3.2 The Values: Validity, Reliability, Generalisability and Ethical Issues
A focus group is appropriate in this study because the researcher also the moderator and all participants share some common characteristics as well as experiences in relation to
the research topic. With years of teaching experience as a Civics teacher in both junior and senior high school in Taiwan, the moderator has adequate background knowledge on
the participants’ profession, the topic of discussion, and the follow-up critical areas of concern. All these help to maximize the probability of the desired outcome.
Small groups are not only practical to set up and manage but also beneficial in offering ample opportunity for participants to talk Litosseliti 2003. During this focus group
interview session, all members contribute actively to the discussion without dominating or interrupting others’ talking. The group composition ensures ongoing conversation and
interaction, a variety of responses and perspectives are thus obtained through dynamic group interaction. Not only are considerable insights into the perceptions and experiences
of individual participants provided, but the value of group data is also found from analyzing the interaction between participants.
There are several reasons that explain why information disclosure is successfully encouraged and achieved in this focus group. At the outset of the meeting, the moderator
emphasizes that every member’s contribution is valuable and important to this study. It is assured that all the recordings and discussions are confidential. The snacks and drinks are
used to help establish a high level of comfort and informality, and the relaxed and non- threatening atmosphere enhances the discussions considerably.
Furthermore, Morgan 1997 argues that whether focus groups are appropriate for a research project depends on how actively and easily the participants would discuss the
topic of interest. Since all participants recruited for this study are the students who have taken the courses and have experience in the school political education related activities,
they are very involved and skilled at expressing themselves in a polite manner. Another determining reason for the suitability of the research instrument could be that the
sufficient homogeneity of the group enables the participants to relate to each other, generating high quality of input. In other words, the focus group, which is composed of
homogeneous individuals from the same ethnic, cultural and professional background enables more free-flowing conversations among participants.
Finally, the strength of group interaction is proved in the trial focus group interviews. For example, one participant describes that she benefits from being exposed to the views and
experiences of others, which leads her to reconsider things she has never thought about before. Evidently, participants’ responses do spark new ideas or connections from other
participants. As a result, this participant’s perception is unlocked by the comments others provide.
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4 Conclusion
The employment of focus groups as a technique is increasing in popularity in education research because they produce rich data that are difficult to achieve with other research
methods. Focus group interviews are well suited for this study, which aims to explore senior high school students’ attitudes towards school political education. Rich and
detailed sets of data about views, thoughts and feelings are yielded as the result of participant interaction in this focus group interview held in a relaxed surrounding.
Practical issues such as recruiting participants, designing the interview questions, analyzing data and reporting results need to be considered carefully before undertaking a
focus group interview. In this study, the limited number of participants cannot be representative of the wider population beyond the members in this study. To enhance the
generalizability, the method of questionnaire survey can be employed in future studies to involve more participants from other parts of Taiwan.
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Appendix 1
Section I: General Questions
1. What does “politics” mean to you? How do you feel about politics?
2. Do you think “politics” exist or occur in the school? If yes, where is it? By what forms?
Section II: Students’ Perspectives towards the Arrangements of School Curriculum
3. Between the two Citizenship subjects, Three Principles of People and Civics, which one do you prefer? Why?
4. Are you satisfied or dissatisfied with the contents of textbooks related to Citizenship subjects?
Please explain why. 5. Do you think the activities related to political education held by school are necessary? Among
these activities, which one do you like or dislike? Why? 6. Do your teachers provide supplemental teaching materials for Citizenship subjects? If yes, what
are they? 7. Do your teachers of Citizenship subjects express hisher opinions toward current political issues
and show hisher political stance? If yes, to what extent are you influenced by them?
Section III: Students’ Perspectives towards the Learning of Political Education Rationales, Goals, and Contents
8. If learning politics is inevitable, what rationale or rationales should be contained from your viewpoint? Put them in order according to their priority and explain why.
9. According to your opinion, what goal or goals should be achieved in political education? Put
them in order according to their priority and explain why. 10. From your viewpoint, what knowledge, skills, and attitudesvalues contents should be taught
and learnt in political education? Put them in order according to their priority and explain why. 11. Do you feel that these rationales, goals, and contents you mentioned are taught and arranged in
your school’s curriculum?
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References
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. 2000 Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge.
Kitzinger, J. R. S. Barbour. 1999. Introduction: the challenge and promise of focus groups. In Barbour,
R. S. J. Kitzinger eds., Developing Focus Group Research: politics, theory and practice. London: SAGE.
Litosseliti, L. 2003. Using Focus Groups in Research. Continuum: London. Liu, M. 2001. The Development of Civic Values: case study of Taiwan. International
Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 35, pp. 45-60. Ministry of Education, Taiwan. 1994. Curriculum Standards for Junior High Schools.
Taipei. Morgan, D. L. 1997. Focus Groups as Qualitative Research 2
nd
edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Robson, C. 2002. Real World Research 2
nd
edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Stewart, D. W. P. N. Shamdasani. 1990. Focus Groups: theory and practice.
Newbury Park: SAGE. Unknown. 2000. The origin of the nine-year integrative curriculum. http:
teach.eje.edu.twB-listB-main-frame.htm Vaughn, S., J. S. Schumm J. Sinagub. 1996. Focus Group Interviews in Education
and Psychology. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Wringe, C. 1984 Democracy, Schooling and Political Education. London: George
Allen Unwin.
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Researching teachers’ thinking and practice in environmental education: reflections on the research framework
Se-young Hwang
Abstract This paper describes the research process of my doctoral study at mid-way stage, with a
focus on the reflections on the research framework concerning dialectical relationship between literature review, fieldwork, methodology, and data analysis. In investigating
Korean teachers’ stories about their personal and professional commitments regarding environment, the research has been engaging in theoretical and methodological concerns
in the field of research in teachers’ thinking and practice. The paper addresses these by reflecting on the relevance of interdisciplinary arranging the literature review and
narrativediscourse focused methodology. Introduction
My doctoral study investigates the globalised educational discourses around environmental concerns such as ‘environmental education EE’ and ‘education for
sustainable development ESD’, in interrogating the promotion of impositional and normative interpretations for practice, through, for example, state-mandated school
curriculum development projects in these areas. In doing so, the research inquiries into the gaps between the prevailing rhetoric that education must be charged with a prominent
role in consciousness-raising and stimulating action, and the actualities of school education where these initiatives are subjected to marginalisation within the traditional
curriculum system. The evolving research framework focuses on the dialectic relationship between practices
and discourses in this area, illuminating teachers’ narratives about environmental education practice as critical foci. The case in point is Korean secondary school context,
which illustrates the specific cultural and social construction of environmental education discourses. This paper aims to address research process at mid-stage, critically examining
the evolving nature of research framework and methodology, and two emergent data analysis methods in the way which consistently engages in research questions, such as:
• understanding diverse conceptions of environment teaching; • critical analysis of EEESD discourse in light of such teachers’ perspectives;
• conceptualising environmental learning on the basis of teacher’s learning process in their identity constructions.
117
Evolving nature of research framework and methodology Interview-methodology dialectic
The initial interest of the research was premised on the key question, “what do we mean by environmental education teacher?” In a contrast to policy-driven documents and
research literature that assume an assigned teacher responsible as a crucial component for implementing EE at school UNESCO-UNEP 1990; Fien Sterling 1996, more recent
research on teacher’s thinking and practice points out the gaps between such a rhetoric and actualities Cho 2002 in Korea; Robottom 1987 Hart 2003 elsewhere. In fact, in
my own experiences and observations about environmental education practice in Korea, it seems teachers’ personal motivation and commitment rather than policy-driven
initiatives that brings about changes in teaching practices. Therefore, the first fieldwork aimed to investigate two teachers’ perspectives and experiences related to environmental
actions and education. At this stage, my naïve understanding about epistemology and methodology adopted narrative inquiry as a favoured qualitative research method, with
a notion that people reveal their intentions, beliefs, desires, knowledge, and values through narratives Bruner 1996. The research inquiry was also shaped by reviews on
empirical studies in this field, for example, Hart’s Hart 2003 study that adopted narrative inquiry with epistemological premise of stories as data. Then, the fieldwork
produced life historical stories through which teachers’ personal and professional commitments are woven into environmental education theories.
Meanwhile, the transition occurred when the analysis of two interview texts addressed an analytic angle concerning ‘narrative style’ – the term invented to examine the way in
which a teacher switches narrative voice, from critical to moderate, where she recognises conflicting discourses, hinting at a problematic relationship between agency and
structure. Thus, more focus should be put on the gaps and spaces in the realities that teachers encounter and challenge in order to make changes, as follows:
• how teachers’ motivations cancannot be put into action and practice; • difficulties and challenges that teachers encounter in doing these;
• the extent to which teachers’ own conceptions and perspectives are differing with that which they show critical attitude toward, such as policies and socially dominant
discourses. With this renewed and focused research inquiry, the second fieldwork developed eleven
teachers’ life historical narratives, arranging different school subjects, diverse experiences and teaching career. In interrogating these, interview process produced
further methodological reflections and considerations. • Teachers’ stories reflect individual’s appropriation of various discourses. In
consequence, EEESD discourses were not necessarily influential to teachers’ practices. This questions what related discourses are and how educational,
environmental, and EEESD discourses are inter-related.
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• Researcher’s stance to teachers’ stories became more critical than accepting, questioning why the teacher told a story in this way rather than another way, which
favours the holistic approach to stories. • There is a remaining issue around how ‘personal’ ‘dispositions’ or ‘personality’
should be interpreted in association with surrounding discourses. • Troubles in articulating the origins of motivations of their activities imply
methodological difficulty in conceptualising formative experiences.
They seem to reorient methodology into ‘discourses-practices’ approach Cherryholmes 1987. But then, theoretical re-examinations on methodology raises a fundamental
question on ‘representation’, namely, the assumptions on the relationship between teachers’ thinking and practice, their stories, and discourses and narratives of
environment, education, and EEESD. Narrative inquiry, for example, can be categorised into five different approaches by disciplinary traditions, framing data analysis in
particular ways Chase 2005. In this regard, insights from poststructuralist educational research observing how teachers’ multiple subjectivities meet available discourses e.g.
Dilabough 1999; Phillips 2000, were conducive to clarifying methodological assumptions in inquiring teacher identity the details of analyses will be provided later.
During the next stage, various approaches to discourse and narrative analyses will be examined to develop a more compatible and adjustable method. This process also entails
further decision-making on the scope of data, i.e. written texts such as policy document and media coverage as a source of discourses, the gravity of each form of data in
analysis, i.e. narrative accounts vs. written texts, and theoretical boundary that consists of environmental education discourse, i.e. educational school, learning, and environmental
philosophical, social movement dimension. The next part describes ongoing theoretical concerns accompanying these methodological considerations.
Literature-research framework dialectic The first fieldwork conducted rather exploratory interviews with two teachers, broadly
concerning their ‘environmental consciousness’ and the relationship with their teaching practices. The basic idea of inquiry was to illuminate the nature of teacher’s work in the
light of underlying beliefs and values of unique modes of teaching practice. Theoretically, it points to interpreting teacher’s own theorising of environmental
education rather than imposing preconceived categories or any frames for categorising teacher’s thinking and practice. Then the initial examination of stories noted teacher’s
personal and professional identities as crucial foci in understanding their perspectives and actions. Further literature review contributed to characterising and identifying the
nature of the study an overview in Figure 1, also engaging in the topics and issues that the second fieldwork addressed.
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Narrative inquiry
Id e
n tit
ie s
E n
v ir
o n
m e
n ta
l S
D d
is c
o u
rs e
s Id
e n
tit ie
s E
n v
ir o
n m
e n
ta l
S D
d is
c o
u rs
e s
EE ESD
• Environment teaching - Personal and professional
commitment - Teacher’s conception about
EE ESD - Teaching controversial issues
EE ESD
• Environment teaching - Personal and professional
commitment - Teacher’s conception about
EE ESD - Teaching controversial issues
Teacher’s thinking Sociology of education
Environmental knowledge
• Teacher theory - PCK; personal practical
knowledge - Teacher learning
• I nterdisciplinary nature - Social construction of ‘natures’,
‘environments’ - Environmental identities
- Psychological process • Sociology of teaching
- Curriculum formation and change
- Teacher professionalism
Teacher’s thinking Sociology of education
Environmental knowledge
• Teacher theory - PCK; personal practical
knowledge - Teacher learning
• I nterdisciplinary nature - Social construction of ‘natures’,
‘environments’ - Environmental identities
- Psychological process • Sociology of teaching
- Curriculum formation and change
- Teacher professionalism
Synthesis? Development?
Synthesis? Development?
Figure 1 Literature review
Meanwhile, the interdisciplinary nature of EEESD research field seemed to make an uncritical synthesis of theoretical resources problematic. For example, teachers’ stories
illuminate theoretical concerns around how people gain environmental knowledge and beliefs in their life worlds. However, different disciplinary traditions appear to have
shaped different frameworks in understanding identities and environmental discourses; for example, environmental psychology stresses psychological mechanisms capable of
fostering pro-environmental behaviour and policies Clayton Opotow 2003, whereas this study became more directed to ‘sociological’ inquiry with respect to social
construction of environmental concern that often results in reconfiguring of identities Macnaghten Urry 1998. To examine further epistemological and methodological
discrepancies in conceptualising environmental identity and its formation, i.e. psychological, discursive, rather than to take ‘one best way’ approach, may contribute to
deepening more contextualised understanding of such theories which then becomes fit with the aim of this study.
In spite of the tentativeness of theoretical underpinnings, this way of characterising the study brings to fore teacher identity as a core concept in understanding teacher’s
thinking and practice, which distinguishes the nature of study from prevailing educational research frameworks, while still grounded in this area. Previous studies in this field
address a matter of teacher identity, e.g. by conceptualising teacher’s ‘responsibility’ in Nikel’s 2005, or ‘values’ in Hart’s 2003. On the other hand, this study assumes
teacher identity as a site whereby various related discourses mediate meanings of experiences, which then serve to produce certain subjectivities. In addition, the study
inquires teacher identity in terms of its ‘process’, i.e. constructing, reforming, or negotiating nature that constantly occurs through reflections and uptakes of ideas and
actions, which may be linked to understanding the nature of environmental learning.
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Importantly, the theoretical orientation of the research challenges prevailing frameworks that underpin research in teacher’s thinking and practice. Firstly, in line with previous
research on teachers’ work and career e.g. Sikes et al 1985; Nias 1989, rejecting ‘technical rationality’, e.g. abstract subject knowledge Carter Doyle 1996, it aims to
interpret the meaning of teaching, its complexity, and the interactions between personal and professional lives. However, the study marks teacher identity as being constantly
negotiated by the operation of surrounding discourses, which lends itself to examining broader social and cultural context of education and related social and environmental
influences that continuously produce the ways of legitimating certain teacher subjectivities. Thus, rather than assuming that teachers’ stories about their life-span
experiences enlighten a process of cognitive development as a teacher, the study stresses spaces as well as constraints for such a development, and teachers’ strategies to create
opportunities and resources in pursuing personally favoured self-concept. By doing this, teachers’ stories can acquire methodological legitimacy as interpretive texts with which
to understand dialectical relationships between teachers’ own initiatives, personal dispositions, acquired cultural knowledge, and broader societal impacts. Secondly, this
perspective then critically examines the efficacy of policy-driven educational initiatives school innovation or effectiveness slogans, in general, and EEESD, investigating the
gaps between that which such a rhetoric intends to engineer a change in the teaching practice, and the realities and teacher subjectivities produced by discursive power. This is
to stimulate discourses of professionalism and professional development that may often disregard the necessity of situated knowledge about teacher’s agency, reducing it too
easily to preconceived ‘categories’, or placing it onto ‘emancipatory’ projects, by investigating discursive teaching self MacLure 1993.
Bridging research questions and data analyses: two approaches By using five science teachers’ stories among eleven teachers’ interview texts, this part
introduces two possible ways of developing theoretically informed data analysis, and explores their methodological legitimacies in view of developed research questions
concerning mainly 1,2. Narrative analysis
Understanding of teachers’ stories in terms of their diverse conceptions of environment teaching Research question 1 has a methodological affinity with narrative analysis.
Narrative analysis examines the storied nature of human recounting of lives and events, with focus on ‘how do people make sense of what happened?’ rather than ‘what actually
happened?’ Bryman 2004 p.412. In seeking to understand how teachers construct their stories about environment-related teaching activities, five teachers’ stories formed the
narrative structure whereby central story, i.e. concerning conceptions of environment teaching which can be different in the teacher’s own term tended to be narratively
constructed by mutually connected six common themes, in the way which fashioned idiosyncrasies in individual’s teaching stories Table 1. In narrating stories, teachers
make sense of their environment-related personal and professional experiences, through
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interpretive process of reflections and reinterpretations about life experiences, which implies teachers’ own theorising of environmental education.
Table 1 The structure of thematic narrative analysis
St ru ct u ral con st raint s Popular slogan, or ‘float ing signifier?’
Crit iques of EE Changes in t hought s an d beliefs
St r ong asser t ion abou t self- concept Gen erat ional charact erist ics
Teaching m et hodologies Social respon sibilit y
Recept iv e t o pupils I nst it ut ional roles con st raint s
Relat ionship bet w een science and environm ent - r elat ed ideas
For m at ive effect of on e’s ow n learning experien ces
Hard t o pin dow n, shaped in r elat ion t o per sonal disposit ions, orient at ions
oppor t unit ies ‘Progr essive’
Tak ing up oppor t unit ies and resou rces
Gaining confiden ce Com m on char act er ist ics of t ales
Reflect ions and learning
Per spect ives on t he
environm ent
Considerat ions of pupils
Teach er’s w ork r ole
Gr een edu cat ion;
Scien ce int o env ironm ent
Scient ific lit eracy for
consum er edu cat ion
STS Ecological
lit eracy, not int egrat ed
w it h science STS;
Envir onm ent in science
Concept ions of environm ent
t eaching Mot ivat ion and
com m it m ent K
J Y
L H
Them es
St ru ct u ral con st raint s Popular slogan, or ‘float ing signifier?’
Crit iques of EE Changes in t hought s an d beliefs
St r ong asser t ion abou t self- concept Gen erat ional charact erist ics
Teaching m et hodologies Social respon sibilit y
Recept iv e t o pupils I nst it ut ional roles con st raint s
Relat ionship bet w een science and environm ent - r elat ed ideas
For m at ive effect of on e’s ow n learning experien ces
Hard t o pin dow n, shaped in r elat ion t o per sonal disposit ions, orient at ions
oppor t unit ies ‘Progr essive’
Tak ing up oppor t unit ies and resou rces
Gaining confiden ce Com m on char act er ist ics of t ales
Reflect ions and learning
Per spect ives on t he
environm ent
Considerat ions of pupils
Teach er’s w ork r ole
Gr een edu cat ion;
Scien ce int o env ironm ent
Scient ific lit eracy for
consum er edu cat ion
STS Ecological
lit eracy, not int egrat ed
w it h science STS;
Envir onm ent in science
Concept ions of environm ent
t eaching Mot ivat ion and
com m it m ent K
J Y
L H
Them es
This approach to teachers’ stories is in parallel with Hart’s narrative study on the Canadian elementary teachers’ environmental education practice in which teachers’
stories are assumed to be ‘elements of personal practical theories as well as some dimensions of underlying value systems that present themselves in everyday life’ Hart
2003 p.98. In this regard, complete analysis may provide a thick and elaborated description of the realities of school environmental education from teachers’ point of
views, illuminating that: • teachers’ environmental education practice involves life opportunities and resources
of inspiration; and social and cultural qualities of such opportunities and resources, such as 80s’ student movement, 90s’ environmental movement, current cultural
fervour around ‘well-being’, social controversy around stem cell research in Korean society, seem to provide an insight into a distinct features of teacher’s experiences;
• perspectives, conceptions, beliefs, values, and experiences regarding environment may motivate actions and changes in their teaching practices, but actual teaching
entails continuous self-evaluations, in particular, on the consideration of ‘educative’ aspect of pupils’ environment-related experiences;
• science teachers’ conceptions of environment teaching certainly and necessarily relate to their desired aims and considerations of the realities of science education; in
particular, teachers take critical stance to scientific knowledge and its social and political implications, although the relationship with science teaching and
environment teaching remains uncertain;
• in spite of general recognition of the importance of EE by teacher colleagues, teachers expressed isolated feelings in doing environment-related activities, pointing out the
lack of collaborative ethos and pervasive silence on the politically sensitive issue e.g. stem cell research;
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• so-called ‘EE’ policy driven school agenda, programs, environment curriculum, NGO programs looks prone to becoming disciplined, commercialised, or didactic in
spite of original passions and intentions while teachers try to sustain their activities without too much dependence on those projects;
• teachers regard life experiences as formative to their commitments to environment and environment teaching, thus, their perspectives and conceptions changing over
time. In spite of incoherence and ambiguity about the processes involved, they stress personal orientation and disposition to the key to practices and actions.
By extension, such common characteristics of tales produce further questions to investigate.
• Why do teachers show general ‘progressive’ attitude toward education and society
rather than ‘conservative’ or ‘reactionary’? How does this ethos relate to discursive formation of EEESD in current school system, and broadly, what does it imply to the
relationship between school education discourse and environmental discourse? • What are cultural knowledge and resources for learning and experiences, and how do
they become available to individuals? • How can teachers’ ambivalent feelings whereby isolations, frustrations, challenges as
well as motivations and passions coexist, be understood in terms of social and cultural dimension rather than merely personal?
While narrative analysis sheds light on the realities that teachers recognise, these questions may contribute to devising a methodological bridge between teachers’ personal
narratives and broader social discourse formation. ‘Identity work’ analysis that follows explores methodological potential in this regard.
Identity work analysis Identity work analysis, originally developed by Snow and Anderson 1987 investigates
in congruency between socially assigned and personal identities, concerning sociological inquiry around ‘the theoretical function of identity as a kind of interface or
conceptual bridge linking individual and structure’ p.1338. Identity work denotes ‘the range of activities individuals engage in, in order to create, present, and sustain personal
identities that are congruent with and supportive of the self-concept’ ibid p.1348. Empirical study on teacher’s identity work carried out by Woods and Jeffrey 2002
reveals the challenges to English teachers’ traditional identities, examining teacher’s strategic endeavour for equanimity and tactical role-taking that occurs through
negotiating processes by which teachers embrace or distance their new identities within changing educational discourses.
For this study, the idea of identity work was appropriate for investigating how teachers construct selves by making use of narrative resources and discursive possibilities
available to them. Table 2 shows an illustration of identity work analysis. Kim’s story unfolds negotiating nature of teacher subjectivities, between personal orientations and
socially assigned or institutional roles, consequently forming environmental and
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professional identities. Therefore, the story shapes a distinct character of his narratives of environment teaching in which he distances certain roles and social categories ascribed to
teachers that he considers prevailing in teacher culture and professionalism, while embracing and pursuing personal orientation. Overall, his environment teaching practice
and commitment to environment associate with strong self-conceptions, which have become directed toward ecological life style and critical literacy about science and
society. Narratives of environment teaching then point to rather ‘idealistic’ vision of environmental education, where he challenges current policy-driven EEESD-related
promotions as they are neither aiming for radical changes in educational system, nor embracing ecological insights into how our society should move towards how we educate
pupils. However, he does not necessarily dismiss all the current educational and social moves to environmentalism, taking strategic attitudes, for example, by taking up some
opportunities to participate in research project where he aimed to explore the possibility of ‘greening’ school curriculum, which is in tune with his personal vision.
Table 2 Narrative structure of identity work Kim’s case
My ow n w ay? • To im plem ent m y
ideas is dem anding. A37
• My vision of EE A43
Weak nar rat ives concerning
cur riculum im plies self- init iat ed
t eaching st rat egy • ‘Ot h er’ t eacher s
A15 • CA, hidden
cur riculum A3- 1 • Crit iques of ot her
science t eacher s’ scient ism A18
Nar r at ives of envir onm ent
t eaching
• St r ong self- concept ion
Pursuing own vision • Dist ancing
dom inant t eacher social cult ure
2. Dist ancing, ‘ot h ering’ Discour se of EE
1. Pur suing, const ruct ing self- con cept ion
becom ing crit ical, environm ent ally con sciou s t each er
Mode of int er act ion
St r ong narrat ives about self-
concept ion and ow n vision: ‘fit for m e’
4. Dist an cing t eacher cult ure,
curriculum 3. Negot iat ing,
ignoring, challenged
Mode of int eract ion
• SD ESD discour se as pr oblem at ic fram ew ork
A28 • Teacher s’ r esponses t o
EE A14 • Left ism t o ecologism , EE t each er s
A10 • Gr eening educat ion A29, 30
• Scien ce learning for crit ical lit eracy A4
• Scien ce and value A17 - 2 • Teaching m et h odology: writ ing a
shor t piece A21 • Ecological educat ion A24, 25
• My disposit ion vs. EE t each er s A41
Nar r at ives of envir onm ent
t eaching
I m plem ent at ion of policy init iat ive and cur riculum
• Teacher educat ion young t eacher s A20
• Hard w orking t each er s A38
Being pr ogr ess Pupils • Teacher’s union A7
• Univer sit y experience A8 • Responsive t o pupils A27
• Our societ y w hat t o t each t o pupils A35, 36
• Long t erm vision A42
Pr ofessional as a t eacher
EE curriculum not est ablished Scien ce
cur riculum • science t eaching A16,
17- 1 Ecological life st yle Cr it ical lit eracy
about science and societ y • How t o live A11
• Early childhood wide r eading A5 • Resist ing t o m iddle- class cult ur e
A40
Env ir onm ent al science
- r elat ed Socially
assigned inst it ut ional Per sonal or ient at ion
I dent it y work Back ground
nar r at ives
My ow n w ay? • To im plem ent m y
ideas is dem anding. A37
• My vision of EE A43
Weak nar rat ives concerning
cur riculum im plies self- init iat ed
t eaching st rat egy • ‘Ot h er’ t eacher s
A15 • CA, hidden
cur riculum A3- 1 • Crit iques of ot her
science t eacher s’ scient ism A18
Nar r at ives of envir onm ent
t eaching
• St r ong self- concept ion
Pursuing own vision • Dist ancing
dom inant t eacher social cult ure
2. Dist ancing, ‘ot h ering’ Discour se of EE
1. Pur suing, const ruct ing self- con cept ion
becom ing crit ical, environm ent ally con sciou s t each er
Mode of int er act ion
St r ong narrat ives about self-
concept ion and ow n vision: ‘fit for m e’
4. Dist an cing t eacher cult ure,
curriculum 3. Negot iat ing,
ignoring, challenged
Mode of int eract ion
• SD ESD discour se as pr oblem at ic fram ew ork
A28 • Teacher s’ r esponses t o
EE A14 • Left ism t o ecologism , EE t each er s
A10 • Gr eening educat ion A29, 30
• Scien ce learning for crit ical lit eracy A4
• Scien ce and value A17 - 2 • Teaching m et h odology: writ ing a
shor t piece A21 • Ecological educat ion A24, 25
• My disposit ion vs. EE t each er s A41
Nar r at ives of envir onm ent
t eaching
I m plem ent at ion of policy init iat ive and cur riculum
• Teacher educat ion young t eacher s A20
• Hard w orking t each er s A38
Being pr ogr ess Pupils • Teacher’s union A7
• Univer sit y experience A8 • Responsive t o pupils A27
• Our societ y w hat t o t each t o pupils A35, 36
• Long t erm vision A42
Pr ofessional as a t eacher
EE curriculum not est ablished Scien ce
cur riculum • science t eaching A16,
17- 1 Ecological life st yle Cr it ical lit eracy
about science and societ y • How t o live A11
• Early childhood wide r eading A5 • Resist ing t o m iddle- class cult ur e
A40
Env ir onm ent al science
- r elat ed Socially
assigned inst it ut ional Per sonal or ient at ion
I dent it y work Back ground
nar r at ives
In this respect, identity work analysis can examine ‘discursive practice’ of environment teaching – the means by which people “do” self, that people actively craft selves by using
narrative resources Holstein Gubrium 2000, cited in Broad 2002. In symbolic interactionist
term, human being pursues ‘signifying activities’, namely, people engage in the imputation of meaning to the objects in one’s environment Snow Anderson
1987. In this regard, identity work analysis links to narrative analysis provided previously, in the way which narrative themes become narrative resources for teachers’
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signifying activities, namely, making sense of their own theories of environmental education. But it is ‘discourses-in-practices’, namely, the discursive environments that
set possibilities for constructing selves Holstein Gubrium 2000, then, what are discourses
that set the norms and rules of activities, legitimatise relevant knowledge and ideas, and constitute practices? For further discoursenarrative analyses Research
question 2, identity work analysis brings some questions into focus. • ‘Environmental or ecological imperative’ discourse may set the basic conditions for
EEESD, calling for education’s role; by contrast, some teachers question, or have less interest in ‘crisis’ itself than pedagogies of environment. In doing so, what sort of
pedagogic knowledge and methodology are legitimatised by current EEESD discourses, in what expenses?
• Policy-driven EEESD discourses are extending beyond narrow definition, becoming more popular slogan; however, teachers find difficulties in identifying resources
relevant to them. How do EEESD initiatives and policies operate in connection to other educational discourses and school system?
• Can teachers’ narratives teacher discourse? be an alternative to EEESD discourses? What are possibilities and challenges?
Conclusion: next stage? The paper addressed research process at mid-way stage, focusing on the evolving nature
of research framework and methodology and two approaches to data analysis, which marks continuous processes of identifications and demarcations in research inquiries in
order to create theoretically informed as well as fieldwork-based research framework. In this respect, there are remaining issues around a coherency in theoretical and
methodological understanding, and further reflexivity is the key to this. Furthermore, more attentions need to be paid to ‘cultural’ patterns and modes of shaping narratives and
stories in order to gain more culturally relevant understanding of research phenomenon. References
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Chase, S. E. 2005 “Narrative inquiry: Multiple lenses, approaches, voices”, in Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. Eds The sage handbook of qualitative research. 3 ed. pp651-
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Dillabough, J. 1999 “Gender politics and conceptions of the modern teacher: women, identity and professionalism”, in British Journal of Sociology of Education 20 No 3
pp373-393. Fien, J. and Sterling, S. 1996 Education for sustainability. London: Earthscan.
Hart, P. 2003 Teachers’ thinking in environmental education: Consciousness and responsibility. New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
Holstein, J. A. and Gubrium, J. F. 2000 The self we live by: Narrative identity in a postmodern world. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press.
MacLure, M. 1993 “Mundane autobiography: some thoughts on self-talk in research contexts”, in British Journal of Sociology of Education 14 No 4 pp 373-384.
Macnagten, P. and Urry, J. 1998 Contested natures. London: Sage. Nias, J. 1989 Primary teachers talking: A study of teaching as work. New York:
Routledge. Nikel, J. 2005 Ascribing responsibility: A study of student teachers understandings of
education, sustainable development, and ESD, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Bath.
Phillips, D. K. 2002 Female preservice teachers’ talk: illustrations of subjectivity, visions of ‘nomadic’ space’, in Teachers and teaching: theory and practice 8 No 1 pp9-
27. Robottom, I. ed. 1987 Environmental education practice and possibility. Geelong,
Vic.: Deakin University. Sikes, P. J., Measor, L., and Woods, P. 1985 Teacher careers: Crises and continuities.
London: Falmer. Snow, D. A. and Anderson, L. 1987 “Identity work among the homeless: the verbal
construction and avowal of personal identities”, in The American Journal of Sociology 92 No 6 pp1336-1371.
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Woods, P. and Jeffrey, B. 2002 “The reconstruction of primary teachers’ identities”, in British Journal of Sociology of Education 23 No 1 pp89-106.
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Remembering and memorial of the holocaust: with specific reference to the Holocaust exhibition at the Imperial War Museum,
London Darius Jackson
Abstract This paper considers two themes in holocaust remembrance, first the tensions between
memory as an act of mourning with its own rituals and as an act of remembering for a political purpose. Secondly, the tension between holocaust museums as places of learning
and as sites within a leisure industry. These tensions are of particular importance as the holocaust is memorialised in different parts of the world and in different ways. The focus
is on the Holocaust Exhibition at the Imperial War Museum, London, but reference is made to a number of other sites. This paper will show that these memorials are laden with
meanings beyond simple memory of the victims and that visitors respond not just to the subject matter but also to the way the exhibition is presented.
DISCUSSION
It is to be expected that museums and memorials to the holocaust would be set up in Germany and Poland, after all this was the geographical centre of the event, orders came
from the German government that had conquered most of Europe and many of the memorial sites are in Poland. However, recently it has been observed that the holocaust,
and memory of it, is now central to American “collective memory” Novick, 2000; the holocaust is being memorialised in places it did not happen and by people who were not
going to be its victims. This is not unique to the USA: there is a holocaust exhibition at the Imperial War Museum IWM; there were attempts to set up a Shoah Centre
Manchester whilst, in rural Nottinghamshire; the Beth Shalom Centre has opened as a site of holocaust memorial. These museums are based on the idea that we need to remember
the holocaust, to help us avoid repeating it. Memorial building is a complex business: it is concerned with putting memory in a public
arena and moving memory from a personal to a collective act. In his study of memorials in Srebrenica, Pollack 2003 argues that there is tension between the personal act of
mourning at a special place and the political symbolism these sites develop as the immediate moment of mourning passes. He goes on to highlight another tension between
the isolated and the politically involved survivors;
“…survivors who remained politically isolated desired a place to mourn their loved ones in accordance with their traditions. Those involved in advocacy and
political organizations viewed burial as a means towards achieving political
ends.” Pollack, 2003: 126
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Consequently one must consider what it is that is actually being remembered, specifically in relation to the holocaust:
“If the raison d’etre for Holocaust monuments is ‘never to forget’… [we must] ask precisely what is not forgotten…” Young 1990: 173
There is second issue here: memorials can be built but acts of collective memorial need to have social conventions and rituals about their use, otherwise the memorial objects
become little more than “street furniture”. These ceremonial rights are central. Here a physical space has been created but no ritual
acts agreed upon the memorial space is open to “misuse”. For example, and using a personal observation, in August 2005 my family visited the Robert Bruce memorial on
the site of the battle of Bannockburn. We were visiting a site of Scottish freedom, a sacred site in the centuries old struggle with the English. The local adolescents had a
different perspective: they used the site as a race track for their trials bikes, and as a place in which to socialise informally. This ‘misuse’ of memorials is not unique to Scottish
teenagers. Charlesworth and Addis 2002 describe how the informal garden memorial site at Paszow Concentration Camp was used by the locals
“…for fly tipping and informal recreation from dogwalking, walking, and childrens’ and adult play to motor bike scrambling and mountain biking. There
are however two main uses of the area that substantially affect the ecology. Grazing… at the far end of the site… [and]… Mowing for a hay crop is occurring
on a limited scale with a few pocket handkerchief plots” Charlesworth and Addis, 2002: 232-233
This need to control the use of memorial sites in Poland has led many sites, including Birkenau, to move away from the “spontaneous and ephemeral ecologies in favour of a
permanent formal lawned landscape. They rejected a meadowland of typical Polish flowers for a typical English lawn” Charlesworth and Addis 2002, 245. The advantage
of a lawned landscape is that it is easy to control, and people behave in a manner appropriate to a site of collective memorial. However, it is a false ecology as the camps
did not have formal English lawns. This lack of a collective practice of memorial was an issue for, the German artist, Jochen
Gerz’s ‘Monument against Fascism’ Young, 2000 chapter five. This “anti-memorial” work encouraged passers by to write comments or memorials about the victims of
fascism. However, in the eyes of the locals it became a magnet for graffiti that culminated when a swastika was painted on it.
The issue of behaviour is different in museums, there is no need for collective ceremonies and, as Bourdieu argues, we are initiated into the world of art galleries and museums and
learn the necessary behaviour and attitudes Bourdieu 2003. However, this does not mean the museum is a tension-free space. There are a number of tensions within any
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museum; they develop from the history of museums in general and their present position sitting uncomfortably between the education and leisure industries.
Foucault argued that museums and libraries are the cultural opposite of amusement parks and fairgrounds, in that they focus on betterment rather than entertainment Bennett 1995
3. However, this distinction may be too severe. Museums need and use the qualities of amusement parks and shopping malls to entice people in and to give customer
satisfaction. Modern museums are part of the leisure industry Foley and MacPherson 2000, Jolliffe and Smith 2001 152-3, they need to attract visitors. Consequently they use
the ‘tricks’ of the advertising industry to attract visitors. Once there, visitors need to enjoy the visit. This is where the museum has moved beyond the collection of unusual
objects to the constructors of heritage through the presentation of these objects within an overarching narrative. They also provide an opportunity to buy the cultural products at
the museum shop. Many of the tensions are present in the IWM. There is tension between educating and
entertaining, between scholarly activity and commercial ventures. There is also tension between objects having intrinsic interest and being exemplars in an unfolding narrative
within the display. It is in itself extremely significant that there is a holocaust exhibition at the IWM. The
museum is part of a complex of museums that place military conflict at the heart of British Twentieth Century History. The museum emphasises “…conflicts involving
British or the Commonwealth since 1914…” IWM 2000a:1. It may be wrong to see the museum as a celebration of Britain at war, a lap of honour for 1918 and 1945. Emphasis
is laid on explanation and on the experiences of women IWM 2000. Consequently situating the exhibition within the museum places the holocaust firmly within the military
context of World War Two and central to the British military narrative. This is very different from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum USHMM, which stands
totally isolated from its historical context. However, it is sited within a political context; close to the Washington, Jefferson and Lincoln Memorials Cole 2004, memorials built
to honour these giants of American history and liberal politics. The possible difference emerges that the American museum clearly sets the holocaust as a counterpoint to
American liberal values as symbolised by these memorials: whereas the IWM sets the holocaust in a military context, showing the ‘evils’ the war was fought to defeat. Both
show the holocaust from the perspective of the liberator. As you approach the IWM. you are greeted by two impressive naval guns suggesting a
sense of preparedness and watchfulness. The whole scene exudes strength and power, dwarfing the individual.
The Atrium of the IWM is an unusual place; it is bright and airy, there is little formality beyond a request not to touch the exhibits. The room contains the large exhibits, and
echoes the old idea that a museum should contain a collection of curios. The objects highlight the unusual. A small sailing boat used at Dunkirk, a Grant tank desert
camouflage and a Royal Navy missile are juxtaposed. The upper gallery is equally
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eclectic with a World War One artillery piece, a World War Two German anti aircraft gun, two bomber cockpits one from a Halifax aircraft and a Special Air Service
Chevrolet truck from the Western Desert campaign all in close proximity. This assortment of artefacts arguably forces visitors to construct their own links. On the day of
this visit, the museum was full of school parties. In the atrium the pupils wandered around chatting and laughing. They admired the objects but only as specific unique
objects, rather than ones linked by a narrative and part of a greater collection; two boys announced the Lancaster cockpit was “really great” to their teacher but generally most
wondered around glancing at the objects. Whereas the holocaust exhibition at the IWM was set up with a clear philosophical stance
on its role and style, Sue Bardgett, the Holocaust Exhibition Project Advisory at the IWM, states;
“…we thought hard about the kind of ambience it should have and what rules should govern its creation. Our feeling was that it should not involve
pretence or reconstructions, that its prime duty was to inform visitors of what happened rather than tell them how to feel, and that a straightforward,
uncomplicated treatment would serve the subject best.” Bardgett, 2004: 154
The Holocaust exhibition does not have a separate entrance; it is entered through the museum itself. This is of significance, as it puts the holocaust narrative within a context
of war and conflict. Visitors approach the holocaust neither as victims nor liberators, but as combatants Cole 2004. This is reinforced by the introduction to the exhibition itself;
“Under cover of the Second World War, for the sake of their “new order”, the Nazis sought to destroy all the Jews of Europe; for the first time in history,
industrial methods were used for the mass extermination of a whole people, 6 million were murdered, including 1,500,000 children. This event is called the
Holocaust”
It is proposed that this becomes part of the narrative of World War and specifically part of Britain’s role. Robert Crawford, the Director-General of the IWM explains that the
holocaust was an integral part of the war and as such is within the correct context, “… [it]…depicts also the nature of the evil which they [British and Commonwealth soldiers]
helped to defeat.” IWM, 2000a:3. In the same way the siting of the USHMM close to the Lincoln, Jefferson and Washington memorials places the holocaust as the opposite
of American liberal values and Robert Crawford’s remarks place genocidal racism as the very antithesis of Twentieth Century Britishness.
The exhibition is spread over two floors with a clearly arranged route. It begins with a summary of the state of Europe in 1918, placing Hitler’s rise to power in a post World
War One context. The exhibition has a strong narrative of the events, and following this through the visitor is engaged in controlled and organised walking. The artefacts chosen
drive the narrative that gives the exhibition unity. Sue Bardgett described how the narrative selected the artefacts “we listed the kinds of artefacts we wanted to find- a toy
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owned by a hidden child, a funeral cart, a sewing machine used in a ghetto” Bardgett, 2004:155. There are several large items, most notably the dissection table and a
Belgian railway wagon used to transport Jews. The dissection table is at the top of the stairs and marks a transition from the context and build up to the holocaust itself. The
railway wagon is significant as it represents the journey to concentration and death camps; this is reinforced as it appears to be the wall to a small corridor linking two
displays downstairs. In the USHMM a Polish railway wagon carries out a similar role, whereas the wagon at Yad Vashem is sited at the end of the museum and represents
“…journeying to …Israel” Cole, 2004:132. Downstairs the exhibition continues with the narrative building up to Auschwitz. This is represented by a model with figures
about 20mm tall. Even this is meticulous as it represents the arrival of the Hungarian Jews and is based on photographic evidence. This is the climax of the exhibition; the
liberation is treated as a low-key event, as are the trials and executions of the perpetrators. At the end of the exhibition is a room for reflection where comfortable
seats and 18 holocaust survivors talking on a video screen encourage such activity.
The positioning of the mass murder as the climax of the exhibition is interesting. This reinforces the position of the holocaust in the narrative of Britain at war. Genocide need
not be the climax of the exhibition. The liberation of camps, by predominantly American soldiers is the heart of the USHMM and arrival in Israel is central to Yad Vashem. This
has moved the victims from their rightful place at the centre of the story. The holocaust is not about heroic rescue or redemption through a new nation state, it is about the attempt
to murder a variety of people who were seen as unworthy of life in the Nazi new world order and the IWM shows the diversity of these victims.
Survivors are central to the IWM exhibition as they appear at the start, describing conditions in Germany in the 1920’s, at the end where they attempt to construct a
meaning to the events and throughout as they describe their own experiences. This personalises the process, however they are not there as a memorial, these narratives are
artefacts, only there because their testimony drives the narrative forward. They are there to represent the normality of their experience of the holocaust rather than the absolute
abnormality of the holocaust itself.
The strong overarching narrative that binds all the artefacts also encourages people to move through the exhibition. The route is a sinuous one, and the pace noticeably
quickens as you move through. On the upper floor there is a large quantity of information so groups congregate around video screens, giving the process a relaxed quality as
visitors spend time watching some screens intently, then glancing at others. Downstairs as the events quicken so does the pace of the visitors. This section has less to discuss and
the visitors respond with silence. This makes the arrival back in the atrium with its light airy appearance and the sound of children laughing, all the more shocking.
The IWM, in adhering to a chronological narrative, places the perpetrators in the ‘driving seat’ of the exhibition; the survivors are there to show what the perpetrators did to them.
The survivors have a voice only to say what was inflicted on them.
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In conclusion, as in Poland and Germany people may use holocaust sites in their own ways and for their own ends, rather than that for which they were planned. Though the
IWM has made every effort not to prescribe a meaning to the events of the holocaust, the exhibition is used by the local police in their efforts to combat racism Bardgett, 2004
The IWM planned the exhibition to show an aspect of British and Commonwealth troops at war, whilst the local police see it has a different meaning and use it as a tool in anti-
racist education.
References
Bardgett 2004 “The Depiction of the Holocaust at the Imperial War Museum since 1961” The Journal of Israeli History Vol. 23 No1 Spring 2004.
Bennett T. 1995 The Birth of the Museum London: Routledge Farmer. Bourdieu P.1984 Distinction London: Routledge, Falmer.
Charlesworth A. and Addis M.2002 “Memorialization and the Ecological Landscapes of Holocaust Sites: the cases of Paszow and Aushwitz-Birkenau” in Landscape Research
Vol 27 No 3. Cole T. 2004 “Nativization and Nationalization; a Comparative Landscape Study of
Holocaust Museums in Israel, the US and the UK” in The Journal of Israeli History Vol. 23 No1 Spring 2004.
Foley M.and MacPherson G. 2000 “Museums as Leisure” in International Journal of Heritage Studies Vol. 6 No2.
Imperial War Museum 2000 Imperial War Museum London The Trustees of the Imperial
War Museum
London 2000a The Holocaust: The holocaust exhibition at the
Imperial War Museum The Trustees of the Imperial War Museum London. Jolliffe L. and Smith R.2001 “Heritage, Tourism and Museums: the case of the North
Atlantic islands of Skye, Scotland and Prince Edward Island, Canada” in International Journal of Heritage Studies Vol. 7 No2.
Novick P 2000 The Holocaust and Collective Memory London, Bloomsbury Pollack C.E. 2003 “Intentions of burial: Mourning, Politics and Memorials following
the Massacre at Srebrenica” in Death Studies 27. Young J. 1990 Writing and Rewriting the Holocaust University of Indiana Press:
Bloomington Indianapolis.
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Thinking skills in Religious Education. Mrs Rachael Jackson-Royal
Abstract This paper discusses a practitioner led research project focused upon two main areas:
Firstly whether teaching religious studies through the pedagogy of thinking skills can develop thinking about religious issues and secondly whether pupils themselves see this
teaching approach as being beneficial in aiding them to understand this subject. The paper begins with an overview of the definition and pedagogy of thinking skills used in
the project, followed by an outline of the theory of religious judgement, concluding with an explanation of the mixed methods design utilised in the study.
Introduction The thinking skills movement is based upon three main beliefs: Firstly that humans are
active learners i.e. they impose structure on what they are learning; Secondly that there are more effective or skilled ways that such information can be structured and evaluated;
and finally that these more effective ways can and should be taught in the classroom. Evidence is often used to support the desirability of this approach such as improved
examination grades and a more positive attitude towards learning amongst pupils who have been taught through this pedagogy Moseley et al, 2005; Perkins, 1987.
Based on this evidence, in 1998, the British Government requested McGuiness to review and evaluate different thinking skills projects. The intention of this review was to
ascertain if this approach would be suitable for schools within England and Wales. Through this appraisal McGuiness McGuiness, 1999 suggested that thinking skills
should be established as a cross curricula theme, a recommendation that was adopted roughly two years later. Thus currently schools in England and Wales are required to
teach children both subject content and how to effectively process, understand and evaluate such content Johnson, 2001.
Since this date there have been some excellent teaching resources researched and produced for the teaching of thinking skills in religious education for example,
Baumfield, 2002. However, very little work has been undertaken into ascertaining whether this pedagogy can improve the specific type of thinking that is believed to occur
when comprehending religious issues, called religious judgement. Furthermore there is also an absence of research on whether students themselves feel this teaching technique is
beneficial in aiding them to understand the issues raised within religious education. Thus it is the aim of this practitioner led study to explore these two areas through using a
mixed methods approach. However before a more detailed discussion of this approach occurs, an outline of the definition and pedagogy of thinking skills along with a summary
of the theory of religious judgement is provided.
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What are thinking skills? There is not one definitionclassification of thinking skills but many McGuiness, 1999.
Also there are many different thinking skills programmes each emphasising alternative ways this should be taught, i.e. as a cross curricula theme or within specific subjects etc.
Part of the reason for this diversity is due to the different theories of thinking and varying socio-cultural contexts, preferences and values that the programmes can be embedded
within Nickerson, 1987. A further problem lies in disagreements over whether it is possible to define these skills because of the complexity of thinking, a position which can
be seen in the work of Johnson Johnson, 2001. However an influential definition and classification is provided by McGuiness McGuiness, 1999.
McGuiness claims thinking skills deal with the systematic and critical handling of information. This involves information processing locating, collecting and organising
relevant information etc, reasoning making inferencesdeductions and giving reasons etc, enquiry posing and defining problems and planning what to do etc, creativity
generating and extending ideas and looking for alternatives etc and evaluation developing a criterion to judge the value of things etc. Moseley Moseley et al, 2005
claimed these are examples of cognitive skills and that in addition there should be strategic and reflective thinking skills. Strategic and reflective thinking involves what
Flavell termed meta-cognition or the managing and being critically reflective of one’s own thinking processes through checking, planning, monitoring, reviewing and
predicting. Such thinking is believed to be essential to the implementation, development and success of any thinking skills programme Georghiades, 2004; Moseley et al, 2005.
It is these cognitive and strategicreflective skills that will form the understanding of thinking skills in this project.
What a pedagogy of thinking skills involves From an analysis of different thinking skills programmes it is possible to arrive at the
pedagogy used in this research. The principles which comprise this pedagogy should not be thought of as being autonomous, but rather as overlapping and informing each other.
The first of these principles involves ensuring that thinking skills are directly and explicitly taught and that a language is developed in order to speak meaningfully about
them. This is believed to be important because it is claimed that this will help pupils to understand, utilise and develop these skills McGuiness, 2000; Sternberg, 1987.
Strategies that have been recommended which foster this principle include creating a poster of the skills for pupils to refer to in the lesson, asking pupils to identify the skill
being focused upon and launching the skill at the beginning of the lesson through clear and concrete examples Leat, 2002; Perkins, 1987.
A second principle of thinking skills lessons is the explicit focusing upon meta-cognition McGuiness, 1999; Moesley et al, 2005. The reason for this is because it is believed that
students will not voluntarily enter into such reflection unless guided to do so by the teacher. Leat Leat, 2002 recommends that teachers develop this through asking the
134
pupils questions such as what they did to complete the task, how successful they thought this was and whether the methods used by others could be used by themselves. Nicholls
and Kinninment Nicholls and Kinninment, 2003 also recommend the keeping of student diaries as a means to monitor and check progress in the use of this skill.
Activities which enable transfer to take place is another principle of thinking skills programmes McGuiness, 1999; Leat, 2002. Transfer refers to the ability to recognise
that a particular skill or even information can be used in other lessons and settings McGuiness, 1999. This is considered to be important because it develops further the
pupil’s ability to structure, evaluate and make links between ideas. Thus it helps pupils to realise that what they have learnt in the classroom does have relevance outside of this
setting. Once again many strategies have been recommended for teachers to help students develop this. These include the idea of bridging which involves helping students to see
that a skillinformation could be used elsewhere through explicitly encouraging the child to make links with other curriculum areas or life in general Leat, 1999.
The programme being grounded in a theory of thinking is another pedagogy of thinking skills which McGuiness McGuiness, 1999 claims helps ensure a programme’s success
and endurance. Two of the most prominent of these theories are Neo-Piagetian claims based upon Piaget’s theory of genetic epistemology and the functional learning theory of
Vygotsky which emphasises the zone of proximinal learning. Although there are many differences between these theories, both argue that learning involves actively creating
constructs in the mind, although they differ in how they believe this occurs and develops. Most of the programmes are based on either one of these theories predominantly or a
mixture of the two as in the current project. Another of the principles of thinking skills lessons involves the teacher acting as a
facilitatormediator as this is believed to encourage pupils to actively process, reason, enquire, be creative about and evaluate what they are looking at themselves McGuiness,
1999; Adey and Shayer, 1994. One way in which a teacher can do this is through providing scaffolds or guidance which can occur in the activities set, the resources
provided and through the interactions the teacher has directly with their students. However it is recognised that acting as a facilitator is not easy with some teachers
claiming this is the most difficult aspect of these programmes Leat 1999. Structured curriculum materials that involve: open ended tasks, lots of examples, and
multiple practice materials which begin with what the child can handle moving onto that which they cannot do without help, is another principle of thinking skills lessons Leat,
2002. Some, such as Adey and Shayer Adey and Shayer, 1994, argue the tasks which the child cannot do without assistance should be just above what they could do on their
own. Such tasks would therefore involve cognitive conflict, i.e. material that cannot be adequately processed and understood at the current level of thinking which lead to
development in cognition so that they can be mastered. Examples of such activities can be seen in the resources produced for History, Geography and Religious Education
Baumfield, 2002; Fisher et al, 2002; Leat, 2002.
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Another principle involved in thinking skills lessons, especially those based upon Vygotsky, involves the use of a community of enquiry in the classroom McGuiness,
1999. A community of enquiry refers to the fostering and developing of an environment that encourages discourse between students about a particular topic or question. Such
discourse involves questioning, co-operation, listening, speculation and evaluations that are based upon the points opined. These communities are believed to be important
because discussion is seen as a way in which children can be introduced to new ways of thinking and have their current thoughts challenged which in turn helps develop
metacognition McGuiness, 1999. The final principle of these lessons is the belief that the programme should last for a
substantial period of time in order for it to be effective Adey and Shayer, 1994. Opinions differ on how long this should be with recommendations ranging from the
whole school period to one to two years Adey and Shayer, 1994; Lipman, 1991. Some also claim the effects of these programmes may not be initially obvious but may emerge
some two to three years later especially if the intervention occurred at a key moment in the student’s mental development such as the beginning of adolescence Adey and
Shayer, 1994. The theory of Religious Judgement
Religious judgement is a theory developed by Oser and Gmunder that claims there is a unique and distinct way of comprehending religious matters and their related issues. The
theory argues that this distinct way of comprehending religious issues is a process whereby a person can develop and relate constructs of an ultimate i.e. however this may
be understood, the self, others and the world. Such a process entails the equilibrating of seven or possibly eight polar dimensions. These include issues of
transcendenceimmanence, freedomdeterminism and chanceprovidence Oser and Gmunder, 1991.
Oser and Gmunder argue that religious judgement develops through the life span to pass through six potential stages or different ways in which these polar dimensions and hence
constructs of the ultimate, self, others and the world, will be structured. These stages are seen as being universal especially in the western world with most people developing to
at least stage three Oser and Gmunder, 1991. Factors believed to be influential in the development of a person’s religious judgment include the maturation of the brain,
experiencing contingency, interest in the area, being immersed in a community that encourages development and the advancement of particular cognitive competencies such
as symbolic thinking and relational and contextual reasoning Reich, 2002. The design of the research project
This practitioner led research project is focused upon the two following areas: 1. Can a student’s religious thinking be enhanced if religious education is taught through
the pedagogy of thinking skills?
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2. Do students themselves believe that the teaching of religious education through this pedagogy is beneficial in helping them to understand the issues raised in this subject
area? It is the aim of this project to try to answer these questions through using a sample of
thirty volunteers aged twelvethirteen in a fee paying girl’s independent day school in the heart of England.
The research design used in order to answer these questions is embedded within the paradigm of pragmatism. Pragmatism argues that the world view from which a research
project operates should be that which best suits the question or focus of the study. As such any paradigm or combinations of paradigms are acceptable providing this is relevant
to the question Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998. Based upon this, the research questions of this project are applicable to the world view of critical realism. Critical realism argues
that there are social and natural realities independent of human minds which are known through human constructs. As these constructs are historically, socially and culturally
shaped, it is not possible to know these realities in themselves and thus all claims to knowledge should be seen as being situated and value laden. However through being
critical or reflexive of any research, it is possible to uncover and remove some of the bias, assumptions and presuppositions both of the individual researcher and the community the
research is embedded within in order to arrive at a clearer construct of the reality under investigation Lopez Potter, 2001. Within such a world view the theories of thinking
skills and Religious Judgement are understood as being constructs which explain how humans are believed to think generally and specifically about religious issues. These
constructs are believed to have features that are unique to each individual but also aspects that are general to humans, especially those who have matured in similar cultural and
social backgrounds. It is these more general aspects that are focused on in the research project.
Pragmatism also argues that the methodology and tools selected for the research should be based upon their suitability in answering the questions rather than because
traditionally they are used within a particular world view Tashakkori and Teddlie, 1998. As the methodology of mixed methods is the most applicable to these research questions
it is this design that will be applied to the research. For the first question a variant of the quantitative quasi-experimental design will be
adopted. In this design the whole sample of students will be taught two units of work symbolism and the problem of evil through the pedagogy of thinking skills. Before and
after this intervention the students’ religious judgement will be measured through the use of semi-structured interviews which have already by piloted, with the results compared
to ascertain if any development has taken place. The control required to compare these results to will be drawn from other studies which have demonstrated the level of
development that occurs naturally see for example Oser and Gmunder, 1991. The second question will be based upon the qualitative design of grounded theory. This will
take place after the intervention and will use the method of semi-structured focus group interviews with the questions being drawn from questionnaires and student diaries. The
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results of these will be analysed qualitatively. Thus the structure of this mixed method design is an equivalent status methodology of a quantitative design followed by a
qualitative one. A summary of this research project is provided in table one below:
Table 3: Summary of the Research Project.
Cognitive skills of information processing, reasoning, enquiry, creativity and evaluation. Strategicreflective thinking skills involving metacognition.
Directly and explicitly teaching these skills and developing a language to speak meaningfully about them.
The explicit focusing upon meta-cognition. Activities which enable transfer to take place.
The programme being grounded in a theory of thinking. The teacher acting as a facilitatormediator.
Structured curriculum materials that involve: open ended tasks, lots of examples, and multiple practice materials which begin with what the child can handle moving onto that
which they cannot do without help. The developing of a community of enquiry in the classroom.
The programme lasting a substantial period of time.
Mixed methods equivalent status design: Quantitative quasi-experimental stage followed by qualitative grounded theory stage.
Pedagogy of thinking skills:
Design of the research
programme. Definition of
thinking skills:
Conclusion In some areas research has been undertaken in order to ascertain if the teaching of subject
content through thinking skills can raise the specific thinking of the child within these disciplines. This can be seen within Mathematics and Science Adey and Shayer, 1994.
However such research has not occurred within the area of religious education despite thinking skills becoming a cross curricula theme within all schools in England and Wales.
Furthermore little research has been conducted into ascertaining pupil’s perceptions of the usefulness of this approach in aiding them to understand the issues raised within
religious education. Thus it is the aims of this practitioner led study to contribute to this field through using a mixed methods design at a girl’s fee paying day school within the
heart of England. References.
Adey, P. Shayer, M. 1994 Really raising standards: Cognitive intervention and academic achievement. London: Routledge Publishers.
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Baumfeild, V. 2002 Thinking through Religious Education. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K. 2003 Research Methods in Education 5
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edition. London: Routledge.
Coles, J., Robinson, W. ed. 1989 Teaching thinking: A survey of programmes in education. Bristol: Bristol press.
Day, J. 2001 “From structuralism to eternity? Re-imagining the psychology of Religious Development after the cognitive development paradigm”. in International
Journal for the Psychology of Religion,2, pp173-183. De Bono, E. 1988 De Bono’s Thinking course. London: BBC
Delanty, G. 1997 Social Science, Beyond Constructivism and Realism. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Eggen, P., Kauchak, D. 1988 Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills. London: Prentice Hall Publishers.
Fisher, P., Wilkson, I., Leat, D. 2002 Thinking through History. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing.
Fowler, J., Nipkow, K., Schweitzer, F. ed. 1992 Stages of Faith and Religious Development: Implications for church, education and society. London: SCM press.
Fowler, J. 2001 “Faith development and the post modern challenge”. in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion,2, pp159-172.
Georghiades, P. 2004 “From the general to the situated: Three decades of metacognition.” in International Journal of Science Education, Vol. 26, n 3, pp365-383.
Goldman, R. 1964 Religious thinking from childhood to adolescence. London :Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Johnson, J. 2001 Teaching thinking Skills. Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain.
Leat, D. 1999 “Rolling the stone uphill: A teacher development and the implementation of thinking skills programmes.” in Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 25, n 3, pp387-403.
Leat, D. 2002 Thinking through Geography 2
nd
edition. Cambridge: Chris Kington publishers.
Lipman, M. 1991 Thinking in Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lopez, J., Potter, G. 2001 After Postmodernism: An introduction to critical realism.
London: The Athlone press. McDargh, J. 2001 “Faith development theory and the post-modern problem of
foundations.” in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 2, pp185-1999. McGuiness, C. 1999 From thinking skills to thinking classrooms: A review and
evaluation of approaches for developing pupils’ thinking. DfEE Research Report RR115 Norwich, HMSO.
McGuiness, C. 2000 ACTS Activating Children’s Thinking Skills, a methodology for enhancing thinking skills across the curriculum. ESRC Teaching and Learning Research
Programme, Leicester. Maclure, S., Davies, P. ed. 1991 Learning to think, thinking to learn. Oxford:
Pergamon Press. Moseley, D. Elliot, J. Gregson, M. Higgins, S. 2005 “Thinking skills frameworks for
use in education and training.” in British Educational Research Journal, Vol. 31, n3, pp 367-390.
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Nichols, A., Kinninment, D. ed. 2003 More thinking through Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing.
Nickerson, R, S. 1987 “Why teach thinking?” in J. Baron R. J. Sternberg eds Teaching thinking skills: Theory and Practice. pp27-38 New York: W. H. Freeman.
Oser, F., Gmunder, P. 1991 Religious Judgement: A developmental approach. Birmingham: Religious Education Press.
Oser, F., Reich, H. 1996 “Psychological perspectives on Religious Development.” in World Psychology, 2, pp 365-396.
Perkins, D, N. 1987 “Thinking frames: An integrative perspective on teaching cognitive skills” in J. Baron R. J. Sternberg eds Teaching thinking skills: Theory and Practice.
pp41-61 New York: W. H. Freeman. Pring, R. 2000 Philosophy of Educational Research. London: Continuum.
Reich, H. 1993 “Cognitive development approaches to religiousness: which versions for which purpose?” in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 3, pp 145-171.
Reich, H. 2002 Developing the horizons of the mind, Relational and Contextual Reasoning and the resolution of cognitive conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. Rizzuto, A. 2001 “Religious Development: Beyond the modern paradigm discussion-
the psychoanalytic point of view”. in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 2, pp 201-214.
Robinson, R. 2004 Real World Research 2
nd
Edition. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. Sternberg, R, J. 1987 “Teaching intelligence: the application of cognitive psychology to
the improvement of intellectual skills” in J. Baron R. J. Sternberg eds Teaching thinking skills: Theory and Practice pp 182-218 New York: W. H. Freeman.
Streib, H. 2001 “Faith development theory revisited: The religious styles perspective.” in International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 2, pp143-158.
Tashakkori, A. Teddlie, C. 1998 Mixed methodology, combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. London: Sage publications.
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Different Ways of Knowing: a role for language support
Barbara Majer
“..learning and a sense of identity are inseparable: They are aspects of the same phenomenon.” Lave and Wenger 1991
“..we encounter diversity in our dialogues.” Lemke 2002
Abstract In my research I am exploring the shaping of the learner identity of adult bilingual
students during their vocational courses at a large British Further Education College. My six participants ranging in age from eighteen to fifty-seven, were all lone bilinguals
amongst first language English speaker class-mates. Over the period of a college year I conducted between 7 and 10 interviews with each, based on diaries kept by them about
their experiences and feelings as college students. Learner identity
Pavlenko and Blackledge 2003 have offered a framework in which identities are imposed, assumed or negotiable. One imposed identity for bilingual students in British
FE institutions is their labelling, for purposes of eligibility for funding, eg ‘overseas’, ‘asylum-seeker’, ‘spouse of British citizen’ and at the same time they are often
positioned as those who are, to some degree imperfectly, aspiring to conform to the majority educational standards. Yet most have developed practical or professional
expertise which often account for their choice of college subject, except that their knowledge easily goes unnoticed if it is not readily expressed in English.
Indeed, also imposed is the uncontested monolingual regime under which all instruction, activity and assessment take place in English, though the college social environment
outside the classroom is clearly multilingual. That said, bilingual learners have assumed the identity of ‘college student’ willingly, usually in the hope that the resulting
qualification will ease access to paid work. From my data I seek to show how some aspects of learner identity can be negotiated by the bilingual students themselves, as they
become socialised into the new learning community. Much of the literature about bilingual identity in education for example Skutnabb-
Kangas 2000, Cummins 2005, Skilton-Sylvester 2003, Miller 2003 relates to school-aged children, and the range of measures that can be taken to recognise and
harness linguistic and cultural diversity in schools. In mainstream schools, ‘partnership teaching’ is one of the models for supporting
bilingual learners. In our college this is rare because the majority of bilingual learners on each course are the only ones, thus it would be inappropriate. Besides which, most such
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learners claim that they would not welcome the presence of a language tutor designated exclusively to them in the classroom, signalling difference and personal ‘need’.
There are some parallels between my work and that done by Creese, Martin, Bhatt and Bhojani 2004 in complementary schools. Both focus on creating a space where
bilingual learners can explore and draw on their previously accrued resources to help construct a positive learner identity. Complementary schools set out to validate the
cultural and linguistic identities of their pupils, by privileging discourses usually marginalised in mainstream school. Similarly, bilingual college students seldom share
primary Discourses Gee 1990 with the rest of the class partly because most have not been through the British school system. Contrasting approaches become evident and, as
their learning backgrounds are seldom enquired about or taken account of, their values can seem ignored and dismissed.
Teaching is always value-laden. Like school, college is an educational community, which makes assumptions about how students will participate, and in particular how they will
use both spoken and written language. Bilingual adults, finding themselves in a new language and educational environment, are reminded of past learning and social
affiliations. Indeed, the way someone thinks and learns is based on previous occasions when learning took place, which, for a recently arrived bilingual student, would have
been during social participation in a differing context. Lemke 2002. My work concerns how this former self can be maintained, and mobilised in the new learning context.
Ivanic et al 2005 Choices made about synthesising the past and present learning are part of the negotiation of learner identity.
Language support Whilst at college, learners’ identities are subject to flux because of intensified learning
demands. Bilingual learners are grappling with a complex, specialist area of study in an additional language; with an unfamiliar social discourse in a circle of fellow students; and
with particular pedagogical ideologies reflected in classroom practices. This often takes place without family or other socially supportive networks close to hand.
Data from diaries and interviews would suggest several sources of influence on the participants’ learner identity whilst at college. See diagram on p.11. One of those
shapers, language support, emerged as a common feature of the learning experience of all my participants. In this paper I set out to highlight the role it can and could play in the
evolving of bilingual learner identity. Just as bilingual children developing their understanding and writing in complex
language need to see connections with ‘meaningful realities’ Cummins 2005, so adult bilingual learners need to see connections with and build on previous learning. This helps
them to negotiate their positioning in the new learning community. Language support tutors are well-placed to facilitate this process, their being college
staff, yet removed from direct classroom involvement and pressures of curriculum
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delivery. The space afforded by such meetings allows the learners to disclose more of their inner thoughts and concerns, thus enabling them to be seen holistically, as people.
Pavlenko and Lantolf 2000 This kind of separate provision lays itself open to criticism such as the comment that language support ‘simultaneously enables and stigmatises
learners’.Thesen 1997 It is, though, a voluntary entitlement, available at times to suit the student. For my participants at least, any sense of stigma was seemingly outweighed
by the perceived benefits. Data extracts
1 Andrei diary 14.6.05. Note: J = language support tutor
With J the lesson was short, she explain some questions from question papers, but there is a lot of questions and it have just increased not decreased. I think in
my progress she play one of main roles and combines teaching English with difficult to understand technical subject. It’s not less than double. Great thank to
her.
This entry was made towards the end of term, when Andrei was writing about his preparation for his exams: his comments were unsolicited and evidently heartfelt. He
sums up the expertise shown by his language support tutor by her enabling him to learn contextualised English.
Andrei was a qualified engineer with a lifetime of professional experience behind him. Relearning his specialist subject in a new language was a work of ‘restoration’, in his
own terminology, so that he could regain his identity. His class-mates were youngsters less than half his age, amongst whom it was hard for him to ask questions: in any case,
his level of language proficiency was mostly inadequate for him to comprehend lengthy explanations. The individual language sessions provided the private space to investigate
the missing knowledge, and accelerate his linguistic development in his field. 2 Catalina interview 16.5.05. Note: M =language support tutor; D=husband
Says she sometimes tells M she can’t do something and M reassures and encourages her Like an injectionLaughs….This is really good because honest
sometimes ‘I can’t go on this course any more. Too difficult. I cannot stand this’…. Sometimes I say, ‘It’s too much’. Well, M help me lots…..Continues
about her Thursday- M’s support is ‘like a cuddle’ that C gives the children she cares for. Maybe because I feel lonely or I want some er, D helps me a lot, but
sometimes we need somebody else outside, you know. You understand?........ I need. Without support I not go nowhere
Given that Catalina was taking a Childcare course, it is perhaps unsurprising that she chose two related similes to describe her view of language support, images which imply
at once a protection and a spur to action the injection, and a comfort the cuddle. They show that the affective benefit gleaned had equal importance with the teaching input. It
was an essential resource and a catalyst to her learning.
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In addition, we see from her last but one comment that accessing her own support from someone aside from her family helped her to maintain a separateness and thus to
demonstrate agency. This contradicts the perception of language support as engendering dependency.
3 Yi Yi Coming to the end of my course 9.5.05.
I feel grateful to two teachers from language. With their help, I have improved my written skills significantly and be able to write course work on my own.
Yi Yi discovered almost from the beginning that she would not be able to become discursively assimilated with her classmates, so she adopted a withdrawn, taciturn
identity throughout her course. This was discussed with her language support tutor who, at first, tried to intervene on her behalf when Yi Yi was still seventeen with the course
tutor. It became clear that neither Yi Yi nor her peers were able mutually to communicate, though no animosity existed. However, she remained determined to
improve her English writing, which language support enabled her to do. Research participation
The research participants knew me as a language support tutor in the college, even though I was not teaching them. From the outset, they knew that one of my avowed
intentions in conducting the research was to explore ways in which bilingual students on college courses could better be supported. Boundaries between my role as a researcher
and that of teacher were thus somewhat blurred. I will therefore now include some extracts from research interviews about the effects of research participation on the
students, because I believe some of the findings can inform language support practice. Li Interview 5 24.5.05. Note: APL= accreditation of prior learning, resulting
in exemption from certain parts of the course
B: One thing that I think you might have brought from what you’ve told me is your ability to study, because you’ve done a lot of studying before, you’ve learnt
how to learn things L: Oh This is easier For instance, like those computer skills, and the business
marketing skills, so I don’t have to do the business L has been APLed from having to do the marketing module of the present course I can do my work in a
very beautiful and advanced way, like what I showed you just now L had earlier shown B examples of his portfolio of essential oils documents, word-processed in
both English and Chinese, and decorated with graphics B: Yes, not everybody has those skills
L: Yeah, that’s what I learnt in the past
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B: So you’ve brought those things and you’ve applied them. It’s a nice feeling that what you’re doing now is a continuation of what you’ve done before
L: Yes, yes, yes. Thank you, thank you laughs I am still happy with what I have learnt. It’s not that I learn them and just dump them and put them aside
When Li and I had been talking about what he felt he had brought to the course from previous learning, at first he replied ‘nothing’. My familiarity with Li’s educational and
work background enabled us to have a ‘scaffolded’ conversation that made him conscious of the clear links between his past and present learning, which brought him delight and
satisfaction. Catalina Group interview 14.6.05.
We feel important, you know We are important.... I feel like this. Well, um, not in this way, you know. You know what I mean, somebody is interested in what we
learn, how we getting on…. Really interested
For Catalina, one of the benefits of the research participation was that it gave her the opportunity to recall her learning journey, with all the barriers she had successfully
overcome. She told the other participants that during the interviews she got ‘emotional’, and often cried:
I’m quite proud of myself where I am now, you know, because I didn’t have some, a lot of people to help me. I just did by myself. I started job by myself, with school
and friends, I didn’t have people like, ‘Oh, I help you do this, do this’. No, I was, I don’t know I was brave or mad laughs….. I think I really like this research with
Barbara because I can talk everything and then realise how difficult in the past, how easy now, you know
The value of being invited to review one’s learning path lies in the contribution it makes to a positive learner identity: in Catalina’s case it led to increased confidence in her
ability and a greater determination to continue learning. Being listened to helped Catalina feel that credit was being given for her having surmounted difficulties. Other students on
her course, and some of the teachers might not have considered this or appreciated her achievement. On the contrary, their interpretation of her struggle to cope with the work
had at first convinced her that she was unlikely to succeed on the course. Dario Group interview 14.6.05. Note: R = hairdressing tutor
Very good feeling and comfy to talk about me, about R Dario found the research interviews helpful as a forum for expressing difficulties he
faced on the course: including working with a note-taker for theory sessions because of his visual impairment, the limitations of his compact accommodation where there was
not even room for a table to study at, the ambivalent attitudes of his family towards his doing the course, and time-management issues.
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When someone is invited to discuss their course, all aspects of the learning experience can come into play, from practical to affective. Although I endeavoured to keep my role
as a language support teacher in the background, participants such as Dario knew I would understand the linguistic and social challenges he encountered both in and outside the
classroom. Li Group interview 14.6.05.
Before this research I felt shy, kind of nervous, because I only been to this country for since last September so it’s just less than a year so I was really, really
nervous and kind of scared, you know… If that time someone came to me and asked me, ‘Talk about yourself’ maybe I would cry, you know, or run away
somewhere in the corridor and cry. But now I feel confident, and also because of the research I find it easy, much more easy.
There is an apparent irony about conducting research into bilingual students’ use of their own resources, in English, the dominant language. Although language support and the
research process encourage recourse to the learners’ funds of expertise, including use of their own languages. It should be realised that many of them have little or no opportunity
to practise speaking English outside their course; indeed, the classroom also offers limited opportunity for this. The research interviews, and language support sessions,
provide bilingual students with confidence-building chances to talk at length in English to a member of the teaching staff about themselves, and their learning concerns, without
fear of embarrassment: Li Group interview 14.6.05.
I have no chance to speak in the class so I keep all the energy to talk to Barbara Li was by nature outgoing, seemingly ebullient and talkative, yet he spoke of his shyness
about joining in with class discussions, or informal chat with his peers. As mentioned above, having regular speaking practice improved his willingness to participate in class.
Shared attributes of the research and language support My close, regular contact with my six participants over the data collection period and
their contributions in both diaries and interviews provided evidence of the beneficial effects on learner identity of the systematic elicitation of learning experiences.
Some of these benefits are also present during language support, which could be seen in some aspects to play a comparable role. Of course, the research sessions were able to be
more focused on the students’ feelings because they did not need to support learning in an explicit manner, for example by giving guidance on the cultural implications of a
literary text , or by clarifying the specific requirements of an assignment. However, the practices that the two kinds of sessions have in common include simple
acts of validation of a bilingual learner’s background and origin. This was done initially in the research by pinpointing as precisely as possible, using atlas and maps, locations of
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147 birth, upbringing and schooling; by enquiring about the languages in each person’s
repertoire, the roles they had played at home, work, social spheres and in educational institutions attended; and discussion about how each learner could use these languages in
the preparation of homework, assignments and note-taking whilst on the college course. Such detailed learner-centred discussion is a vital foundation to supported study.
Conclusion My purpose here has been to widen the parameters of the concept of language support
provided in colleges for bilingual students. It should be extended from the narrow understanding of the study support consisting of such activities as proofreading,
syntactical correction or cultural explanations. Were it just seen in this way, Arthur’s 2003 criticism might be justified:
Where it English language support is provided, it is overwhelmingly likely to be monolingual in both its aims and it strategies, with the learner’s first language
viewed, albeit implicitly, as a hindrance to effective learning of the socially dominant school language.
Any good study support seeks to build on the learner’s strengths and to foster autonomy. Bilingual students requesting support should be reassured that language support tutors
will likewise highlight the worth to them of their previous learning. Whereas in the classroom there is often little scope for cultural or linguistic differentiation, a language
support session can pay attention to the unique perspective of each learner. Through exploratory dialogue, the language support tutor elicits and nurtures the alternative
dimensions springing from a bi- or multicultural approach. Language support given by teachers within the institution indicates a route from the periphery of the community of
practice Lave and Wenger 1991 towards greater participation. Ideally, every curriculum should accommodate the diversity of its students, building in
the inclusion of a range of discourses. Language and culture awareness training is on- going in some FE institutions, leading ultimately, it is hoped, to a change in the
classroom climate. Ofsted report recommendations 2003. However, faced with the current imperfect reality, work should continue to affirm bilingual students in their
predominantly monolingual, often culturally narrow learning environment, as they negotiate their learner identities.
The relationship between researcher and researched characteristic in such a project could be similarly imitated, to enhance the role of language support in bilingual students’
learning. Learner agency is strengthened, as students are encouraged to celebrate, draw on and further develop their linguistic and cultural resources, their first language selves,
as well as learn how to express themselves in English and thus achieve their qualifications.
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The shaping of bilingual participants’ learner identity during their college course
Other learning experiences ‘school of life’, work,
training Past education
schooling, college, university
Beliefs about formal learning
Beliefs about other learning
Learner identity
• What counts as knowledge? • What kind is worth having?
• How do I tackle acquiring it?
i.e.What sort of a learner am I?
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