• that knowledge is a consequence of the relationship between the observer and the observed and therefore, the relationship is flexible and reciprocal Stake, 1995;
Robson, 2002. • The current project is an in-depth study which is rooted in case study approach
because observations, interviews, and textual analysis will be employed when I commence with field work for the purpose of data collection.
• Reality is a consequence of perception therefore there are multiple realities which are dynamic depending on individual perceptions. In the present study I expect each of the
stakeholders to provide their accounts based on their conceptualisation of curriculum in the centre.
Multiple realities denote that the truth about the phenomenon can be seen in different ways and essentially, there will be different interpretations. It is therefore important for
researchers to appreciate and understand construction of reality as seen from different angles. In view of this it was not possible to be conclusive in terms of all the questions to
be assessed, however adjustments were made and further questions added when data collection process commenced in the research site.
1.3 Research Approach: Case study Cohen et al 2000 define case study as
a specific instance that is frequently designed to illustrate a more general principle, it is the study of an instance in action. It provides a unique example
of real people in real situations, enabling readers to understand ideas more clearly than simply by presenting them with abstract theories or principles. It
can penetrate situations in ways that are always susceptible to numerical analysis. 181
This means that case studies are usually applied in an attempt to understand cases in depth. Furthermore, they offer immense opportunity to penetrate deeply the essential
parts of the phenomenon. In consonance with this view, Stake 1995 adds that they produce a wealth of data through the application of different methods such as interviews,
observations as well as textual evidence. I have chosen case study method for the current study because of the nature of the project, viz. to understand in depth curriculum of youth
offenders in a specific centre. This approach therefore, is appropriate for realising the goals of the project because individuals and groups in the centre came under the
spotlight. In order to ensure that the goals are realised, instruments such as interviews, observations and textual analysis will be employed.
The use of case study as a useful method of research is attested by various researchers in social science. For example, Ferguson 1992 used case study for children with severe
autism, Yin 1993 employed case study for high-risk youth programmes and Schweisfurth 2002 applied case study for comparing experiences of teachers in two
countries that were undergoing massive educational transformation. In some instances case study is complex in terms of definition as a unique form of research, however, the
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remedy to this view, as Stake 1994 suggests, is to perceive case study by the goals of research. Denscombe 1998: 30 differentiates case study from survey and experimental
research by the following aspects: • Focus on relationship and processes, case studies are unique because they penetrate
and review closely the connectedness and the relationships of phenomena. • In-depth study, case studies are essentially rigorous in the process of investigation so
much so that data become rich and massive. • Spotlight on instances, the focus is on single instances to obtain profound insight.
• Multiple sources and multiple methods, case studies employ variety of instruments such as interviews, observations, documentary evidence, etc. In doing so the
phenomenon under the spotlight is studied deeply in all forms. • Natural setting, case studies are original and are confined mainly to natural setting.
Consequently, they do not alter the situation conversely; the situation will persist even after the research had been concluded.
Yin 1994 asserts that case studies focus mainly on naturally occurring environment. In the context of the current study the curriculum in a youth detention centre will be
explored as it occurs to understand it in depth. In doing so, research techniques of case study method will be employed.
Advantages of Case Study Approach Proponents of case study concede that every research tradition has its own strengths and
shortfalls Hunt, 1990; Stake, 1995; Coffey Atkinson, 1996; Wellington, 1996. Similarly, the current study entails some challenges which may include the issue of
generalization as strongly advocated in positivist tradition. There are, nonetheless, considerable advantages which may be elicited by the current study. Some of the
advantages include: • The possibility of the results of the current study being explored beyond the present
scope by other scholars. • The present study is designed to deepen insight into a juvenile centre and the findings
can be used to reflect on the pedagogical plight of child offenders in South Africa. • It can also reveal some of the curriculum questions which require further exploration
in the interests of South African youth centres in general. It may well be argued that one institution is not adequate to pluck out data that may be
generalised. In my opinion, this argument is not sustainable because out of one case adequate data can be obtained which can be used to establish aspects of commonality or
divergence which could be explored even further to consolidate existing systems. A case is a microcosm of a broad cluster of things and therefore can be used as a take-off point
reflecting on the generic state of education for young offenders in the country. The importance of case study is that it evokes hidden elements and if properly planned, rich
information may be obtained. As Schweisfurth 2002 observes,
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Case studies generally have the advantage of aiming to explain what is actually happening rather than what ought to happen: information
which can help to bring realistic detail to the evidence guiding judgement. 338
She used case study to reflect on the challenges faced by teachers in a system undergoing transformation. The educators were able to share their unique experiences during the
transitional period of educational change. Such experiences may reflect the generic mood and attitude of many teachers within the same system. In spite of a few limitations that
may be envisaged in the present study, the merits are enormous for future research. The envisaged findings are likely to pave the way for more and useful research on education
of young offenders. Other scholars such as Denscombe 1998: 39 summarise the advantages of case study as
follows: • The fact that the focus is on one or a few instances enables the researcher to deal with
the subtleties and intricacies of complex social situations. • They allow a researcher to use a variety of methods in order to capture the complex
reality under the spotlight. • It also allows the use of multiple sources of data which, in turn, facilitates the
validation of data through triangulation. • It does not impose pressure on the researcher in that it is not aimed at changing the
situation but to penetrate the situation for purposes of insight. • Small-scale research can be concentrated on one site or just a few sites.
• Theory- building and theory-testing can be used to good effect in cases study. The study commenced with informal observations of the teacher preparations and offender
readiness for classes as well as communication among all the participants. The subsequent days were followed by intensive lesson observations. In all, 28 lessons for different
subjects were repeatedly observed in an attempt to establish consistency and pattern of presentation. Observations took almost two weeks of my time in the centre. Observations
were interspersed with semi-structured interviews with the centre’s supervisor, three permanent teachers and two tutors themselves inmates with teaching qualifications
employed primarily to ease an acute staff shortage in some subjects. In addition, of the 22 offenders registered for academic stream 13 were interviewed. The process was further
complemented by analysis of documents made available for me by the staff officials. The materials included, among others, lesson preparations and plans, syllabi for different
subjects, vision and mission documents, the generic lesson timetable as well as Correctional Services Act.
SECTION TWO The present paper was conducted against the backdrop of increasing incidents of crime
and violence in South Africa purportedly carried out by young people. It is understandable that crime reduction has become one of the principal challenges facing
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the democratic government in the country and the judicial processes alone have proven inadequate in addressing the issue.
In the process of achieving this, the young offenders and teachers in the centre provided significant data. There is reason to believe that a well planned curriculum for young
prisoners can contribute significantly towards the rehabilitation process of young offenders owing to the success stories internationally exemplified by some countries in
the world, for example, some of those in the European Union. Importantly, in line with the main questions of the study, the findings revolved on the following themes: a
curriculum; b offender rehabilitation; c repeat offence; d discipline; e teaching and learning facilities; f teacher training and capacity building; g management and power
relations; h follow-up programme for ex-inmates; and i future plans; and the results of each of these themes is discussed below.
2.1 Curriculum The Department of Correctional Services DCS Act 111 of 1998 in respect of which the
vision and mission of the DCS are outlined states, among other things, that the purpose of the correctional system is to support “the social responsibility and human development
of all prisoners” 16. In the light of the extract, a brief glimpse of the curricular programmes at Peace-Hope prison raises interesting questions. The reality of the
situation is that education activities are taking place in the prison. In fact, the curriculum delivery elicited both the positive and the negative components. The positive elements of
curriculum activities involved the following elements: • The prison has an education unit staffed by five permanent teachers and three tutors.
• Teaching and learning were taking place in the centre. • There were over twenty learners all registered for grade 12, the highest exit level in
the South African school system. • The majority of the offenders were willing to proceed with education even after
release. • All respondents teachers and offenders recognise the significance and the usefulness
of education to the offenders concerning future opportunities. However, in addition to these factors, there were those that reflected a measure of
limitations on curriculum delivery process in the centre and those included such aspects as the following:
• Curricular programmes were not explicit on the question of offender rehabilitation.
• The centre offered only a single grade 12 for all offenders irrespective of their level of education.
• The respondents consistently associate grade 12 certificate with opportunities for employment.
• Teaching and learning activities were largely teacher-centred.
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The findings showed that in spite of the centre’s obligation for the education of the offenders outlined in the Departmental Act 111, there are deficiencies in the curriculum
delivery processes. It seems that the objective for ‘human development of all prisoners’ as the Act maintains, generates interesting contrasts. First, there were over twenty
offenders all drafted in one class at different times; second, all offenders notwithstanding their level of education, registered for grade 12; and third, an atmosphere of heightened
expectation prevailed among the offenders that completion of senior certificate grade 12 is a guarantee that employment is in the offing. In contrast, Mills 2001 suggest that
curriculum is not simply the issue of picking up certain activities neglecting the broader pedagogical exercise implicit in the construction of knowledge. The importance of the
preceding assertion is that there can be no distinction between education and curriculum because curriculum is a means for realising the objectives of education. According to
Dore 1976, the tendency to arouse expectations by linking certificates to employment is misleading. Essentially, this tendency fundamentally ignores the broad concept of change
that education is brought to bear in the lives of offenders regarding the offender rehabilitation process.
2.2 Offender rehabilitation On the subject of the rehabilitation of young offenders in the centre, the findings suggest
that such programmes are incoherent. In spite of the incoherent nature of the programmes, one positive aspect that appeared distinct was the involvement of the
Christian groups and the South African National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence SANCA. The findings showed that the offenders appreciated the role
played by these bodies particularly SANCA as was repeatedly cited during the interviews on the rehabilitation activities. Contrary to the assumption that young offenders are
hostile to authority at all times, the findings in the present study proved that such assumptions may be misleading because the offenders appreciated and cooperated with
these bodies. Despite the role played by these bodies there seems to be the need for the improvement
of the rehabilitation processes. For example, in all the lessons observed the following transpired:
• Teachers and the offenders rarely mentioned the rehabilitation process in classroom
activities. • None of the lessons observed addressed the rehabilitation process explicitly or
implicitly. While it is important for teachers to cover the syllabus as required, it may also be argued
that the curricular programmes of the offenders should exhibit elements of the rehabilitation process. The need for this is underlined by the fact that the offenders
constitute a special group requiring considerable attention in view of the risk they pose to society. Moreover in a study conducted by Ehlers 2002 on Child Justice Bill, she found
that 78 of young offenders felt neglected in the prison system and harboured no hope for the future. It is not clear whether the rehabilitation process is central or not in the
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didactic processes of the correctional system in the light of the existing education situation.
2.3 Repeat Offence Related to the offender rehabilitation, is the issue of recidivism. In some studies, offender
recidivism in South Africa was reported to be high Gast, 2001; Xhinuanet, 03.08. 2004 and the assumption for this was attributed to multiple factors such as poverty Harber,
2004; Nkabinde, 1997, unemployment Gordon, 1995; Khoza, 2002; Abrahams, 2003, and culture of violence Harber, 2001; 2004. Although the findings in the case of Peace-
Hope centre were based on first time offenders, the reports on causes of crime and violence; however, resonate with the preceding claims given the destitute background
from which many of the offenders come. In the present study, this view is attested by James’ case. The findings in the present study could not establish the links although the
participants acknowledged that repeat offence is a recurring phenomenon in the prison. CONCLUSION
The present paper explored the perceptions of teachers and the young offenders on prison education at Peace-Hope prison in South Africa. The findings showed that their
understanding of the rehabilitation concept is premised on marginal interpretation due to their persistence in linking grade 12 certificates with jobs in their responses. There was a
measure of consensus on the value of education in the lives of the young offenders; however, poor curricular resources appeared to impact negatively on the effective
delivery of tuition and subsequent efforts of rehabilitating the young offenders. Although the participants were first time offenders, they felt that repeat offence was a common
occurrence particularly among prisoners who are not part of the mainstream education in the prison.
This contention is in agreement with the earlier findings made by scholars such as Gast 2001, Schonteich and Louw 2001 that education in South African prisons is in a state
of disorder and the rehabilitation processes are not possible in the existing state of affairs. Furthermore, consistent with this opinion Sloth-Nielsen and Muntingh 2001 proposed
the reorganisation of prison education in South Africa with specific focus on programmes of offender rehabilitation as a matter of urgency. While the significance of education in
the reduction of crime by young people is not in dispute, it is important to point out that the curriculum of young offenders in the present for form seems to be ineffective for the
rehabilitation purpose. The scholars cited above confirm that the education of young offenders in the country’s prisons requires concerted determination to make it more
functional and meaningful in addressing the rehabilitation needs of offenders. In line with this assertion, my impression about curriculum especially in places such as Peace-Hope
prison suggests that for tuition to be effective, challenges ranging from staff shortage to teaching and learning facilities needed to be upgraded without delay.
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The constraints of the research presented here is that the present study focused largely on offenders who registered for education in the prison with no opportunity for those youth
offenders who were not taking part in educational activities. As a result of this, all views about curriculum in the prison have not been captured. Furthermore, I went into the
centre anticipating finding a precise and clearing offender rehabilitation regime; however, all I found was no different from what I know as an educator in the Department of
Education DoE. Furthermore, the present research was confined to a single prison which makes it hard to develop generic impressions about the rest of prisons in the
country. Nonetheless, the significance of the present study is that it has explored some of the important aspects of the curriculum of young offenders. The findings in the study may
be useful for further exploration and research on similar subject in the future. In addition, that future studies on the subject will incorporate views of those of young offenders who
are not part of mainstream education in prisons.
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Teachers’ Attitudes and Expectations on the Academic Performance of Secondary School Girls. Harare: HRCC, University of Zimbabwe.
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The impact of liberalisation of education on promoting gender equity: A Case study of Uganda’s Teacher Education Institutions.
Euzobia Mugisha Baine
Abstract
This paper examines the impact of privatisation on the quest for gender equity and equality in Uganda’s teacher training institutions The key argument is that although privatisation has
expanded access to education for women, its impact will be negative because the social structures that beget the disadvantaged position of women and girls in education and the society remain
largely unchallenged and intact. The assumption that privatisation will affect everyone equally, which is embedded in the policy, is challenged because, as other gender-neutral policies, gender
considerations were never part of the policy formulation and are therefore not part of the implementation, though the rhetoric assumes that they are. Gender is not explicit in the definition
and measurement of quality of education, democratisation and choice and it is not explicit in the regulatory frameworks that are supposed to ensure the privatisation process meets national
educational objectives.
Introduction This paper outlines the impact of privatisation of education on gender equity in Uganda’s
teacher training institutions TTIs. Since 1988 when the first private University was opened, the winds of change have swept Uganda’s higher education to change how it is
financed and managed. The shift has been from the state as the sole player to fully private educational institutions operated as commercial enterprises alongside state-owned ones.
Even institutions that are still owned by the state are being run on the basis of free market principles. How then is the process of liberalisation of higher education affecting gender
equity programmes in teacher education? What are the implications for future efforts to promote gender equity in higher education? This question is more plausible considering
the fact that in the past the state was understood to be a key player in the gender equity project.
This paper, based on recent gender-focused semi-ethnographic research in Uganda’s teacher training institutions, is an attempt to answer the above question. It sought to
understand, among others, the impact of liberalisation of higher education on promoting gender equity in teacher education within the context of current political, economic and
social changes. A major finding in this regard is that the impact of liberalisation of education has not been studied both in general and from a gender perspective. The study
gives insights into the implications for changes in financing mechanisms on gender equity in teacher education, but findings may be relevant to other sectors of higher
education in Uganda and beyond.
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The paper is divided into four sections. The first is an introduction, the second outlines issues arising from the literature with regard to the rationale surrounding liberalisation,
how gender equity issues play out in the literature, and, the methodology used to collect and analyse data is elaborated in the third. The fourth section presents the findings and
the fifth concludes. Privatisation of education: Rationale and the debates
One of the important changes that have taken place both at national and global levels during recent decades is the privatisation andor marketisation of education.
Marketization has been defined as the adoption of free market policies in running educational institutions Kwong, 2000. Educational institutions are increasingly run as
business enterprises prioritising production cost cutting, abandoning goods not in demand and producing only popular goods, and increasing sales and profits. Privatisation on the
other hand has been defined as the transfer of ownership or administration of government educational institutions to private hands. Bray 2002 identifies several forms in which
privatisation has generally taken place. These are: allowing private educational institutions to operate along side those run by governments; increased government
funding and support to private institutions; transfer of ownership of public institutions to private bodies; and increased private funding andor control of government institutions.
In Uganda, liberalisation in education has taken two forms ie allowing private entrepreneurs to set up public higher education institutions and introduction of market
principles into public educational institutions, commonly referred to as quasi- marketisation Ntshoe 2004 These policies have been adopted within the broader
framework of globalisation whereby neo-liberal policies have been advocated. Privatisation in education is as old as formal education in Uganda. However liberalisation
of higher education is a recent phenomenon. Throughout the colonial period and after independence, University education was free for all who qualified and remained so until
1988 when the first private University was set up. Liberalisation of education is said to have been inevitable especially in developing countries like Uganda. Given the crisis of
the 80s that rendered states unable to finance higher education, thereby necessitating seeking aid from IMF and World Bank and the associated structural adjustment
programmes. In her article on Globalisation and the politics of Accountability: Issues and dilemmas for gender equity in Education, Henry 2001 argues that the enterprise culture
in education institutions presents both problems and possibilities for gender equity. She draws on Australia’s experience to observe that liberalization policies usually advocate
mainstreaming
1
of gender equity issues which presents a dilemma for those engaged in equity work. On one hand gender mainstreaming may offer an opportunity for gender
issues to be addressed in a holistic manner. Yet on the other it may mean releasing gender from the priority agenda of institutions. She refers to the trend in Australian society
where the impetus for gender reform appears to have slowed down and gender equity infrastructure wound back as responsibility for gender reform becomes mainstreamed.
1
Gender mainstreaming is the process of addressing implications for women and men in any planned action including legislation, policy formulation and adoption of implementation strategies Makerere
University Academic Registrar, 2000.
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The new trend was that when gender issues did surface they were centred around boys as the new ‘educationally disadvantaged’.
The latter view seems to be in agreement with arguments in Western Europe where liberalization of education appeared to be reversing the progress towards gender equity
Sawer 1991; Pocock, 1992; Yeatman, 1993; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 1994; Einstein, 1996. These writers agree that in the past an
argument had been made that the interests of women are better served when the state takes a strongly interventionist stance. Because of this, feminists made claims on the state
such as welfare provisions and legislative reform but often in the face of considerable resistance from men in powerful positions. The state was viewed as having primary
responsibility to ensure women’s interests are served as a matter of right as citizens. In the process of holding the state accountable to the citizens, women made gains such as
equal pay for equal work and equal access to opportunities. These gains are now being eroded under new regimes of accountability that allow the state to shirk responsibility for
seriously addressing questions of gender reform. The gains were made as claims on the state in its role in the redistribution of social goods and values and in directing or
influencing distributive mechanisms and outcomes. Yeatman 1993 takes it further to argue that privatisation delegitimates the state in such a way that private enterprise starts
to set the terms of the overall political agenda in the sense that the state is no longer viewed as a vehicle of progressive social change and as an instrument of redistribution.
Therefore how gender equity issues are addressed when a social good like education is provided by the private sector or under a liberalised environment is very paramount,
especially in a developing country like Uganda. Methodology
Empirical data was obtained through a case study of one University and two affiliated colleges, one for Primary Teachers and the other for ordinary level secondary Teachers.
The study was a semi-ethnographic study and data was collected through triangulated methods namely interviews, document analysis and observation of routine activities in
the institutions. Interviews were conducted with 32 respondents representing management, heads of departments, lecturers, tutors and middle level administrators. In
addition, seven focus group discussions FGDs were conducted with students four with in-service and three with pre-service students. Respondents were asked their opinion on
what they thought was the impact of privatisation on promoting gender equity. Observation of routine activities was done and these activities were meetings such as
faculty board meetings, student guild meetings, lectures in gender or gender related studies, student activities such as sports days, electoral processes, staff room behaviour
and any spontaneous activity relevant to the study. Documents routinely written such as evaluation reports, course outlines, minutes of meetings, textbooks, were reviewed to
understand how gender issues are addressed. Data was analysed through content, text and discourse analysis, as well as grounded theory.
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Findings: The impact of privatisation on gender equity in education The privatisation of higher education has it background in the 1992 Government White
Paper on education which was a gender-neutral document. It recognised the under- representation of women at different levels of education and the need to increase their
numbers but was less clear on how this would be achieved, and why this should be so. It therefore followed that many of its recommendations have been implemented in a
gender-neutral manner, with an assumption that male and female will benefit or lose in the same manner. However it is now clear that policies do not affect women and men in
the same way. All respondents indicated that privatisation had expanded access to higher education to
groups that could not access higher education previously, such as women. However there was no gender – specific measure of the extent to which access has been enhanced other
than some general enrolment figures. There were no studies that have examined the socio-economic backgrounds of the students and it was difficult to put the increased
access into perspective. Most of the respondents mainly focused on access in relation to being able to enrol in institutions. However when one takes a holistic understanding of
access ie ‘getting an opportunity for education and reaching out unhindered to educational resources’ Indabawa 2006:381, then what the improvement in access
actually means becomes less clear. For example there has been massive expansion in terms of enrolments but without corresponding expansion in facilities such as
infrastructure and staff. This section tries to show that the way privatisation policy was designed, is being implemented, and the basis upon which institutions’ performance will
be evaluated does not have the ingredients to capture the gender specific impact of privatisation.
Quality of Education The massive expansion without corresponding expansion in facilities and staff was said
to be compromising standards. For example one lecturer commented that large numbers in the classroom made it difficult to use participatory methods in teaching. She explained:
There is inadequate attention from the lecturers at tutorial level and also in the lectures. If the classes were smaller we would somehow manage. Discipline is a problem because
undisciplined students hide under the big numbers. To the extent that they are many and confrontational, even if you want to use participatory teaching methods it becomes
difficult. You end up using lecture method’ Interview transcript However from a gender perspective, the standards are defined in a gender-neutral manner
such that even if there were few student numbers, it would not automatically mean gender-responsive methodologies would be used. The standards were developed by a
male-dominated administration that does not prioritise gender concerns. Although equal access by gender is explicit in the Ministry of Education strategic plan,
gender equity is not an explicit measure of quality in education. Lecturers are not required to incorporate gender into their teaching, and even where they are, how to do it
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is unclear. This is partly because gender studies as a discipline is not fully accepted into broader higher education curricula. Emphasis is put on basic education and it is mainly
quantitative indicators such as pupil-classroom ratio, pupil-teacher ratios that are deemed paramount. There is no room for lived or learning experiences in measuring the quality.
This is important because it is only when qualitative aspects are considered that gender specific aspects of access and quality can be uncovered. This means that the institutions
have no direct incentive to promote gender equity. Promoting ‘democratisation’ and ‘choice’
Privatisation was said to be increasing democratisation of education by providing choice not only of the institution but study programmes as well. Because government is not the
only provider of higher education, there is a choice of institution, study programme and relative flexibility on how and when courses can be done. Many programmes have been
developed, presumably tailor made to ‘suit the society’s needs’ Kasozi, 2003; Ministry of Education and Sports, [MOES], 2003.. The question that arises is what these society’s
needs are, who is defining them, and on what basis. Is gender equity one of these cherished needs? Currently society’s needs, which education is supposed to meet, are
supposed to be met though more teaching of sciences such as mathematics and information technology. These are said to have the capacity to transform the Ugandan
society because ‘the new technologies that are driving the most successful global economies are based on a thorough understanding of science and the relevant knowledge
of how to create and increase wealth. The lack of science and technology in the third world has placed it in poverty and social chaos’ Kasozi, 2003:51. Whereas the role of
science and technology should not be downplayed, it is wrong to promote it as a simple panacea for development. Relatively, scientific advancement and wealth creation in the
advanced countries has not necessarily led to equitable distribution of the wealth and power. If it did then there would not be gross under representation of women in top
positions of higher education such as Vice Chancellors and Professors in England or Australia for example Foster, 2000; Harding, 2002; Halvorsen, 2002; Morley, 2001;
Wisker, 1996. It can be argued that we see a continuation of the privileged male- dominated fields of science and technology in determining how society is organised and
the value systems attached to how science is used. Arguments that gender equity helps development receive less attention
With liberalization Ugandan students have a variety of programmes, compared to the past when there was only one University and very few students obtained their first choice of
programmes. But again it is programmes deemed ‘needed by the society’ by those with the power to define and to run the institutions where women are the minority that
constitute the curriculum. Subjects such as gender studies, which are presumably not relevant to society’s needs, are not part of this variety. Society is presented as though it is
a homogeneous entity. Therefore choice becomes choice according to the definers, not those to whom the choice is presented.
To take the preceding point further, the language of liberalisation of education encourages students and parents to invest more in ‘marketable’ programmes engineering,
medicine and computer science etc and less in ‘unmarketable’ programmes humanities
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such as gender, psychology, history etc. This therefore means that more resources are being invested in the fields of science and less in humanities thereby increasing
polarisation between ‘tradable’ and ‘non tradable’ study programmes. The desire for social equity as outlined in the MOES strategic plan is clearly not a driving factor in the
privatisation debate. If it were, issues such as the relative gross under-representation of women in decision-making in developing and developed countries alike would be an
indicator that having economic growth is important but not enough to facilitate equity. That lack of social equity partly explains the slow development in the first place hardly
gets acknowledged in the current emphasis on ‘marketable’ vs. unmarketable programmes. One of the effective ways of promoting social equity would be for teachers
to get exposed to studies on gender relations in society as an opening to studies about different forms of social inequalities.
Expansion of employment opportunities Arguments were also made to the effect that privatisation of education has led to
expansion of employment for opportunities for lecturers, teachers and those that offer services directly or indirectly to the educational institutions as well as bringing financial
benefit to the proprietors. A lecturer from one university explained:
Money that is generated now has helped the University to give allowances to lecturers on privately sponsored courses. To an extent this has helped to keep
people on the ground. They are much more available compared to the past when they used to run around looking for extra income’ Interview transcript
Benefits are also accruing to people who are offering services to the University such as accommodation. Hostels have mushroomed around the campus and the campus is also
full of small businesses, notably photocopying services and small restaurants. Beyond the universities, private schools are a major source of employment for newly qualified
teachers. However, this expansion in employment opportunities comes with gross exploitation of
teachers because their supply far outweighs demand. Many teachers and lecturers work without contracts and are not paid regularly. They do not have freedom to engage in
unions to improve their bargaining power and they have no opportunities to go for further studies without resigning their jobs. One of the Deans explained,
Private institutions do not spell-out conditions of work. Because you are in need you do not ask on what terms am I being employed. Some of them work for months on end
without pay. Not all but I think about 90 of the institutions ignore the regulations’ Interview transcript
That private education providers can ignore labour regulations without consequences raises doubt as to whether they are offering an opportunity in the real sense. Similarly in-
service students felt that the conditions of service in the private sector disadvantage women because their conditions of service favor men. One student commented:
When you go to private schools, you find more men working there. Because they say by the nature of women, because women have a lot of work at home they may not be able to
165
perform to the expectations of private schools. For example there is a well-paying school in Mbale but one of the regulations is that by 6:00 am you have to be in the school. Now
where is a woman? Maybe one who is not married. Otherwise, a man may not…. How do you leave him in bed that you are going to teach? And they leave the school at 9:00 pm in
the night. You find that women automatically fall off. They cannot take advantage of the opportunity’
Focus group discussion A point to note is that the student did not look at the dehumanizing conditions as unfair to
both men and women but just an opportunity which only men can take advantage of since they are entitled to ‘leave their wives in bed’ and reach home late but women are not. The
fact that women have a lot of work at home, and that men are only able to take advantage of the ‘opportunity’ because they can relegate all their other family responsibilities to the
women is not questioned, but taken as the normal order of things. The role of regulatory frameworks
In analysing the existing regulatory frameworks in privatisation the role of the Uganda National Council for Higher Education NCHE comes under scrutiny. The NCHE, set up
in 2001, is mandated to make sure government objectives in education are achieved in all institutions, public and private. It is a watchdog for quality and relevant higher education
in the country. Gender sensitivity, i.e requiring institutions to have a comprehensive affirmative action in favour of women and other marginalized groups is listed as one of
the capacity indicators of higher education institutions NCHE, 2003. Ideologically the NCHE narrowly perceives promoting gender equity through the lens of
affirmative action, yet this is only one of the tools in promoting gender equity and may not always be necessary. Apart from the narrow conceptualisation, the council does not
clarify possible areas where these affirmative policies should be applied and neither is it clear how the council monitors the implementation of the policy. For example rules and
regulations on quality assurance make no reference to gender. Yet these rules and regulations, for example on hiring, promotion and firing of staff; assessment of
professors, lecturers and tutorial assistants, do not affect men and women in the same way. At another level the NCHE does not seem to know or actively seek to know how to
proceed on the gender equity issue. The current Executive Director of NCHE, in his book on Higher Education in Uganda, stated that ‘there seems to be no generally agreed policy
in place to handle this problem [of gender inequality]. I myself do not have a definite answer. In any case each institution must have the freedom to devise its own strategy in
handling the issue. But it is a problem that cannot be swept under the carpet for too long’ Kasozi 2003:136. Though the council may not necessarily share his view, and even the
view may have changed since 2003 when he wrote, there is no convincing reason as yet for optimism. The council appears to have actually left the ball in the court of the
institutions, yet it is supposed to offer guidance to the institutions. Flexibility is helpful in running institutions but leaving reducing gender inequality entirely at the discretion of the
institutions without proper guidelines is likely to lead to minimal effort if any. The NCHE ought to develop minimum indicators for gender responsiveness, which can guide the
institutions in thinking about and implementing programmes on gender equity.
166
Conclusion The findings show that privatisation of education, like many policies is both gender
neutral and gender blind. It is riddled with assumptions that whatever positive or negative outcome of the policy will affect males and females similarly, which is not the case.
There is no overarching gender and education policy in Uganda to guide action and therefore policies are developed largely in a gender-neutral manner, to the disadvantage
of promoting gender equity. Improvements in access of education do not necessarily mean quality. Lived experience is important in judging both the quality and quantity of
benefits arising from privatisation. The under representation of women in decision- making means their voice is minimal in how institutions are managed. Lack of a holistic
approach to gender issues means that by and large gender issues are at best treated as add-ons, not something that should inform routine practices in institutions’ policy
formulation and implementation. The privatisation policy is therefore no exception.
References Bray, M 2002 The Cost and Financing of Education: Trends and policy Implications,
Asian Development Bank Foster, V. 2000 Is Female Education ‘success’ destabilising the male learner citizen? in
Arnot, A. Dillabough, J. eds Challenging Democracy: International Perspectives on Gender , Education and Citizenship, RoutledgeFalmer, London.pp 203-215.
Hall, C. Schulz, R. 2003 ‘Tensions in Teaching and Teacher Education: Professionalism and Professionalisation in England and Canada’ in Compare, Vol. 33,
No. 3, Carfax Publishing, London, pp. 369-363. Halvorsen, E. 2002 ‘Gender Audit’ in Howe, G. Tauchert, A. eds Gender, Teaching
and Research in Higher Education: Challenges for the 21
st
Century, Ashgate, Hampshire. pp.9-19
Harding, S.2002 ‘The Troublesome Concept of Merit’ in Howie, G Tauchert, A. eds Gender Teaching and Research in Higher education: Challenges for the 21
st
Century, Ashgate Publishing, Hampshire, pp 249-260 Harding, S. 2002 ‘The Troublesome Concept of Merit’ in Howie, G Tauchert, A.
eds Gender Teaching and Research in Higher education: Challenges for the 21
st
Century, Ashgate Publishing, Hampshire, pp 249-260 Henry, M. 2001 ‘Globalisation and the Politics of Accountability: Issues and Dilemmas
for Gender Equity in Education’ in Gender and Education, Vol.13, No. 1, Carfax Publishing, London, pp 87-100.
Enstein, H. 1996 The inside agitators: Australian Femocrats and the State, Sydney, Allen, and Unwin.
Indabawa, S. 2006 ‘ Educational Access for girls: the Case of Kano State of Nigeria’ in Oduaran A. Bhola, H.S. eds ‘Widening Access to Education as Social Justice’,
Springer, Dordretcht, Nehterlands, pp 380-393 Kasozi, A. 2003 University Education in Uganda: Challenges and Opportunities for
Reform, Fountain Publishers, Kampala.
167
Kwong, J. 2000 ‘Introduction: Marketisation and Privatisation in Education’ in International Journal of Educational Development, Pegamon press, pp 87-92.
Ministry of Education and Sports 2002 Uganda Education Statistics Abstract, Ministry of Education, Kampala.
Ministry of Education and Sports, 2003 The Higher Education Strategic Plan 2003- 2015, First Draft, Kampala.
Morley, L. 2001 ‘Subjected to Review: Engendering Quality and Power in Higher education’ in The Journal of Education Policy, Vol. 1, No. 5, pp 465-478.
National Council for Higher Education, 2003 Checklist for Quality and Institutional Capacity Indicators for assessment of institutions and programmes, Kampala.
Ntshoe, I. M. 2004 ‘Higher Education and training Policy and Practice in South Africa: Impacts of Global Privatisation, Quasi-marketisation, and new Managerialism’ in
International Journal of Educational Development, Vol 24 no 2, Elsevier Ltd, pp 137- 154
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1994 Women and Structural Change, Paris, OECD
Pocock, B. 1992 Women in Entry level Training: Some Overseas Experiences, Canberra, AGPS.
Sawer, 1991 Why has the women’s movement had more influence on government in Australia than elsewhere? In Castles,F. ed Australia Compared: People, Policies and
Politics, Sydney, Allen Unwin, pp 258-277 Wisker, G. 1996 Empowering Women in Higher Education, KoganPage, London
Yeatman, A. 1993 ‘Contemporary issues for Feminism: The politics of the State’ in Blackmore, J Kenway, J. eds Gender Matters in Educational Administration and
policy, The Falmer Press, London, pp 137-145.
168
MUSIC AND MUSICALITY: A BASE FOR INTERACTION AND LEARNING A STUDY ON MUSICAL INTERACTION WITH CHILDREN WITH AUTISM
IN INDIA
BAISHALI BANERJEE MUKHERJEE ABSTRACT
That music is a powerful and universal medium for communication and therapeutic interaction is proved by the findings of cross-cultural musical research and by the success
of music therapy with a wide variety of patients. Studies of mother-infant communication have led to a new approach to research and assessment of communication
in musical forms. This study, drawing on this knowledge, aims to provide children with autism with music of defined forms in an interactive manner, and then to analyze the
development of their communication, interaction skills, and learning. It will also analyze the music that supports interaction to see how the rhythmic and melodic elements can
complement the basic elements of communicative musicality that have been discovered in mothers’ communication with infants. Music therapy researches have demonstrated
that a child’s capacity to respond to music may remain unimpaired in spite of severe cognitive and social disability, which indicates that the infantile foundation of innate
musicality can be a platform for therapy and education for children with disability, including autism.
INTRODUCTION Young children express themselves in musical ways through facial, vocal, or non- vocal
movements, and the musicality of communication between a mother and her infant builds a well-coordinated cooperative relationship before the infants have any language. Studies
have shown that parents intuitive behaviour support the infant’s innate communicative capacities and motives Papousek and Bornstein, 1992; Papousek and Papousek, 1987;
Stern et al., 1985. Research on how infants stimulate intuitive behaviour in parents suggests that “we are born like this and that the sympathy arises from an inborn rhythmic
coherence of body movement and modulation of affective expressions” Trevarthen and Malloch, 2000.
What are the elements and principles that communicate this sympathetic sharing? Stephen Malloch, 1999 has developed a theory of Communicative Musicality CM to
describe the organizing motive principles in healthy parent infant interaction. He Malloch et al., 1997; Malloch, 1999 defined communicative musicality as, those
attributes of human communication, which are particularly exploited in music, that allow coordinated companionship to arise. Three elements, Pulse, Quality and Narrative, have
been observed from microanalysis of mother infant vocalisations from many cultures. We are led to accept that music is an ‘outward sign of human communication’ Blacking,
1969 and that, indeed, the impulse of musicality is in each and all of us’ Trevarthen,
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1999 Music therapy has the power to help because it meets the intrinsic musicality of the client.
The core principle in the practice of improvisational music therapy is ‘meeting the child where he she is’ Nordoff and Robbins, 1977. The therapist encourages spontaneous
musical expression from the client and reflects and matches with the client’s music, gaining information about the client is not only from sound, but also from touch and
observed bodily gestures, which play an important role in developing an interpersonal relationship. The therapist reflects this multimodal experience to the client by making
music. The communication takes place as music expresses the quality of feeling in movement, and because there is a strong innate impulse to share feelings Trevarthen and
Malloch, 2000. Hobson 1994 described autism as “failure to engage in patterned intersubjective
coordination and exchange with other people”. A disturbance in the brain impairs the coherence and flexibility of motivation and consciousness Trevarthen, 2000. Autistic
children lack the motivation to participate in reciprocal, rhythmic and temporal communication with others. In spite of the serious impairment of their intersubjective
expression with other persons, the responses of autistic children to certain forms of music and musical stimuli shows that some of the infantile foundations of their innate
musicality remain unimpaired. Deeply rooted biological responses to music, when appropriately engaged in musical interaction, can build new experiences of affective-
conative relatedness for the children with autism. This study aims to engage children diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in musical
interaction using Indian music, which is characterized by a strong melody and believed to have inherent healing power. I observe how children respond and develop
communication skills through musical interaction and I analyze the elements in the music how it affects children’s motivation, mood and emotion and enhance communication.
This report will focus only on children’s responses and evidence that they learned communication and interaction skills through musical interaction.
RESEARCH DESIGN This qualitative research combined individual case studies in a collated group design.
Each case was considered as unique. Information was recorded on the child’s level of autism, using DSM IV criteria; a developmental history was gathered with the aid of
questionnaires and information on communication from parents, teacher, and therapists from the school. Musical interaction was tailored according to the child’s need, and a
detailed analysis was made for each case. Future work will develop criteria for comparing the children and distinguishing basic features of their response to the therapy.
170
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION Participants in the study-
12 children on autistic spectrum disorder were selected for the study from a school run by The Spastic Society of Karnataka, India. There were 2 girls and 10 boys aged between 2-
10 years. Children with confirmed diagnosis of ASD were selected on the basis of their availability for repeated sessions. None had previous experience of any musical
intervention. Presentation of songs-
Approximately 15 songs Bengali lullabies, South Indian lullabies, Indian modern songs, tunes of Ragas and tunes of English nursery rhymes were selected to sing for musical
interaction with children.
Songs were first presented with no instrumental accompaniments. Songs were presented in an interactive manner following simple strategies established to
aid communication by musical interaction therapy Wimpory, Chadwick and Nash, 1995 and improvised music therapy Bruscia, 1987 -
At the start of a session, the following techniques were used to attract the child’s attention towards therapist and his or her involvement in the music –
Listening
to the child
Following and responding to the child’s spontaneous action and play.
Imitating the child’s actions, vocalisations and instrumental sounds.
Commenting on the child’s action, behaviour, mood and intention.
At a later stage, after achieving the communication and interaction, the following strategies were used in specific ways depending upon the capacity of the child
and the context- Turn taking
in song and musical games.
Pausing for the child to respond or to relax or to cause them to anticipate.
Synchronizing
with the child.
Reflecting back the mood, attitude and feeling expressed by the child.
Sharing an instrument with the child.
Repeating actions and songs.
Improvising with the child within a song or by making sounds by voice or instruments.
Empathic singing
for the child, to match their mood.
Creating musical games from interaction and repeating familiar musical games.
Silence to separate episodes of interaction
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Setting of the Room- A few musical instruments were placed for the child on a mattress on the floor, including
drums one big and one small, with drum sticks , 2 tambourines, 2 bells, xylophone, rattles and one pair of ‘ghungur’ bells that women tie to the leg for dances. . The child
was free to choose any of these. A video camera was fixed on a tripod in the corner of the room focussing mainly on the
child. All the sessions were recorded and stored with date, time and the name of the child for later observation and analysis.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION A detailed category system has been created to evaluate each session based on those
developed for micro-analysis of mother- infant communication Trevarthen and Marwick, 1982 and for recording the process of improvised music therapy Nordoff and Robbins
1971, 1977. The category system aims to capture the child’s awareness and receptivity in the musical interaction setting, and the child’s mood and emotion and how it is expressed
in musical interaction, therapist-child communication and interaction with or without music, and the child’s musical creation and musical self expression. It is divided into the
following four main categories. A. General Awareness
and Receptivity to the environment.
with seven sub-categories B. Mood and Emotion
through the course of the session.
with four sub-categories C
. Interaction and Communicative Expression. -Musical communication and interaction with sixteen sub-categories
-Intersubjective Communication with the therapist with seven sub categories D.
Self Expression. with four sub-categories
Child’s progress and change across the sessions were evaluated for each category of behaviour by 5 point scale ranged from none 0, very little 1, little 2, quite a lot 3,
to a lot 4. The numbers of sub-categories within each main category differ, and therefore the highest possible scores differ. The following graphs Figure 1 represent the
evaluation of 7 musical interaction sessions on general awareness, musical, and intersubjective communication of 4 year old boy on the autistic spectrum, and show how
the child progressed through the sessions. His impaired capacities to communicate, to engage with the therapist and to express his mood, intention and interest to therapist
improved in the course of the musical interaction sessions.
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Figure 1: Evaluation of musical interaction sessions by the Category
Development and Change on General Awareness
5 10
15 20
25 30
1 2
3 4
5 6
7
Sessions S
u m
m at
e d
S co
res o n
C a
te gor
ie s
Progress and Change on Intersubjective Communication
5 10
15 20
1 2
3 4
5 6
7
Sessions S
u m
m at
e d
S co
res o n
C a
te gor
ie s
Progress and Change on Musical Communication and Interaction
10 20
30 40
50 60
70
1 2
3 4
5 6
7
Sessions Su
m m
a te
d Sc
o re
s o
n C
a te
gor ie
s
X axis - The number of sessions from 1- 7 Y axis - The summated scores for the categories
The 3rd session shows a sudden jump in quality of communication. Evidently the child, after first 2 sessions, realised what was happening, understood and enjoyed it, and felt
secure enough to express himself and to communicate with the therapist in musical interaction.
The progress on communication and interaction skills was considered in a broad sense. Any positive change in interaction or communication in terms of nature, intensity,
duration and frequency of behaviour was considered as improvement, the context and cause of the occurrence of each particular behaviour played an important role in the
analysis. The context was recorded in terms of the behaviour of the therapist, the therapist’s music, any musical instruments selected, the effect of previous musical events,
and their contribution to the occurrence of a particular behaviour was estimated. To capture this narrative of interaction Daniel Stern’s concept of ‘moments’ Stern, 1977 or
cycles, each of which consists of a number of discernible stages was employed Sterns analysis of mother-infant free play revealed that most interactions contain a series such
brief moments or stages.. Here ‘moments’ of musical engagement or therapist–child engagement were selected from the sessions. Each and every ‘moment’ of engagement
was motivated as a story in the expression of behaviour, which has a beginning or cause, peak in the middle and then fall or termination. I considered these stories and moments as
special in the session, and termed them as an ‘Episode’ which means an ‘interesting event used to enhance a drama or story’. They were potentially natural components of
communication. The following conditions were found important for motivating episodes within a session-
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There was a musical engagement; child was definitely participating in music with therapist.
The child was actively creating music. There was an intersubjective engagement, either by sharing music or without music.
There was a spontaneous play with or without music. Analysis by selecting episodes helped in many ways: They served as an entry point in the
repertoire of communication of the child. Each and every episode was special in nature and provided significant information for that particular child. Episodes helped to
highlight that something definite had happened in the session, and the search for them respected the child’s every little effort, interest and motivation in communicating their
need and intention through musical interaction. In that sense every session proved to be a success -- whether the child’s engagement with music was prominent or not, attention to
detail encouraged respect for the child’s presence as a child with motives to act and communicate. Furthermore, detailed analysis of vocal and bodily expression of
communication in autistic children was facilitated by the selection of episodes. Also the selection and analysis of how each musical piece or tune in relation to the children’s
responses became easier when the episodes were identified. The following table represents few examples of significant episodes for 3 cases.
Table 1: Examples of Few episodes from 3 cases
Child Session Number
Duration of the
Episode Description of the Episode
Sha 1 2
35 sec. Vocal interaction and Turn taking.
Lengthening words to maintain time in a song.
Sha 2 5
46 sec. Showed Intention for Dance,
Reproduced or Expressed the Rhythm of the Song through Dancing.
Sagar 2
22 sec. Effort for coordination
Expression of musicality in movement Sagar
3 40 sec.
Self Synchrony trying to coordinate voice and movement and Playing the
drum Synchronously with therapist.
Sashwat 3 2
4 sec. Matching the pitch and time with
therapist’s voice Sashwat
4 58 sec.
Mood change from self directed stereotyped restless behaviour to
participation and enjoyment in music following listening to therapist’s
singing.
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Some episodes with long duration tell a clear and complete story of the child’s changing activity and engagement. On the other hand, an episode as short as 4 sec. should not be
neglected. In this case shown above the event describes the child’s effort, capacity and intention to be with the therapist and prove his musical presence in the session. The
episodes were analyzed in detail to see how the intentionality for communication may be expressed in vocal and bodily movements in the course of musical interaction. The voice
and movement narratives were made up of episodes of interaction.
The following figures represent analysis of few vocal and movement narratives from the episodes marked in Table 1. The pitch plots were made by using software for voice
analysis called Praat. X axis represents the time in seconds and Y axis represents the pitch Hz of therapist’s and child’s voice. Each plot represents an acoustic
timefrequency representation of vocal sounds.
Figure 2: Pitch plot of vocal interaction and contingent turn taking through song
1
Time s 35
75 600
100 200
300 400
500 600
5 10
15 20
25 30
35 262
Middle C T
P T
Entered TO
Initiated C T
TO
CLIMAX P T
C T
C T
C T
Inviting Entering
Initiating Climax
Contingent Turns Ending
T= Therapist, C= Child, TO= Together Joint Singing, P= Pause Silence, Pitch at 262Hz showing the level of Middle C , Stages in vocal interaction represented in the top of the
graph. This narrative of vocal interaction Figure2 leading to a sequence of contingent vocal
175
turns between the therapist and the child lasted about 35sec. There were 6 stages in the narrative of interaction from beginning to the end with pauses in between.
The therapist initiated the interaction by singing the first phrase of a song, then paused and started again; the child entered into the interaction at around 10sec, the therapist
joined her and they sang together, then therapist paused for 1.43 seconds; immediately the child took the initiative to continue the interaction by singing a word, the therapist
responded, and again the child responded back and that lead them to cooperate and complement each other through singing. In this way they reached the climax in
synchrony between 16-20sec, which was followed by contingent turn taking in song, and then a gradual fall in response and interest from the child lead to the ending, which was
marked by a descending note from the therapist. A second episode of vocal interaction Figure 3 lasted for 4 seconds. First curve shows
the pitch movement of part of a song in which therapist was inviting the child to participate in music. The curve is U shaped. The pitch starts at 375 Hz. The child
matched the pitch of his voice with therapist’s voice around 375Hz, and the duration of his vocalisation was almost the same as therapist’s. Then the therapist responded exactly
in the same way, imitating the child. Figure 3: Pitch plot of a vocal response to the melody of a song by matching pitch
and duration with therapist’s voice
3
Therapist invited the child
Child vocalised by matching pitch and
duration
Time seconds
Therapist imitated the child
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Table 2: Growing Involvement with the Song and Game Expressed in Bodily Movement
Song- ‘Ring a Ring a Roses’ Game- Turning around by holding hands together
COM. Not fully
aware Anticipating
Movements, and made
Effort for Coordination
Responded and
Approached immediately.
Shared Attention
and Affect No
response or awareness
Responded Invited
Gave Reference Initiated
Involved- Shared
Attention, Intentionality
and Affect Involved
and Performing
.
EM. Aloof and
Ignoring Excited
Happy Depressed
Motivated, Happy and
Delighted Happy and
Relaxed VOC. Echolalic
Laughed Laughed
aloud Silent
Short Conversation and
S ymbolization
Laughed MOV. Rigid
Jumped to coordinate
steps with therapist in
Dance. Ran to Join in
the game. Rhythmic
and controlled
Steps in Dance.
Inactive Gentle
Spontaneous and Rhythmic
Steps in Dance. Relaxed
and Practised
Steps in Dance.
DUR. 15
16 37
46 40
EP. No.
E6 E7
E5 No Episode
E3 E6
SESS. 1
2 3
4 5
6
COM. = Communication; EM. = Emotion; VOC. = Voice; MOV. = Movement; DUR. = Duration of episode in seconds; EP. No. = Episode number in session;
SESS. = Session number. Table 2 represents a story of growing involvement in a song leads to the development of
intersubjective communication and how the child expressed the rhythm of the song through her movements in dance and the corresponding vocal expression, emotion and
communication. She was rigid, echolalic in session 1 and lacked awareness and responsiveness. In session 2 she could recognize the song, anticipated actions from
therapist, and also made an effort to coordinate her steps with the therapist. In session 3 the child responded to the cue of the song ‘ring a ring a roses’ by running to
the therapist, she was happy and made rhythmic and controlled movements and they shared attention and affect while dancing. In session 4 she was depressed following her
father’s departure for work. No episode of engagement was identified. In session 5 there
177
were stages in the narrative of communication of the episode where the child has learned the game and was totally involved with the song. First the therapist invited the child for
the game and paused to let her express the intention and anticipation for next event. The child responded and then invited the therapist by saying ‘come on’ and symbolized a
dancer in a ‘Kajol dance’, showing that she was motivated to dance like the therapist. Then the therapist and child both were involved in dance with gentle and spontaneous
movements. In session 6 she was fully habituated to the game -- there was no more excitement, but she enjoyed the dance and her steps were relaxed and practised.
It is clear from these examples how the intentionality and feeling are expressed through vocal and bodily movements in musical interaction of a child with a therapist, even for
children with autism which severely impairs their flexibility of intentions and expression. In the music the musicality of two persons can meet.
Conclusion A study of improvisation in jazz duets by Schogler 1999 demonstrated how, when
sounds are the only means to communicate performance, they can convey information about the intentions of the players, enabling them to enter into collaborative dialogue in
the same way as a parent and infant may share a protoconversation or a baby song. I found the same principles of coordination operating in my therapy sessions with autistic
children. Children learned and developed communication and interaction skills through therapeutic
Musical Intervention. Further work will be carried out to see the effects of different elements in the songs that
motivate children for musical and interpersonal engagement and orient them in purposeful and creative music making. This study justifies further research on musical
communication to explore how innate musicality can be stimulated to promote intrinsically motivated communication and learning by children with autism.
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179
Investigating Classroom Engagement of a Thai ESL Learner in an EAP Course in a British University
Singhanat Kenny Nomnian
Abstract The study aims to investigate classroom engagement of a Thai ESL learner, called ‘Julie’,
who enrolled on a 10-week EAP course in a British university. Grounded in the notion of “community of practice” Wenger, 1998, the study examined how Julie negotiated her
participation and membership both in her EAP classes, particularly in her speaking and listening class. Case study was suitable for this study because it allowed the researcher to
identify emerging issues regarding Julie’s classroom engagement. English speaking logs, semi-structured interviews, and classroom observation were employed for a data
collection from July until September 2005. The results suggest three relevant aspects; first Julie’s aims of academic achievement and investment and past language learning
experiences play an important role in her classroom participation. Second, Julie’s relationship and familiarity with her tutors and peers enabled her to establish classroom
membership, which enhance her classroom engagement activities, such as, classroom and group discussion, and presentation. Tutors and peers could potentially stimulate informal
discussion in the classroom which offered her a sense of friendly classroom environment where they could share their outside experiences into the classroom. Third, there is a
complicated and dynamic interdependence between ongoing English language learning and social interaction and integration through language use that gradually supported
Julie’s language competence and confidence in her speaking. It is advisable for ESL learners to seek possible opportunities to practice English both native and non-native
speakers of English by joining students’ clubs or working part-time. ESL learners should be provided more chances to participate and engage themselves in both academic and
social communities, which could potentially support their language development and academic learning process in a British university.
1. Introduction The study aims to examine classroom engagement of a Thai ESL learner, called ‘Julie’,
regarding her participation in classroom discussion and interaction with her tutor and peers in an English for Academic Purposes EAP course in a British university.
Grounded in the notion of community of practice by Lave and Wenger 1991, learning is not simply viewed as cognitive internalisation of knowledge by individuals, but also as a
situated practice in which newcomers gradually move toward fuller participation in the activities of a community of practice in interaction with more experienced members – a
process called legitimate peripheral participation. When second language learners enter classrooms, they enter into a communication
context in which the norms of participation tend to be established by the teacher.
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Learners’ perceptions of these norms are generally based on a combination of how they perceive and respond to what their teachers say and do, and their expectations about what
is and is not appropriate communicative behaviour in classrooms Johnson, 1995. Language classrooms, however, could be seen as the sites for not only the learning of
language, but also teacher and student roles, classroom norms, and maintenance of face and student solidarity, both the explicit subject matter of language and the implicit
subject matter of roles and norms are conveyed through the medium of interpersonal and group relations and interactions Coleman, 1997. Jones and Jones 1995, mention that
it is important to recognise relationship between the social and academic dimensions of educational contexts. This study could potentially illustrate a complexity of relationship
between teachers and students and the importance of social interaction which could allow ESL learners to gain confidence in participating in classroom discussion.
2. Communities of Practice Lave and Wenger 1991 coin the term ‘communities of practice’ which aims to capture
the importance of activity in connecting individuals to communities, and of communities to legitimise individual practices. It is viewed as changing patterns of participation in
specific social practices that learners as newcomers gradually move toward fuller participation in the activities of a community of practice in interactions with more
experienced members. Central to their view of situated learning is the notion of legitimate peripheral participation LPP as referring to a process, which is characterised
by social structures and social relations Fuller et al., 2005.
Legitimate peripheral participation provides a way to speak about the relations between newcomers and old-timers, and about activities,
identities, and communities of knowledge and practice. It concerns the process by which newcomers become part of a community of practice
Lave and Wenger, 1991, p. 29.
Wenger 1998 mentions three major defining components of COP:
• Mutual engagement: participation in a shared task; • Joint enterprise: negotiated, with accountability;
• Shared repertoire: routines, tools, words, processes, concepts, genres, gestures, etc., through which practices are carried out.
Hawkins 2005 points out that “individuals bring lived histories activities and events in situated environments, and it is through communications and interactions with others in
these environments that learners negotiate and co-construct their views of themselves and the world” p. 61. Wenger 1998 views identity as socially situated, which involves: an
experience negotiated with others, community membership, a learning trajectory, a point of intersection of many forms of membership, and a relationship between the local and
the global. Norton 1997 uses the term identity to refer to “how people understand their relationship to the world, how that relationship is constructed across time and space, and
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how people understand their possibilities for the future” p. 410, which illustrates its fluid, dynamic, and changeable nature.
As postgraduate students, there are times when learning becomes intensified as they seek to join new classroom communities in the British university and have to engage in
various classroom practices such as discussion and presentation. This could illustrate that whos socially situated identities and whats socially situated activities are not
necessarily discrete and separable as Gee 2005 points out “you are who you are partly through what you are doing and what you are doing is partly recognised for what it is by
who is doing it” p.23. Participation does not only refer to an engagement in certain activities, but also to be active members in the practices of social communities and
constructing identities in relation to these communities; in other words, “participation shapes not only what we do, but who we are and how we interpret what we do” Wenger,
1998, p.4. McFadden and Munns 2005 point out that for some students, the lack of a sense of involvement in the classroom and its practices leads to a realisation that they do
not ‘fit in’, to disengagement, and the conclusion that the school is no longer for them. Hawkins 2004 mentions that teachers need to realise the attitudes, behaviours, tools,
and ways of engaging that learners will recognisably display in constructing their identity as successful students in classrooms.
3.1 Research setting Julie was enrolled on Course D at the English Language Teaching Unit ELTU at a
British university for 10 weeks between July and September 2005. In this course overseas students are required to have IELTS 5.5 or TOEFL 550213 in order to take the
course. This course prepares them for academic degree programmes at the University. They will be taught the language and study skills needed for taking part in seminars,
lecturers, group projects, research and essay writing. The course includes 15 hours per week of academic language and skills classes and 6 hours of guided study in preparing
and writing a major academic assignment in their own subject area. There are classes on listening to lecturers and note-taking, presenting a full seminar paper, discussion skills,
library skills, grammar, vocabulary and style for academic writing, reading academic texts and using them in their own writing for a research assignment. A Pass in Course D
is recognised by all faculties and departments in the University. 3.2 Research participant
Julie is twenty-three years old. She has been studying English for 18 years. She obtained her BA in Business Administration, majoring in marketing from a Thai university. After
graduation, she took a six-month language course in Central London. Julie decided to study in England because her parents told her that her sister studied in England and it was
safe to study. She would like to study MSc in Marketing because the course is only one year. She chose to study a university in the East Midlands because of its ranking. She
does not like life styles in London. It is too busy to study. The ranking is good. Another reason she chose to study here is that there are only a few Thai students studying, and she
wants to practise her English.
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3.3 Data collection and analysis This study employed semi-structured interview, student’s self reports, and classroom
observation in order to illustrate to what extent methodological triangulation could potentially strengthen both validity and reliability to confirm the emerging findings. The
researcher could address issues from the Julie’s self reports and classroom observation, which needed further clarification during the semi-structured interview. The semi-
structured interview could consequently represent the participant’s perceptions of particular aspects of classroom membership and social encounters.
3.4 Rationale for the approach to research design
