual and cultural information to better inform the process. Former researchers on cultural and language issues may have ignored the fact that researchers are human beings also have their personal histories, cultural backgrounds and multiple identities, which may have great influence on their interpretation of data and outcomes of their research.

Weiler (1988) also suggests, the researcher has to understand his/her own subjective experience and knowledge as well as that of the interviewees, as the researcher plays a constitutive role in determining the progress of a research project. From this perspective, the questions, interpretations and representations of the study were shaped by my personal knowledge, experiences, cultural backgrounds, and relationships with the students, and they were the co-construction of both the students and myself. My role as a researcher as well as a Chinese overseas student, and my relationships with interviewees might have great influence on both the conduct of research and interpretation of the data. On the one hand, I am a Chinese overseas student, who is studying in one of the universities in the UK. I share the similar cultural backgrounds with most Chinese students. They were my friends, and therefore, I also shared the similar experiences and feelings of the difficulties and changes in life in the UK. It might be easy to get access to the group of Chinese overseas students, such as informal interaction through telephones, emails and internet chatting. It was not difficult for me to develop a relationship of trust and rapport, and gain deep understanding of their experiences. These are all beneficial to the research. On the other hand, I am a student researcher as well. I conducted my research with the students. They were my research subjects and respondents of my research questions. My shared experiences and cultural background might allow me to offer many emotional supports during the interviews, which might affect or even mislead the direction of their expression. I had already done some reading around these topics and gained some concepts or themes about results from the literature. It was therefore easy for me to have some presuppositions in mind first and then connect my current study to the old, already existing themes from other research. Therefore, I also needed to keep a

certain distance from them in order to avoid any misunderstanding and misleading answers.

As the participation in the study was on a purely voluntary basis, students’ right to confidentiality and privacy were respected with care. As constructivist inquiry relies heavily on direct quotations in order to build a picture of lived experiences with rich contextualization (Agar, 1986; Bruner, 1986; Clandinin & Connelly, 1998; Mishler, 1986), it was important to ensure the anonymity and privacy of students in order to avoid being identified by others. In order to do so, I tried to use a number of strategies to ensure issues. All data and transcripts were used anonymously, and students were sent the transcripts of their interviews and asked to review the transcripts to verify accuracy and to add or delete any information that they felt concerned about or they considered may compromise them.

Initial findings and possible implications

After initial thematic coding, students’ responses invariably centered on the following aspects: academic and physical environments adjustments, language barriers, interpersonal relationships, social and cultural transitions, and construction and reconstruction of self-affirmation in different circumstances. For the students in the UK, there were great differences between students who had taken some orientation course and those who had not. It seemed that the orientation courses played an important role in the preparation and adaptation of international students, especially in the adaptation to academic environment. Most students experienced different kinds of ‘culture shock’ when they first came to the UK, and the obvious differences in the conception of teaching and learning had been mentioned. Nearly each of the six students pointed out they had experienced different severity of misunderstanding, frustration and displacement. Although there were many strategies that were taken by the students in order to conquer the challenges, most students still felt that they were far from creating a better situation for themselves. For the students who had gone back to China, they all indicated that they needed to spend a long time finishing the transition from the western society to Chinese context, and this caused many misunderstandings and misinterpretation in their lives. Under the pressure of Chinese social and cultural traditions, judgments and evaluations made by people around them forced those students to rethink their sense of belonging. They gained new definitions of themselves. This was a difficult process because most of problems they encountered were psychologically based, such as a reassessment of their beliefs and changes in ways of thinking, etc. The gender difference was pointed out by most female students, who were suffering different kinds of disciplines and stereotypes in Chinese traditions and conventions. Five of the six students mentioned the great gap between studying and working, and the difficulties in adjusting from campus to work. Further detailed analysis needs to be undertaken in the research.

Possible implications might inform further actions needed to be taken by both educational institutions and students themselves, such as sensitizing students and teachers in understanding cross-cultural issues; providing appropriate levels of support in dealing with issues arising from different students; structuring more opportunities for practical and intercultural communication between students and teachers; rethinking of the design

and content of the language courses; offering more instructions and services to connect the gaps between expectations and reality, studying and working, and so on. Further research is indicated regarding the investigation of cultural transition experiences and coping strategies of other national or ethnic groups. Investigation of experiences of international students in other ethnic groups or other host countries is also indicated.

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